
SHELTER & MAKING CAMP:

CAMP AND KNOWING  HOW TO MAKE A GOOD SHELTER ARE ESSENTIAL
SKILLS. 

You will need to make fire and to chose the right type of fire
construction. Shelter IS NECESSARY to give shade, to repel wind,
rain and to keep warmth.

SLEEP & ADEQUATE REST ARE ESSENTIAL and the time and the effort
you put into making your shelter comfortable will make them
easier to get.

If you are a victim of a plane crash or a vehicle that has let
you down, it may provide a shelter or materials which one can be
built, but if there is a fire or the threat of fuel tanks
exploding wait until it has burned out before attempting salvage.

If you are the unequipped victim of an accident, are trapped by
unexpected mist or caught by nightfall in terrain where it is not
safe to proceed or if exhaustion or injury prevents you to go
further.

You may have to make do with any natural shelter that you can
find for the night or until you can more fully assess the
situation. In this case, virtually any protection from wind, rain
& cold will be welcome.

If movement down a slope seems risky, traversing even a short way
along the contour may bring you out of the wind. If no cave or
crevice is available to give shelter, make use of any hollow in
the ground. 

Add to its height, if you can by pilling up rocks, but MAKE SURE
that any structure is stable & use a back-pack, if you have one,
to increase the windshield before settling down on the Leeward
side.**

If there is still daylight to see by, you have no injuries to
handicap you and are not isolated by unnegotiable cliffs or other
barriers, it will be worth seeking possible better places in the
vicinity. 

For a long term camp you should find a secure site with
convenient access to your major needs.

CAMPING MUST FILL THOSE REQUIREMENT WHEN POSSIBLE:

1)   Wind sheltered 
2)   Offer wood for installation. 
3)   Offer wood for burning  

4)   Away from swamp, dampness.
5)   Close to drinking water supply yet not too close bugs. 
6)   Seek Dry ground as much as possible.

7)   High enough to AVOID mosquitoes using air draft.  

8)   Tent facing East or rising sun position 

9)   Winter: Sheltered from wind as much as possible. 

10)  Winter storm ALWAYS come from West & North thus to AVOID.


WHERE TO CAMP & WHERE NOT TO CAMP:

1)   Hill-tops exposed to wind, move down and look for shelter on
     the Leeside*.

2)   Valley bottoms and deep hollows - could be damp & especially
     when the sky is clear, more liable to frost at night. 

3)   Hill-side terraces where the ground holds moisture.

4)   Spurs which lead down to water, which are often routes to
     animals'watering places.

If you are on high exposed ground go lower down to find a
sheltered spot, but on low, wet ground you will need to climb
higher to find somewhere securely dry. 

Look for somewhere sheltered from the wind, on rising ground that
has no risk of flooding and is safe from rock falls or
avalanches.

Hot air rises, cold air sinks, so valley bottoms will often 
pockets of cold air and in cold weather,be susceptible to frost
and damp mist. 

In areas that get plenty of rainfall terraces across a slope will
often be damper than the steeper ground above and below them, for
water collects there before flowing further downward.

Ideally you should be near water, with a plentiful supply of wood
near at hand. 

Pitching camp too close to water, however may lead you to be
troubled by insects and the sound of running water can hide other
noises which might indicate DANGER or the sound of search or
rescue parties.

ON RIVER BANKS LOOK FOR THE HIGH WATER MARK.

In MOUNTAIN REGIONS streams can become torrents in minutes,
rising as much as 5m (17ft) in an hour! Even on plains keep out
of old watercourses, no matter how dry they are. 

Heavy rain storms in nearby hills can easily send water rushing
down them in flash floods with PRACTICALLY NO WARNINGS. 

Choose ground that is reasonably flat and free or rocks and MAKE
SURE that you have space to lay out signals and that you can be
easily spotted by rescue parties.

Check above your head for bees or hornets nests and for dead wood
in trees that could come crashing down in the next storm or high
wind. 

Keep away from solitary trees which attract lightning, and in
forest areas keep to the edges where you can see what is going on
around you. 

Don't camp across a game trail- you don't want marauding animals
as unwelcome guests or to find your bivouac flattened by a herd
of animals  (elephants?) on their way to a water-hole or bar, but
stay near to any obvious human tracks.

BEST TENT LOCATION:

Erected towards the South will AVOID the cold wind of the North
as well as the rain from the East.

SHELTER FROM COLD:

In an emergency look for natural shelter in your immediate area;
a shallow cave, a fallen tree, boulders.  

DON'T WAIT TILL DARKNESS FALL.  Make or find a shelter while
there is light. You MUST get out of the rain, wind, snow before
Hypotermia sets in. Make more permanent shelter when permitted.

If nothing better punch a head-hole in plastic bag (In your
S/Kit). Put it on & huddle out of wind, back against boulder,
tree trunk etc. Move legs & arms frequently. 

SHELTER LOCATION:*

If choice, locate shelter out of wind on high ground, not in
hollow where chilling fog will settle. Stay near forest if
possible. Trees are good wind breaker. 

Insulate floor of shelter as deeply as you can with brush,
leaves, grass- anything to keep you of the cold ground.

WHAT IS UNDERNEATH IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN WHAT'S OVER YOU.

Dig tunnel into snow if no other shelter is available. Use stick
to keep air vent open. In deep snow, base of trees can provide
shelter. 

Use your imagination, improvise but KEEP CONSTRUCTION SHELTER
SIMPLE, DON'T WAIST VALUABLE ENERGY! 

HOT OR COLD SLEEPING NOTE: *

NEVER sleep at any time directly on the ground, winter or not,
use a ground sheet or if none then use evergreen as a thick
mattress to isolate you from the cold ground. Cold comes from the
ground.

WHERE NOT TO CAMP:

Common sense is the principal determinant to be close to drinking
water and firewood nearby at hand and to pick a spot as
conspicuous as possible to make signal if in case of emergency. 

We will AVOID spot that may be inundated by a suddenly rising
stream, particularly not if we are aware of the disastrous
results in some areas of storms not even visibly locally. 

Warning tokens to be considered often include scars and debris
left by previous high water. So AVOID dry river beds which can be
inundated fast.

Lush growth may be not only rough and soggy underfoot but it may
presage troublesome insects. 

Also AVOID places where there may be cave-ins, avalanches, or
perils from tumbling rocks. 

If there are dangers of electrical storms REMEMBER that solitary
trees have a tendency to attract lightning.

Particularly to be shunned will be jeopardy from falling timber. 

Such trees such as cottonwoods and poplars are particular
offenders when it comes to unexpectedly tumbling limbs. 

The fast growing coastal pines of California are extremely
brittle & therefore, threats in every sort of weather.

Whenever there is any question, we'll bivouac among small growth
or in the open. 

That is where we will make any winter camps in treeless northern
regions, well away from lees where drifting snow can be an
insidious hazard.

WARNING:

But check the trees out. Never camp beneath a lone tree if there
is any chance of thunderstorm.

With its limbs reaching higher in the sky than anything else
around it makes a natural lightning rod, dear Mose! (Deer Moose?)

Dead tree are also a hazard, the heavy waterlogged birches in
particular. One moment they stall tall & serene in the sky.

The next moment, sometimes without even the lightest zephyr
having whisked across the ground, they lie uprooted and prone.
Should your tent have been pitched beneath, well... Tough luck
Charley Brown!

The same hold true, if to a lesser degree, for dead branches.
Don't camp beneath them. Chances of a dead branches killing you
in its fall are very slim indeed. But an injury is far from out
of the questions, and the least it will do is ruin your tent.

MOUNTAIN CAMPING:

When pitching your tent above the timber line in mountainous
regions, look up before you set up. Landslide are not a common
occurrence statistically

But why become a statistic Slopes of loose rock, slabs, round
boulders, or what looks like a frozen stream of smooth rocks down
a gully may decide to move during a heavy rain or in the
alternate freezing and thawing of the cold of night and warm of
day. Give all of them a wide berth.

Do pick a spot that is sheltered as much as possible from the
wind.

A firm outcropping of rock or large, well entrenched boulders are
probably the best shelters you will find to pitch tent behind.

But take advantage of whatever you can. A determined mountain
gale may hit a hundred & fifty to 200 miles/hour.

A good campsite is not that difficult to find, I hasten to add
before proceeding with one more small caution: know what poison
ivy & poison oak * look like.** 

SETTING UP THE EASY WAY:

To really enjoy camping, the trick is to make it as little work
as possible. In pitching and breaking camp, each person doing
specific tasks is the KEY to a Wond-HER full time!  MMMMM!

SHELTER BASIC ESSENTIAL:

TO BUILT A SHELTER TAKES A LITTLE TRAINING BUT ONE THING THAT IS
ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL:

IT IS A GROUND SHEET WATERPROOFED. IF YOU HAVE THAT THEN YOU ARE
SAFE & WILL MAKE GOOD SHELTER.

BUILDING A SHELTER:

The type of shelter you build will depend upon: the materials
available, the tools available, what you are sheltering from
wind, cold, snow, rain, insects, etc.

How long do you intend to remain at the location? Snow caves and
natural holes are ideal if you are on the move and do not need a
permanent structure. Size will depend upon the number in the
party! (Having fun yet?).

Take your time over building a complex structure and rest often.
OVER-EXERTION WHICH PRODUCES SWEATING MUST BE AVOIDED.

BEST CAMPING SPOT:

For best results, pitch the tent or lay out your sleeping bag on
the East or North side of shade trees.

This way you will be greeted by the warmth of a cheering sun in
the morning. Yet during the heat of the day you will be shaded
from its harsh rays.

If prevailing winds are known, take them into consideration the
same way.

WHERE TO CAMP BEST:

The 3 traditional requirements for a campsite used to be Water,
Wood & a flat area on which to lay out your sleeping bag or pitch
your tent.

Wood is no longer a prerequisite, with the handy and convenient
stoves on the market. Water is still necessary.

So is the relative flat stretch of ground. Flat ground can be as
difficult a thing to find as water, if not more so, particularly
in the  mountains. There you may have to settle for a spot that
slopes.

If you do, MAKE SURE you set up the tent or lay out the bags so
that you will be sleeping with your head up.

Sleep with your feet higher than your head, and you will wake up
in the morning feeling you have a nasty hangover.

Sleeping sideways on a slope will have all the occupants of a
tent piled on top of each other on the downhill side before the
night is halfway through.

If you are not in a tent, you don't know where you will wake up.
The only certain thing is that it will be far from where you fell
asleep.

So why not pitch camp at the bottom of the hollow? Well, usually
because that is the wettest, coldest, foggiest spot around. In
the case of heavy rain it usually also means the morning will
greet you with a small quagmire all around.

The top of knoll avoids these problems. Its more positive
advantage is ventilation. A good breeze will keep the bugs to a
minimum.

BUGS CORNER:   BZZZZZ!

Speaking of bugs. There you are in the middle of a beautiful
mountain meadow, fragrant summer blooms swaying in the breeze. A
perfect spot.

No! For several reasons. Tall grass is there the chiggers,* ticks
and other bugs like to camp too. Also alpine meadows are fragile.
Setting up a tent there for a week may leave a visible scar for
years

For your own comfort and that of the meadows, pitch your tent at
the edge instead of the middle. It will be as fragrant and the
view will be better.   
 
At the edge of a meadow is also where you find bushes and trees
to provide wind shelter & shade for the heat of the day.

COLD & HOT WEATHER CAMPING:

Camp on the Lee side* of rocks and trees when it's Cold and you
need protection.

When it's Warm, make camp on the Windward side so the breezes
help cool your wilderness home.

NOTES:

ALL SHELTERS MUST BE ADEQUATELY VENTILATED TO PREVENT CARBON
MONOXIDE POISONING AND ALLOW MOISTURE TO ESCAPE. 

Two holes are needed- have one near the top and one near the
entrance. 

BED HUNTER HEATER:

To heat up stones and wrap them well then insert them in your
sleeping bag. 

BRION BED HUNTER TYPE 2:

Also there is the old trapper trick: Dig a rectangular hole, fill
it with hot coals which you then cover up with earth then lay a
blanket over it all. 

It is the ideal to sleep warm, or: Where you place your bed, lite
up a fire for a few hours in order to dry up the ground and to
heat it up.

Then remove the fire and clean the ground, add green boughs or
canvas to the ground because ONE MUST NEVER SLEEP DIRECTLY ON THE
GROUND.

BROWSE BED:

It is famous but its construction requires a great deal more
systematic efforts. You need first of all a surprising quantity
of the softest available boughs. 

Among the best for the purpose are the small young branches of
the heavily needled balsam, but fir and even spruce will do
nearly as well. These boughs can in the absence of knife and axe
be stripped off by hand. 

They can easily be carried if laid one by one over a long stick
which has an upward angling fork at its bottom whereupon
interlocking needles will hold the light although bulky load in
place.

The operation is started by placing a thick layer of resilient
green boughs at the head of the bed. These we lay with their
underneath upward. 

They are placed, in other words, opposite from the way they grow.
The butts are kept well covered and pointing toward the bottom of
the bed. The browse bed is thatched in this matter with row after
row of boughs until it is a foot or more thick.

Whereupon it is reinforced and levelled by the poking in of soft
young evergreen tips wherever an opening can be found.
Unfortunately it has to be redone every third night.

SUMMER CAMPING ADDED TIPS:

Mosquitoes seem to hate the smell of Basilic try it out.*

THINGS TO AVOID:

1)   AVOID all damp ground or to be near swamps or marsh, as well
     as damp tall grass and also #ravines# which can be flooded
     any time.

2)   AVOID also isolated trees which attract thunderbolt, #vieux
     sous-bois# which can provoke falling trees or branches,
     rocky slopes which can bring rock slides.

3)   AVOID dead mass of waters and slow moving currants or
     rivers. 

If there are a lot of mosquitoes try to find a place where there
is a good wind and well cleared area at the tip of earth bank
near a lake or on top of a hill.

4)   AVOID to be under the permanent shadow of trees, this may be
good when it is hot but when it rains then the rain keeps on
coming down 1 to 2 hours after the storm and it is hard to keep
your place dry afterward.

5)    REMEMBER to pitch your tent at least 1 HOUR BEFORE SUNSET.

6)   Sandy bottom maybe nice but they attract mosquitoes and sand
     bugs crazy, try to find a ground with good drain system.

SHELTER FILE: ADD NOTES

Observe the usual wind direction & built your shelter in the
opposite direction and the fire in front of you. 

THE EASIEST WAY TO CONSTRUCT A SHELTER IS:

To fix solidly into the ground 2 forked sticks and to put across
a pole as a ceiling and then you lean against it other poles or
bunch of branches and cover the roof with grass etc.

ANOTHER EASY WAY EVEN FASTER IS:

To take only one pole and to lean it against a tree then tie it
then used pine branches or leaves branches to make the sidings. 

In a country like South Africa where one does not have poles at
his disposal, one makes a hay wall or using brushes in an half
circle so as to protect oneself from the cold wind and lights a
fire in the open section.

If the sun makes your shelter too hot add another layer of grass
or leaves. THE THICKER THE ROOF THE COOLER THE SHELTER. 

If it is too cold then thicken the bottom parts of the walls or
built a small wall about one foot high around the walls of the
shelter. 

Don't forget to dig a ditch around the shelter so that the rain
does not wash you off or enters your shelter.

TYPES OF SHELTER:

It will depend upon local conditions and the material available.
Also on how long you expect to need it. 

For immediate protection from the elements, rig up a makeshift
shelter while you construct something better and more permanent. 

If you decide to stay put and wait for rescue, a more long term
shelter can be build and improved on as time and energy permit.

For those walking to safety, on the other hand, temporary
shelters can be built at each stopping point. 

They can even be carried with you if they are sufficiently light
and there is a significant risk that materials may not be
available at the next campsite.

A more permanent shelter will certainly be worthwhile for the
sick and injured, who MUST rest up in order to regain their
strength or where it IS NECESSARY to wait for the weather to
clear before attempting a journey. Use the time to stockpile
equipment and provisions.

HASTY SHELTERS:

If no materials are available for constructing a shelter make use
of any cover and protection that is available: 

Cliff overhangs, gradients and so forth, which will help shield
you from wind or rain. Incorporate natural windbreaks in quickly
constructed shelters. 

In completely open plains, sit with your back to the wind and
pile any equipment behind you as a windbreak.

BOUGH SHELTER: 

Make use of branches that sweep down to the ground or boughs that
have partly broken from the tree to give basic protection from
the wind, but MAKE SURE that they are not so broken that they
could come down on your head! 

Weave in other twigs to make the cover more dense. Conifers are
more suited to this technique than broad leaved trees as they
require less weaving in to keep out the rain. 

Make similar shelter by lashing a broken-off bough to the base of
another branch where it forks from the trunk (*A).

ROOT SHELTER:

The spreading roots and trapped earth at the base of a fallen
tree make a good wind and storm barrier, if they are at the right
angle to the wind. 

Filling in the sides between the extended roots will usually make
the shelter much more effective and provide a good support for
building a more elaborate shelter from other materials.

USE A NATURAL HOLLOW:

Even a shallow depression in the ground will provide some
protection from the wind and can reduce the effort in
constructing a shelter. 

However take the necessary measures to deflect the downhill flow
of water around it, especially if it is a hollow on a slope or
you could find yourself lying in a pool. Make a roof to keep the
rain off the and the warmth in
 
A few strong branches placed across the hollow can support a
light log laid over them, against which shorter boughs and sticks
can be stacked to give pitch to the roof and so allow water to
run off. Consolidate with turf or with twigs and leaves.

FALLEN TRUNKS:  (Not fallen drunk!?!)

A log or fallen tree trunk makes a useful windbreak on its own,
if it is at the right angle to the wind. With a small trunk,
scoop out a hollow in the ground on the leeward side. A log makes
also an excellent support for a lean to roof of boughs.

DRAINAGE & VENTILATION:

A run-off channel gouged from the earth around any shelter in
which you are below or lying directly on, ground level will help
to keep the shelter dry. 

Hasty shelter will usually have many spaces where air can enter.
Do not try to seal them all: VENTILATION IS ESSENTIAL !

SHELTER MORE COMFY IF: STONE BARRIERS:

A shelter is more comfortable if you can sit rather than lie in
it, so increase its height by building a low wall of stones
around your chosen hollow or shallow excavation. 

Caulk between the stones especially the lowest layer with turf
and foliage mixed with mud, and deflect the flow or rain-water
around the shelter as shown below.

SAPLING SHELTER:

If suitable sapling growth is available, select two lines of
sapling, clear the ground between them of any obstructions and
lash their tops together to form a support frame for sheeting. 

Weight down the bottom edges of the sheeting with rocks or
timber. You can make a similar shelter from pliable branches
driven into the ground. 

If you lack sheeting, choose or place sapling close together,
weave branches between them and consolidate with ferns and turf.

SHELTER SHEET:  

With a waterproof poncho, groundsheet or a piece of plastic
sheeting or canvas you can quickly and easily make a number of
different shelters which will suffice until you can build
something more efficient. 

Make use of natural shelter (*A) or make a triangular shelter
with the apex pointing into the wind (*B).

Stake or weigh down edges. If it is long enough curl the sheeting
below you running downhill so that it keeps out surface water
(*C). Use dry grass or bracken as bedding.

NEVER LIE ON COLD OR DAMP GROUND!!!
(ITS THE BEST WAY TO CATCH COLD & RHEUMATISM.)

A closely woven fabric, though not impermeable will keep out most
rain if you set it at a steep angle. Fit one shelter a few inches
within another (*D).

The rain that does come through will rarely work its way through
both layers. 

WARNING AGAINST DRIPPING:

With any woven fabric AVOID touching the inner surface during
rain or you will draw water through.

TEEPEES: 

Best known from its North American from, the teepee occurs in
many cultures. The quickest type to erect has three or more
angled support poles, tied where they cross to make a cone. 

They can be tied on the ground and lifted into place before
covering with hides, birch bark panels or sheeting. Leave an
opening at the top for ventilation. Wider angle will give greater
area but shed rain less easily.

TROPICAL SHELTERS: 

In rain forest and tropical jungle the ground is damp and likely
to be crawling with insects life, leeches (yerk!) and other
undesirable. 

Instead of bedding down on the ground you will be better in a
raised bed. Consequently you may want to make higher shelters.
(Tarzan style!)

Unless you are at an altitude high enough to make the nights cold
you will be less concerned with protection from the wind than
with keeping reasonably dry. A thatching of palm, banana and
other large leaves makes the best roofs and walls.

ATAP:

Also known as Wait a while vine, Atap is especially useful,
despite  the barbs at each leaf tip which make careful handling
necessary.

 Look for any plant with a similar structure (*A) the bigger the
better. The broader the individual leaflets the better also.

Atap is best used horizontally splitting each leaf into two from
the tip (*B) then tearing it into 2 clean halves down its length.
Do not try to split from the tick end or you will end up with a
broken branch.
 
Closely layer halves of Atap on your roof frame (*C). You can let
it be a little less dense on walls. Woven Atap can be
particularly effective for the sides of a shelter.

ANOTHER METHOD:

Do not split down the leaf but fold the leaflets on one side
across to the other and interweave them (*D).

You will probably find this easiest if you work first from one
side then the other but it does takes practice.

THREE-LOBED LEAVES: 

Or leaves cut in this fashion (E*) can be locked over a thatching
frame without any other fixing being necessary to hold them in
place (*F).

ELEPHANT GRASS: 

And other large leaves can be woven between the cross-pieces
(*G). Only a small number are needed to produce a shelter very
quickly.

LONG BROAD LEAVES: 

Can be sown along the thatching battens with vines  (*H).

PALM & OTHER LONG STEMMED LEAVES:

They can be secured by carrying the stem around the batten and
over the front of the leaf, where it is held in place by the nest
leaf (*I) Leaves MUST overlap those below on the outside of the
shelter.

BAMBOO: 

This large-stemmed plant actually a grass, is a very versatile
building material and can be used for pole supports, flooring and
walls. 

The giant form of bamboo- which can be over 30m (100ft) high and
30cm (1ft) in diameter - is an Asian plant found in damp places
from India to China both in the lowlands & on mountain slopes.

But there are types native to Africa and Australia and two which
are found in the southern USA.

Split bamboo vertically to make roofing and guttering to collect
rainwater. The split stems, laid alternately to interlock with
one another, form efficient and waterproof plant tiles.

Flatten split bamboo for smooth walls, floors or shelving by
cutting vertically through the joints every 1.25cm (1/2in) or so
around the circumference. 

It can then be smoothed out. The paper like sheaths formed at the
nodes can also be used as roofing material.

WARNING!  WARNING!  BAMBOO:

Take great care when collecting bamboo. It grows in clumps which
are often a tangled mass. Some stems are under tension and when
cut fly forcefully and dangerously apart, exploding in sharp
slivers. 

SPLIT BAMBOO CAN BE RAZOR SHARP & CAUSE SERIOUS INJURIES.

The husk at the base of bamboo stems carry small stinging hairs
which cause severe skin irritations.

LIGHT STRUCTURES:

Follow the methods outlined for the lean-to structure. You can
extend it with a less angled roof and a front wall or you can
build vertical walls and roof them over with deep eaves to give
you extra shade from the sun and to ensure that rain runs off
well away from the hut. Dig a channel to carry any water away.

If you have bamboo or other strong material available to build a
firm frame, raise the floor of your shelter off the ground in
tropical climates, so reducing access to ground creatures.

In Hot climates you will need to make your roof solid to keep out
the rain and give good protection from the sun burns.

If it projects well over the walls, you can leave them as fairly
open lattice to allow air to pass through. 

Grasses and mud will seal cracks and all kinds of material will
make a thatch if woven between roof cross pieces of sticks or
cords. 

In climates with heavy rainfall use leaves or bark like tiles on
top.

BUILDING WITH RUSHES: 

When neither trees nor bamboo are available, rushes or other
strong stems can be tied in bundles to form structural pillars a
method used by the Marsh Arabs of Iraq.

Tie reeds in long thick bundles by starting and finishing with a
clove-hitch knot. Choose the longest reeds and ensure that their
ends are spaced out along the length of the bundle so that they
do not cause a weal point by coming all together. 

The base should be a flat end, the other should taper. Prepare
more reed bundles, thinner and longer if possible. They will be
used for securing the sides of your shelter. Range thick columns
of reeds on the longs sides of your shelter site.

Dig the thick ends into the earth and link the columns a short
way up each by lashing on thinner bundles horizontally between
them. 

Bend the tops of the columns towards each other, overlapping them
and binding them together. Add more thin bundles to link the
sides of the columns and carry up over the arches. 

Interweave a wattle of reeds between this framework, using
thinner reeds until adequate shelter is provided or weave
separate panels of leaves & reeds to attach to it

SOD HOUSE (TURF):

Turf-built shelters are an alternative to log cabins when timber
is scarce or there are no tools to cut it. Cut sections of turf
45 X 15cm (18X6in) and build with them like bricks, overlapping
them to form a bond. (Yes James!)

Slopes the sides to give pitch to the roof- to support which you
will have to find spars of wood or other strong material. The
greater the pitch, the better rain will be repelled. 

The length of the spars will determine the size of the structure.
Lay turves on the roof as well, or cover it with grass. 

Unless you have a great deal of turf available keep the structure
low, big enough to sit on the floor but not big enough to stand.
One side could be open facing the fire.

DISTRESS SIGNALS WITH TURF:

Cut the turf in a pattern to leave a permanent DISTRESS signal on
the ground at the same time as collecting building material. 

SMALL SHELTER &TURF ADD NOTES:

For small shelter you could also use turves to make a beehive or
igloo like structure. If time and resources are available a large
hut can be built with turves. Some sort of timber will be needed
for a door frame (*A) & for roof spars. 

Build an internal hearth and chimney, but if you use turf for
them be careful that they do not catch fire themselves. Plaster
the inside of hearth and chimney with clay.

Site the open side or doorway away from the prevailing wind and,
with a small turf-built house make your fire outside the entrance
and build a reflector on the other side of it to throw heat back
inside. 

Even with an open side, a short return will make the corners more
stable. Bond the corners as with conventional brickwork for
strength.

THE SOD HOUSE: 

This is a 6 sided house and may be improved by notching the logs
and building them up one on top of the other, dome-shaped to the
required height. 

After laying some rafters for the roof and leaving a hole for the
chimney the frame is complete. In hot countries no chimney hole
is left in the roof because the people there do not build fires
inside the house, they go indoors to keep cool and not to get
warm. 

Make the doorway by leaving an opening and chinking the logs
along the opening to hold them in place until the door-jamb is
nailed or pegged to them.

And then build a shed entrance which IS NECESSARY because the
slanting sides of the house with an unroofed doorway have no
protection against the free entrance of dust and rain or snow. 

The house is covered with brush or sod etc.One has to learn how
to make a log dugout by building the walls of the log cabin in a
level place dug for in the bank. 

All such house are good in dry countries & countries frequented
by tornadoes or by winds severe enough to blow down ordinary
camp.

LOG CABIN: 

Scale your cabin to the number it is to house. You can ALWAYS
enlarge it or add on extra rooms later. 

The size of logs available will determine the length of walls. A
square or rectangle will be sturdy and easiest to roof. 2.5m
(8ft) square is a sensible size. 

You may be lucky and be able to use trees that have already
fallen, in which case you could perhaps lash a framework of logs
together and fill the spaces in between, but it is much better to
joint the corners to fit snugly into each other. Do not finish
off the projecting ends. These are the strength of the structure.

Lay down your first layer of logs in the shape of your hut (*A).
Joint the corners to fit on top of each other (*B) and cut other
logs to fit neatly on top of them. Since logs tend to taper,
place them alternately top to bottom to counter this (C*).
 
Once the ground frame is established leaves space for a doorway
on the side away from the prevailing wind. 

You may be able to use off cuts from logs for these sections on
either side of the door. Square off the edges and wedge a door
frame in place (*D). Do not bother with windows, the door will
give sufficient ventilation.

Build up the front higher than the back to give pitch to the
roof. The last log front and back should project well beyond the
side walls. 

These will support the roof. Across the hut from side to side
notch in one cross-beam to keep short logs in place. 

Lay a roof of logs, front to back, extending beyond wall. Notch
the logs to fit on to the cross pieces or lash them down.

Choose a flat site for your cabin or level a slightly larger
area. Dig into a hillside if necessary, but the foundations for
the wall MUST be level. 

The flexible saw in your survival kit will cut logs of sufficient
size and if you are a survivor from a wrecked plane or boat there
will have been a fire axe on board. There is no need to make a
door yet. 

Hang a piece of blanket to keep the wind out, or make a panel of
wattle of fill the gap until you feel equipped to make a
permanent door. Don't bother with windows either- the door will
give enough ventilation.

Caulk in between the logs with mud or wood chips, or if there are
big gaps, sapling before applying the mud. Mix it with grass and
moss and use a sharpened stick to force it between logs.

Cover the roof with saplings before adding a layer of mud and
turf. Instead of a complete roof of whole logs you could use
lighter materials & mud on a timber frame. 

Bark from the logs make an excellent top covering if laid as
tiles. These could be pegged through with small supple twigs
while the mud is still soft.

If there is no risk of a build up of water in which case it would
be useful to build a floor later, dig down inside the hut to
provide the earth for mud caulking and you will at the same time
increase its interior height. If you leave a hole somewhere in
the roof for smoke to escape you can make a fire inside the hut. 

But do not leave it unattended put it out rather than risk your
home burning down. If stone is readily available, you could build
a proper chimney and fireplace. 

You will retain more of the heat if it is a central structure.
Fit stones as closely as possible and use small stones and mud to
pack the spaces.

SWINGING SHELTER:   (Ask Tarzan!)

A forked pole at least 4 to 5 inches thick and 8 feet long with a
side branch coming of at right angles to the fork and 4 to 5 feet
below it is required. 

To the side branch a rope or very strong vine loop is secured,
passed around a tree trunk and then bound very securely back on
to the side branch. The long arm of the pole should be horizontal
& 6 to 7 feet long to the ground.

To make the shelter top, lash 3 feet stakes each about 2 inches
thick to each side of the pole. They should slope down at an
angle of about 45 degrees & can be held outward by lashing braces
across. 

Length ways to these poles lash thatching battens each about 1
inch thick and 8 feet long. These should be 6 inches apart.  They
are then thatched with grass, fern palms or reeds. (branches and
tree leaves are useless.)

The bed is suspended from the centre pole by ropes or vines to
the 2 long sides which are held apart by lashing 2 cross bars at
head and foot. The bed is then made up like the camp bed. 

This shelter can be swung round the tree trunk to take advantage
of sun or shade or get better protection from the weather.

SHELTER FOR THE MAKING:

Where we are with what we have, right now! A fallen tree is often
at hand, even when we are looking for one under whose roots a
browse bed can be laid so as to benefit from the luxury of a
crackling night blaze.

Nor is it unusual to come upon a dry indentation in a stream bank
that can be quickly roofed with brush and cheered by a campfire
in front. 

No canopy is more pleasant under favourable conditions than the
open sky. 

The only refinement we want on such nights if indeed we desire
any, are a mattress of evergreen boughs a long hardwood fire and
maybe behind us a log to reflect warmth onto those portions not
turned toward the friendly heat.

On other occasions-when there is a storm or cold or when the
situation is such that our every reasonable long range effort
should be directed at conserving the utmost vigour.

The time and energy required for throwing up a bivouac may well
be returned several fold. 

Under circumstances when it may be desirable or perhaps
obligatory to remain in one area, we may as well enjoy the
sanctuary that for a combination of reasons is the best
reasonably available. 

This will be especially true if sufficient food is at least
temporarily lacking, for then we may expect strength to be
maintained in direct proportions to our ability to remain
comfortably and warmly relaxed.

CONIFEROUS SHELTER: 

No one needs have much difficulty in finding sanctuary in
softwood country, for no axe IS NECESSARY and in fact, we can get
along very well without even a knife. 

A heavy grove of big evergreen itself affords considerable
shelter. From sudden shower you can keep dry by just lingering
under a spruce or pine. 

There is usually sufficient small growth in such a forest to
break off and angle in lean-to form against a protective log or
trunk.

CAPTAIN BRION NICHE:

It is very simple to make a niche by stripping of a few lower
branches from a well situated tree. These boughs augmented by
others from nearby trees will quickly floor & thatch the shelter.

Such a nook is particularly easy to heat with the great amount of
fuel almost ALWAYS available in such  coniferous terrain.

If a blizzard is scuffing or rain dripping and some easily
handled bark such as that from birch trees is available we'll
probably want to insert a few sheets at least overhead. 

VERY GOOD BEDDING: (MMM!)

For bedding a soft mass of additional boughs sandwiches between
such waterproofing bark can FURNISH SURPRISING COMFORT EVEN WHEN
THE WORLD IS RESTLESS WITH WET AND COLD.

SHELTER IN BUSH AREA: 

"LEAN TO": THE MOST COMMON & PRACTICAL IN EMERGENCY.*

THE LEAN TO IS AN EXCELLENT SHELTER IN ALL SEASONS BECAUSE YOU
CAN USE ALL KIND OF CAMP FIRES. 

A pole framework is covered with a thatching of evergreen boughs
or rushes. When constructing the lean-to, find 2 trees about 7 to
9ft apart with fairly level, firm ground between them. 

The distance between the trees will be the length of the opening
of the lean-to although it is possible to incorporate variations.
The number of people requiring shelter should determine the size.

When constructed for one man it should be made long for him to
sleep across the open mouth of the shelter, whereas for more than
one it should be planned for them to sleep lengthwise. 

One or both ends of the ridge pole may be supported by a pie
tripod if a second tree is not available. This leaves the builder
a wider choice of sites. 

IT SHOULD BE REMEMBER THAT THE STEEPER THE SLOPE ANGLE OF THE
ROOF THE BETTER IT WILL SHED RAIN AND REFLECT HEAT FROM THE FIRE.

A 45 degree slope angle is generally considered a suitable
compromise between available interior space and rain shedding
effectiveness. 

Once the framework has been constructed proceed with the
covering. Spruce boughs make an excellent natural covering
although the branches of any coniferous and of many leave trees
will do. 

They are placed on the lean to in the same manner as shingles on
a roof, the first row at the bottom and the last row at the top.
The brush ends of the boughs are placed down overlapping the butt
ends of the previous row.

This method of thatching ensures that the rain will be shed more
readily. Continue to lay rows of boughs in this fashion until the
top of the lean to is covered. 

Repeat the entire procedure of thatching until the entre roof is
covered to a depth of at least 6". The triangular sides are
filled in with large boughs set butt end up as in thatching. 

The parachute shroud or a canvas or the covering of plane wings
are all indicated to cover the lean to and to replace the
evergreen boughs or with them if need be. 

WHEN VERY COLD:

When it is very cold you first place the canvas upon the frame
then you cover it with branches and evergreen. 

Inside the shelter the white colour of the canvas will better
reflect the camp fire thus greater comfort.

WHEN VERY WET:

If however we run into a lot of rain or melting snow, then you
MUST PUT THE EVERGREEN BOUGHS FIRST THEN ON TOP YOU PUT THE
CANVAS. Using this method will help to keep the shelter dry. When
possible it is HIGHLY RECOMMENDED to lay a second layer of
canvas.

ADVANTAGES OF THE LEAN TO:

The lean to is an excellent shelter in all seasons because you
can use all kind of camp fires. 

The shelter has a low entrance and its depth is the width of a
sleeping bag which permits for one person to have all his body
exposed to the heat of the fire and to be VERY COMFORTABLE EVEN
UNDER THE GREATEST COLD.  (mmmMMM!!!)

One can construct such a shelter for many persons yet their head
or feet are the only exposed part to the fire so it is not as
comfy as if you were parallel to the fire's warmth. 

One can construct 2 lean to face to face with a fire in the
middle but it is difficult to place them so as to AVOID the smoke
swirling into one or the other lean to. First you think you have
succeeded then the least draft blows it into the shelter make it
unbearable. 

JOIN THEM IT'S BETTER!:

So while you are at it, why not join those 2 lean to that are
facing one another so as to make a big shelter. Just keep on
working till their top reach one another and there it is

LEAN TO # 2 TWO TOO!:

More complicated frames are easily enough assembled, particularly
when the joints are fastened if only by lashing by lashing them
with fine but tough spruce roots.Or with wiry birch or willow
withes. (#?*) Natural forks can be used instead, however. So can
the braces. 

NO NEED OF KNIFE EVEN:

Although a knife will simplify the task, not even that IS
NECESSARY. The skeleton can then be draped, interfaced or
otherwise covered with green branches, bark, moss, grass, reeds,
leafy vines and other such materials. The few basic principles
are self evident. 

When thatching a roof, as we do with bark, we will naturally
start at the eaves and lay the bottom of each *suddeding layer
across the top of the thickness beneath, so that any water will
tend to flow unimpeded off the edge. 

If we happen to build a roof with a double pitch, we'll further
waterproof that by bending bark over the ridge and fastening or
weighting it down on each slant.

BOTTOM TATCHING IS A MUST SAID MRS TATCHER!:   (SHE WAS RIGHT!)

When thatching the walls, we will of course start at the bottom
as if shingling and work our way up layer by layer with each
higher series ALWAYS covering the one immediately below.  Water
will then be more apt to run down the outside of the structure
instead of into it.*

GOING ABOUT THE  CONSTRUCTION: 

Probably the most satisfactory way to describe a few of the more
common types of lean-to is by means of the following self
-explanatory illustration. 

From them, even the newest greenhorn can figure out the most
practical way to use whatever wilderness materials happen to be
at hand

If we have something such as a tarpaulin to stretch over a pole
framework, our work will be considerably lessened.  This will
also be true to a considerable extent if only the roof can thus
be quickly made waterproof. 

GOOD TO CARRY ON YOU AT ALL TIME:

A large rectangle of plastic, folded and carried in a shirt
pocket is a good thing to take along at all times if only for
possible emergency use as a rainy day cover. Or use the survival
blanket even a large strong garbage.

OPEN LEAN-TO SHELTER #3:

If there is nothing solid to lean a roof against and you are not
trying to keep out of heavy rain or a blizzard.

Use panels of wattle or frames covered in grass for protection.
Erect a horizontal cross-piece between trees or on simple
supports. 

On the windward side lean a panel of wattle or tie or lean
saplings at 45 degrees to make a roof. Add side walls as
necessary. 

REFLECTOR:

(*A) Site your fire on the leeward*. Add side pieces and this is
the trick, build a reflector (*B) on the other side of the fire
to MAKE SURE that you get the full benefit of the warmth.

WHY NOT A HUT?:

MAKING WALLS FOR BETTER SHELTERS:

It may be expedient to build an emergency shelter so substantial
that its wall can be additionally insulated by heaping sod or
earth against them. 

If these walls are leaned in slightly from the bottom, gravity
will tend to hold such reinforcements more firmly. 

The roof can also be made warmer by covering it with several
inches of vegetation, topped by enough dirt or preferably more
durable sod to keep everything in place. 

An animal skin, some contrivance of woven vines or perhaps an
available fabric may be hung over an opening to serve as a door.
An open stone fireplace can be made in the centre of the dirt
floor of such a shelter. 

Although a chimney hole will then have to be cut in the roof for
ventilation, this vent may be kept covered when the fire is
entirely out. 

It should not be closed otherwise because of the threat of CARBON
MONOXIDE POISONING.

DOOR IN RELATION TO WIND:

When the wind is any problem, the opening of a temporary shelter
is usually placed on the side away from it. 

SNOW OR CANYONS & MOUNTAINS AREAS:

In open SNOW COUNTRY where blocking drifts may form in that lee,
however, the entrance is best built crosswise to the wind.

This is also the most satisfactory compromise when one is camped
where air currants alternate up and down, as in canyons and along
mountain streams.

FOR LONGER STAYS:

If we are putting up a structure that may be used for several
days or longer, we will not be governed too much in this matter
by the direction in which any breezes may be blowing at the
moment. 

We will be more apt to lock around for natural signs, such as
deadfall and leaning trees which indicates the quarter or the
prevailing wind.

THE DOOR ORIENTED SOUTH / SOUTH-EAST IS USUALLY THE BEST ALL
AROUND.

TO DITCH OR NOT ?:   ( Or Not too bitch?)

We may want to ditch the survival shelter so as to conduct away
water that depending on the terrain might otherwise soak the
floor. 

Any such drain should be placed so that in addition to other
functions it will catch any moisture running down the walls. A
channel several inches wide and as deep may be made with a sharp
stick instead of a handier tool. 

If this furrow is in the way of foot traffic as it may be at the
front, or if the ground is such that it will crumble easily, the
drain usefulness may be maintained by filling it loosely with
small stones. 

If your shelter is on a slope, water will of course have to be
shunted only from the upper side. 

If we camp on sand or in forest so carpeted with vegetation that
water sinks into it almost immediately then no ditching is
needed. (Yupee!)

DOME STRUCTURE SHELTER: 

Even if no wood large enough for the ordinary lean-to is
available, we can still make a very comfortable structure from
growth as slight as willow. 

Let us obtain first a quantity of the longest wands we can find.
We can then, after examining them, draw a rough outline of the
house. This at most should not ordinarily be much wider than the
average length of the material. 

The base of such a structure may be oval. It may be rectangular,
in which case the final shelter may well resemble a barrel split
lengthwise. 

Whatever the general conformation in other words we will find it
advantageous structurally to employ rounded sides and roof.

Lets start by securing the larger end of one wand in the ground
on the outline there scratched which for purposes of illustration
let us assume is a circle. Opposite the first wand on the round
line, let us set the bigger end of the second switch. 

We can then draw the tops together in the middle and tie them
with roots, string, vines,  rawhide or any convenient material. 

Let us similarly set and bend another 2 wands so that above the
centre of the circle they cross the first arch at right angles.
At this apex we will lash all 4 together.  The curve of the dome
roof now defined, will govern the decreasing size of subsequent
arches. 

A few inches away or perhaps as much as a foot or so if our
covering is to be canvas or light skins, we may make a slightly
lower arch parallel to the first. 

This we may cross at right angles with a similar arch. This
crisscrossing operation we may continue in such a fashion except
to allow for an entrance, tying each of the numerous joints,
until the frame is sufficiently sturdy.

There need be no particular methodicalness, however for
functional variations are as numerous as materials & situations.
If additional supports are later needed these can be added as
necessary. 

We may weave moss or grass through the final basketlike framework
in lieu of anything better, perhaps laying on a second coat which
can be both secured and insulated with a thick plastering of mud
and snow.

TARP-CABIN: 

This shelter requires a considerable amount of work and when
completed will a degree of permanency that other don't have. 

In building the cabin particular attention MUST be paid to the
choice of location, as the cabin is not portable. 

Choose an area close to water supply, yet not in a valley. The
ridges offer much more comfortable living conditions freedom from
insects, flooding. 

The area should also offer an abundant supply of long straight
logs 4 to 8" in diameter. Build 4 walls log cabin fashion to a
height of about 3ft. and then build a frame work of light poles
to support a covering of parachute material or canvas.

CANVAS:

From this stage its a simple matter to place this material over
the framework to form a finished shelter. 

It is preferable to use a double layer of fabric with an air
space between to improve the insulating and water shedding
qualities of the roof.

NO CANVAS:  (RATTTS!)

To construct a #hutte# when no canvas nor parachute, you MUST
then build the walls to the desired height and to add a roof made
of #motte de terre ou chaume# 

Don't try to build a complicated roof. All you need is a roof as
smooth as possible that will shed the rain at the back. 

THE LOWER THE ROOF THE EASIER TO HEAT. 

In this kind of shelter you MUST use a #rechaud# to do cooking
and heating since the ventilation is not sufficient to make a
camp fire as in normal condition.

WIGWAM: 

An easy and simple construction if you have a chute or canvas
with ropes.  Use the suspension of your chute which you cut at
about 2 feet from the chute itself. 

Attach a rope or a suspension section around the ropes at the top
of the chute and tie this rope to a tree branch and also to a
cross piece between 2 trees or at the summit of a tripod made of
poles of at least 15ft. long.

After this operation, attach the chute to the desired height and
maintain it close to the ground all around it its #perimeter#
using rocks, pegs, #motte de terre# so as to form a #conical#
tent. 

The diameter of the tent depends of the number of occupants, if
you use a chute you will near ALWAYS have an excess of canvas,
which you can cut if you need it or just let it hang on as a
door.

When you have the intention to make a camp fire in the shelter
you MUST take care to have sufficient ventilation before putting
on the chute. 

In wooden area where great wind are generally rare the opening at
the summit is usually to small to insure a good air draft thus
you MUST make a small cut of a few inches along one of the
#couture dun fuseau#. 

To keep the hole open just use 2 stick tied in a cross shape to
the dimension of the desired hole. The fire MUST be made in the
centre of the tent directly in the axial of the draft hole.*

TENT AND CANOE CAMPING:

Put up your tent first as you get off the canoe but take it only
as the last item when going back in the canoe, so that if there
is a surprise shower you can wait it out in comfort.

BEST CANOE LANDING & CAMPING:

If possible install your tent on an island near the shore, there
is lesser risk for a forest fire. You will AVOID animals which
could be dangerous and there is generally less bugs on an island
than shores but BEWARE of the rising water level to check up.

SHELTER FROM ANDREW:

A friend told me this trick which I think could be worth
mentioning, once you have cut or broken a big pile of evergreen
which you have put into one place. Hide into the middle of that
pile, working your way through until you are comfy. 

But BEWARE for branches into your eyes and MAKE SURE you are well
above ground level.

Then put a tarp on top of the whole branch pile which is secured
either with ropes or other branches. It will keep you real warm
into this makeshift shelter.

SHACKS SHELTERS AND SHANTIES: (Snack -Melters and Panties?!)

BALSAM BEDS:

The balsam bed is made of the small twigs of balsam trees. In
gathering these, collect twigs of different lengths from 18
inches long to be used as the foundation of the bed to 10 or 12
inches long for the top layer. 

If you want to rest well do not economize on the amount you
gather to make it thick. 

If you attempt to chop off the boughs of balsam they will resent
your effort by springing back and slapping you in the face. Ouch!
You can cut them with your knife but it is slow work and will
blister your hand. 

Take twig by twig with the thumb and fingers (the thumb on top
pointing toward the tip of the bough & the two forefingers
underneath).

Press down with the thumb and with a twist of the wrist you can
snap the twigs like pipe-stems shows two views of the hands in
proper position to snap off twigs easily & clean. 

The one at the left show the hand as it would appear looking down
upon it; the one at the right shows the view as you look at if
from the side.

PACKING BOUGHS: 

After collecting a handful of boughs string them on a stick which
you have previously prepared.

This stick should be strong green hardwood 4 or 5 feet long with
a fork about 6 inches long left on it at the butt end to keep the
boughs from sliding off and sharpened at the upper end so that it
can be easily poked through a handful of boughs. 

String the boughs on this stick as you would string fish but do
it one handful at a time, allowing the butts to point in
different directions. 

It is astonishing to see the amount of boughs you can carry when
strung on a stick in this manner and thrown over your shoulders. 

If you have a lash rope place the boughs on a loop of the rope
then bring the two ends of the rope up through the loop and sling
the bundle on your back Rambo or Tarzan or Jane etc.

CLEAN YOUR HANDS:

When you have finished gathering the material for your bed your
hands will be covered with a sticky sap.

And although they will be a sorry sight, a little lard or baking
grease will soften the pitchy substance so that it may be washed
off with soap & water.

HOW TO MAKE BEDS: (Army style?)

To make your bed, spread a layer of the larger boughs on the
ground start at the head and shingle them down to the foot so
that the tips point toward the head of the bed, overlapping the
butts. 

Continue this until your mattress is thick enough to make a soft
couch upon which you can sleep as home. Then if you don't sleep
well blame the cook or the fact that it was not thick enough.

OTHER BEDDING:

If sleeping in a country without balsam, pine etc, you still can
make a good spring mattress by collecting small green branches of
any sort of tree which is springy and elastic. 

Build the mattress as previously described. On top of this put a
thick layer of hay, straw or dry leaves or even green material
provided you have a rubber blanket or poncho to cover the latter.

FALLEN TREE SHELTER: 

For a one man one night stand, select a thick foliaged fir-tree
and cut it partly through the trunk so that is will fall. 

Then trim off the branches on the under-side so as to leave room
to make your bed beneath the branches, next trim the branches off
the top or roof of the trunk and with them thatch the roof. 

Do this by setting the branches with their butts up and then
thatch with smaller browse as described in making the bed. This
will make a cosy one-night shelter.

THE SCOUT-MASTER BED:

Take 3 forked sticks and interlock the forked ends so that they
will stand.

Over this framework rest branches with the butt ends up or lay a
number of poles & thatch this with browse or take Elm, Spruce.

These shelters may be built for 1 boy or made large enough for
many men. They may be thatch with balsam, or any kind of
long-stemmed weeds.

CAMP BED OFF THE GROUND: 

A framework similar to the table with the table top only is made
and the 2 poles are overlaid with sticks exactly as for the bed
on the ground.

When making a bed off the ground it is not necessary to have the
forks as high as for the table.

A camp bed should ALWAYS be built off the ground in SNAKE country
or in areas where ground pest. Such as leeches, ants, scrub
mites, chiggers or ticks are liable to be troublesome.

An alternative to the forked stakes and ground poles is the use
of 2 piles of stones to support the side poles.

CAMP BED USING A COUPLE OF BAGS:

A very comfy camp bed can be made by setting up the 2 forked
stakes as for the preceding camp bed and 2 side poles are placed
into the crotches of these so they are about 45 degrees slope.

2 long straight poles are cut and passed through the 2 sides of 2
bags which holes are cut in the bottom of each of these bags to
allow the poles to pass through.

The closed ends of the bags are towards the ends of the poles and
the bags overlap a few inches in the middle.

The 2 bed poles with the bags are laid one on either side of the
angle poles. The weight of the body lying on the bags keeps the
side poles pulled well down on the angle poles.

If the weather is COLD or greater comfort is needed, a stuffing
of dried grass or bracken fern inside the bags will serve to give
greater softness & a warmer bed to booth.

FURNISHING THE CAMP: MAKE-KING BEDS:  (AHHHHHH!)

Sleep is the great generator and a comfortable bed is worth a
little effort. Some form of bedding should ALWAYS be used to
avoid lying directly on cold or damp ground.

In Tropical climates it is ALWAYS better to raise the bed into
the air, both to keep off wet earth and to provide a current of
cooling air.

In *COLD CLIMATES, when no permanent shelter has been erected,
choose fuel which will keep the fire going through the night and
build a screen to reflect the heat back to your sleeping space.

When the ground is dry, or under a shelter, stones heated in the
fire and then buried under a thin layer of soil beneath will keep
their heat through most of the night, adding to your comfort.

A-FRAME BEDS:

An A-frame forms a strong construction and will keep you off the
ground. Drive two pairs of post into the ground at an angle,
leaving a little more than your height between the pairs. Lash
the tops together.

If the ground is hard, cross-members will be needed between the
feet of each A frame and between the two A frames.

TUBE BED: 

This simplest form depends on having or making a tube of strong
material, sewn or thronged together. A large heavy duty plastic
bag is suitable, but not thin plastic.

Really toughly made clothing could serve but would usually make a
rather narrow bed. Do not risk this method with any fabric that
might give under your weight or with seams that might come apart.

Make A frame supports and choose two fairly straight poles, each
slightly longer than the distance between the frames, and pass
them through the tube of plastic or fabric.

Place them over the frames so that they rest on the sides, the
tube preventing them from slipping lower.

BOUGH BED:

Where conifers are growing, fir tree branches arranged in
alternate layers will be more comfortable and their fragrance
will ensure a good night's sleep.

LADDER BED:  

Make A frame supports and select poles as for the tube bed, but
you will also need a number of cross-pieces-how many will depend
upon the size of the sleeper and the kind of bedding to be used.

Springy saplings will be more comfortable than boughs, provided
that they are strong. Lash the end "rungs" to the A-frame,
jutting out either side.

Make these of strong timber and lash them securely. Fit the
ladder over the frames and lash in place. Lay bedding of bracken,
ferns or leaves.

HAMMOCKS:

It takes a little practice to sleep in a hammock-in a string one
you MUST push the sides outward so that it cups around you.

BED HUNTER HEATER:

To heat up stones and wrap them well then insert them in your
sleeping bag.

ALSO THERE IS THE OLD TRAPPER TRICK: 

Dig a rectangular hole, fill it with hot coals which you then
cover up with earth then lay a blanket over it all.

It is the ideal to sleep warm, or: Where you place your bed, lite
up a fire for a few hours in order to dry up the ground and to
heat it up.

Then remove the fire and clean the ground, add green boughs or
canvas on the ground then make your bed on top, because one MUST
not sleep directly on the ground.

PEEL BARK AND SELECTION:

To get Birch bark, select a tree with a smooth trunk devoid of
branches and placing skids for the trunk fell the tree and then
cut a circle around the trunk at the two ends of the log and a
slit from one circle clean up to the other circle. 

Next With a sharp stick shaped like a blunt-edged chisel, pry off
the bark carefully until you take the piece off in one whole
section.

If it is spruce bark or any other bark you seek, hunt through the
woods for a comparatively smooth trunk and proceed in the same
manner as with the birch. 

To take it off a standing tree, cut one circle down at the butt
and another as high as you can reach and slit it along a
perpendicular line connecting the two cuts.

Then peel off the bark carefully, this will kill the tree but
your survival is more important than the tree or is it? Yes it
is.

USING BARK: (Not dog)

To shingle with bark, cut the bark in convenient sections, start
at the bottom, place one piece of bark set on edge flat against
the wall of your shelter.

Now place a piece of bark next to it in the same manner, allowing
the one edge to overlap the first piece a few inches and so on
all the way around your shack. 

Then place a lawyer of bark above this in the same manner as the
first one the end edges overlapping, the bottom edges also
overlapping the first row 3 or 4 inches or even more.

Hold these pieces of bark in place by stakes driven in the ground
against them or poles laid over them, according to the shape of
your shelter. 

Continue thus to the comb of the roof, then over the part where
the bark of the sides meet on the top lay another layer of bark
covering the crown, ridge, comb, or apex and protecting it from
the rain. 

In the teepee form, the point of the cone or pyramid is left open
to serve as chimney for smoke to escape.

THE ADIRONDACK: 

It is a lean-to open in the front. Easily made. The usual manner
is to set up two uprights then lay a crosspiece through the
crotches and rest poles against this crosspiece.

Over these poles other poles are laid horizontally and the roof
thatched with browse by the method shown before.

But here the tips of the browse MUST point down and be held in
place by other poles on top of it. Sometime a log is put at the
bottom of the slanting poles depending of the need.

THE SCOUT SHELTER:  

Where Birch bark is obtainable it is shingled with slabs of this
bark the bark being held in place on the roof by poles laid over
it and on the side by stakes being driven in the ground outside
of the bark to hold it in place.

THE PIONEER:  

A tent form of shack is how the bark is placed liked the shingles
overlapping each other so as to shed the rain. 

The doorway of the tent is made by leaning poles against forked
sticks, their butts forming a semicircle in front or rather the
arc of a circle and by bracing them against the forked stick fore
and aft they add stability to the structure.

BARK TEEPEE:  

Lash 3 sticks together at the top ends spread them in the form of
a tripod then lay together sticks against them their butts
forming a circle in the form of a teepee.

Start at the bottom as you do in shingling a roof and place
sections of birch bark around, others above them overlapping them
and hold them in place by resting poles against them. 

If your camp is to be occupied for a week or so, it may be
convenient to build a wick-up shelter as a dining-room like.

This is made with 6 uprights, two to hold the ridge pole and two
to hold the eaves and may be shingled over with browse or birch
etc.

Shingle with the browse in the same manner as that described for
the bark beginning at the eaves & allowing each row of browse to
overlap the butts of the one below it.

MATERIAL:

In building a shelter use every and any thing handy for the
purpose; off times an uprooted tree will furnish a well made
adobe wall, where the spreading roots have torn off the surface
soil as the tree fell.

And what was the under-side is now an exposed wall of clay,
against which you may rest the poles for the roof of the lean-to.
Or the side of the cliff may *offer the same opportunity. Maybe 2
or 3 trees  will be found willing to act as uprights.

Where you use a wall of any kind, rock, roots or bank it will of
course be necessary to have your doorway at one side of the
shack. 

The upright poles may be on stony ground where their butts cannot
well be planted in the earth and there it will be necessary to
brace them with slanting poles. Each camp will offer problems of
its own. Poor Rambo!

BEAVER MAT:

The beaver camp is a new one and under favourable condition a
good one. Cut your poles the length required for the framework of
the sides.

Lash them together with the green rootlets of the tamarack or
strips of bark of the papaw, elm, cedar or the inside bark of the
chestnut.

Then make a bed of browse of any kind handy but make it in the
manner prescribed for making balsam beds.

You will thatch so that when the side is erected it is shingled
like a house the upper rows overlapping the lower ones. The lash
a duplicate frame over the browse-padded frame and the side is
complete.

Make the other side or sides and the roof in the same manner
after which it is a simple matter to erect your shack. 

The great advantage of this sort of shelter is that it is much
easier to do your thatching on the ground than on standing walls
and also when done it is so compact as to be practically
water-proof.

FAGOT SHACK:

Intended where large timber can not be cut but where dwarf willow
bamboo cane, alders or other small underbrush is more or less
plentiful. 

From this gather a plentiful supply of twigs into bundles of
equal size. Use these bundles as you would stones in building the
wall and lay them so as to break joints.

It is so that the joints are NEVER in a continuous line. Hold the
wall in place by stakes.

Use the browse, small twigs with the leaves adhering to them, in
place of mortar or cement so as to level your bundles and prevent
their rocking on uneven surfaces. The doorways and window opening
offer no problem that cannot be solved. 

The window opening, also shows you how the window-sill can be
made firm by laying rod over the top of the fagots. Rods are also
used across the top of the doorway upon which to place the
bundles of fagots or twigs. 

Twigs is probably the best term to use here, as fagots might be
thought to mean larger sticks, which may be stiff and obstinate
and hard to handle.

ROOFS:

After the walls are erected, a beaver mat roof may be placed upon
them or a roof made of a frame and thatched with small sticks
over which a thatch of straw, hay, rushes or browse may be used
to shed the rain. 

One great advantage which recommends the beaver-mat and fagot
camp to lovers of nature lies in the fact that it is unnecessary
to cut down a single large or valuable young tree in order to
procure the necessary material to make camp. 

Both of these camps can be made in forest lands by using the
lower branches of the trees, which when properly cut close to the
trunk do not injure the standing tree. 

The faggot hut may be made into a permanent camp by plastering
the outside with soft mud or clay and treating the inside wall in
the same manner thus transforming it into an adobe shack.

APACHE HOGAN: 

These shelters have been used with success by Indians for
centuries, this White Mountain Apache builds a tent-shaped shack
which is practically the same as that already described.

The difference being that the Apache shack is not covered with
birch bark a material peculiar to the North but the Apache uses a
thatch of the rank grass to be found where his shack is located. 

To-day they use the corn-stalks with which to thatch the long
sloping sides of this shed like house which makes good material
as well.

SAN CARLOS SHACK: 

It is a domed-shaped hut built by making a framework of small
sapling bent in arches.

The ends of the poles are stuck in the ground in the form of a
circle, while their tips are bent over and bound together thus
forming a series of loop which overlap each other and give
stability and support of the principal loops which run from the
ground to the top of the dome. 

The Indians thatch these huts with bear-grass arranged in
overlapping rows and held in place with strings made of Yucca
leaves.

CHIPPEWAS SHACK:

Much farther north the Chippewas Indians built a framework much
the same manner as the Apache of San Carlos.

But they covered their frame with layers of birch bark held in
place by ropes stretched over. The door to their hut consisted of
a blanket portiere. 

The dome -shaped frame is a good one to be used in many
localities and like all other frames it can be covered with the
material at hand. 

It may be shingled with smaller pieces of bark, covered with
brush and thatched with browse or hay, straw, palmetto leaves,
palm leaves or rushes, or it may be plastered over with mud and
made as adobe hut for Tarzan even Jane.

PUMA LODGE: 

They make a flat-roofed lodge with slanting walls which may be
adapted for our use in almost any section of the country. 

It can be made warm and tight for the far North and cool and airy
for the arid region of the Southwest. 

The framework is similar to the wick-ups we make consisting of 4
upright posts supporting in their crotches two crosspieces over
which a flat roof is made by placing poles across. But the sides
of this shack are not upright but made by resting leaning poles
against the eaves.

WHITE MAN'S WALLS NO GO ! :

The main difference between a white man's architecture and the
Indians's lies in the fact that the white man with brick, stones
or frame house in his mind, is possessed of a desire to build
perpendicular walls, walls which are hard to thatch and difficult
to cover with turf.

Especially in the far North, where there is no true sod such as
we understand in the middle country, where our grass grows
thickly with interlacing roots. 

You will do well to REMEMBER this and to imitate Indians in
making slanting walls for your shacks in the woods. 

If you have boards or stone or bricks or logs with which to build
you may use a perpendicular wall otherwise slant them. Indians
were no dummies.

ADOBE ROOF:

If you want to put a dirt roof on a shack of this description,
cover the poles with small boughs or browse, green or dry leaves,
straw, hay, grass, or rushes and put the sod over the top of
this. 

If in place of making the roof flat you slant it so as to shed
the rain. This sort of shack will do for almost any climate, but
with a flat roof it is only fitted for the arid country or for a
shelter from the sun no to be expected to be used during the
rain.

THE BOG KEN OR MARSH SHACK: 

It is a house built on stilts where the ground is marshy, damp
and unfit to sleep upon. The house is built upon a platform
however the shelter itself is formed by a series of arches. 

The uprights on the two sides have their ends bent over and
lashed together, forming arches for the roof. 

VARMINTS PROTECTION:

Over the arches are lashed horizontal poles which shows one way
to prevent varmints of any kind from scaling the supporting poles
and creeping into your camp.

The protection consist of a tin pan with a hole in the bottom
slid over the supporting poles. 

The floor to this bog ken is a little more elaborate than that of
the last described camp because the poles have all been halved
before laying them for the floor. 

These are supposed to be afterward covered with browse, hay or
rushes and the roof shingled with bark or thatched.

THATCHING:  (Ask Margaret?)

Soak your straw or hay well in water and smooth it out flat and
regular. The steeper the roofs the longer the thatch will last. 

In this bog ken our roofs happens to be a rounded one, an arched
roof, but it is sheltering a temporary house and the thatch will
last as long as the shack. 

You can use any kind of material but to make a really good thatch
one should use only straw which is fully ripe and has been
trashed clean with an old fashion flail.

The straw MUST be clean of all seed or grain & kept straight, NOT
mussed up, crumpled & broken. 

If any grain is left in the straw it will attract field mice,
birds, etc and these creatures in burrowing & scratching for food
will play havoc with your roof. 

It is not necessary to have straight and even rafters, because
the humps, bumps and hollows caused by crooked sticks are
concealed by the mattress of straw. 

Take a bundle of thatch in your hands, squeeze it together and
place it so that the butt ends project about 3 inches beyond the
floor.

Tie the thatch closely to the lower rafter and the one next above
it, using for the purpose twine, marling, raffia or well-twisted
white hickory bark.

This first row should be thus tied near both end s to prevent the
wind from getting under it and lifting it up. 

Next put on another row of wisp of thatch over the first and the
butt ends come even with the first, but tie this one to the third
row of rafters. 

The butts of the third row of thatch should be about 9 inches up
on the front rows, put this on till the roof is completed. 

The thatch should be 10 or 12 inches thick for a permanent hut
but not to be so if temporary shed. As there is no comb to this
roof the top MUST be protected where the thatches from each side
join.

And to so this fasten a thatch over the top and bind it on both
sides but not in the middle, so that it covers the meeting of the
thatches on both side of the shack. 

This top piece should be stitched or bound on with wire if you
have it or hastened with Willow withe or even wisp of straw if
you are an expert. 

A good thatched roof will last as long as a modern shingle roof,
a well made thatched roof will last 15 years.

But a bog ken is one that is built over buggy or marshy land too
soft to support an ordinary structure. 

To overcome this difficulty requires considerable study and
experiment. If you wish to build a duck hunter's camp on the soft
meadows or for any reasons you desire a camp on treacherous boggy
ground, you may build one by first making a thick mattress of
twigs and sticks.

This mattress acts on the principle of a snow-shoe and prevents
your house from sinking by distributing the weight equally over a
wide surface. 

The mattress should be carefully made of sticks having their
branches trimmed off sufficiently to allow them to lie in regular
courses.

The first course should be laid one way and the next course at
right angles to the first, and so on, until the mattress is
sufficiently thick for the purpose.

Standing on the mattress, it will be an easy matter with your
hands to force the sharpened ends of your upright posts A B C D*
down into the yielding mud.

But be careful not to push them too far because in some of these
marshes the mud is practically bottom less. It is only necessary
for the supports to sink in the mud far enough to make them stand
upright. 

The next step is to lay, at right angles to the top layer of
brush a series of rods or poles between your uprights.

Then take 2 more poles, place them at right angles to the last
ones, and press them down until they fit snugly on top of the
other poles and there nail them fast to the uprights.

After which to further bind them you may nail a diagonal from A
to D and B to C but this may not be necessary.

When you have proceeded thus far you may erect a framework and
build a platform by flooring the crosspieces or horizontal bars
with halves of small logs. It is now a simple matter to erect a
shack which may be roofed with bark.

A fireplace may be made by enclosing a bed of mud between or
inside of the square formed by four logs. 

On this clay or mud you can  build your camp-fire or "cook-king"
fire or mosquito smudge with little or no danger of setting fire
to your house. 

AVOID MOSQUITOES ALSO:

The mosquito smudge will not be found necessary if there is any
breeze blowing at all, because the insects cling to the salt hay
or bog-grass and do not rise above it except in close, muggy
weather where no breeze disturbs them. 

Many have slept a few feet over bog meadows without being
disturbed by mosquitoes when every blades of grass on the meadows
was black with them, but there was a breeze blowing which kept
the mosquitoes at home.

OVER-WATER CAMPS:  

If the water has a muddy bottom it is a simple matter to force
your supporting posts into the mud.

This may be done by driving them in with a wooden mallet made of
a section of log or by fastening poles on each side of the post
and having a crowd of men jump up and down on the poles until the
posts are forced into the bottom, you may also use a pile-driver
if one is around. 

If your camp on the water is over a hard bottom of rock or sand
through which you cannot force your supports you may take a lot
of old barrels removing the tops and bottom out of them.

Nail some cross planks on the ends of your spiles, slide the
barrels over the spiles, then set them in place in the water and
hold them there by filling the barrels with rocks, stones or
coarse gravel.

But if you are out in the boon then you can make yourself cribs
by driving a square or circle of sticks in the ground a short
distance & then twining roots or pliable branches inside and
outside the stakes basket fashion.

When the crib is complete it may be carefully removed from the
ground and used as the barrels were used by filling them with
stones to support the uprights. 

Our experience with this sort of work lead us to advise the use
of piles upon which to build in place of piers of stones. 

Where we have used such piers upon small inland lakes, the
tremendous push of the freezing ice seems to slide around the
piles without pushing them over. 

The real danger with piles lies in the fact that if the water
rises after the ice has frozen around the uprights the water will
lift the ice up and the ice will sometimes pull the piles out of
the bottom like a dentist pulls teeth. 

Nevertheless, piles are much better for a foundation for a camp
or pier than any cribs of rocks and that is the reason we have
shown the cribs made so as to rest upon the bottom supposedly
below the level of the winter ice.

SIGNAL TOWER, GAME LOOKOUT:

With a small tower all the joints may be quickly lashed together
with strong heavy twine, rope or even wire or bind the joints
with pliable roots or cordage made of bark or withes.* 

Now to secure the necessary timber, first lets cut 8 straight
poles as straight as one can find them. These poles should be
about 4 1/2 inch in diameter at their base & 16 1/2 feet long. 

After all the branches have been trimmed off the poles, cut 4
more sticks each 9 feet long and 2 1/2 to 3 inches in diameter at
the base.

When these are trimmed into shape one will need 26 or 27 more
stout sticks each 4 1/2 feet long for braces and for flooring the
platform. This should be enough for Tarzan's lookout.

CACHES:  

Unless a cache is absolutely secure then it will be raided by
wolves, bears and other creatures so BEWARE dear Jane or Tarzan.

PROSPECTOR CACHE:

This first cache consists simply of a stick lashed to 2 trees and
another long pole laid this to which the goods are hung, swinging
beneath it like a hammock. 

This cache is hung high enough to be out of reach of a standing
bear. The tripod cache consists of 3 poles lashed at the top with
the goods hung underneath.

Another form of the Prowpector's cache is where 2 poles are used
in place of one and an open platform of sticks laid across the
pole; the goods are placed upon the platform. 

TENDERFOOT'S CACHE:

It is used only for temporary purposes as it is too easily
knocked over & would be of no use where animals as large as bears
might wreck it. 

It consists of 2 sticks lashed together at their small ends and
with their butt ends buried in the earth. Their tops are secured
by a rope to a near-by tree while the duffel is suspended from
the top of the longest pole.

MONTAGNAIS CACHE:

Is an elevated platform upon which the goods are placed and
covered with skins or tarpaulin etc.

ANDREW STONE CACHE:

It is a miniature log cabin placed on the ground and the top
covered with halved logs usually weighted down with stones.

BELMORE CACHE:

Consists of a pole or a half a log placed in the fork of the 2
trees on top of which the goods are held in place by a rope and
the whole covered with a piece of canvas lashed together with
eyelets like a shoe.

SHELTERS SHACKS & SHANTIES: 

Now lets build camps in which we use logs instead of poles. Most
of these camps are intended to be covered with sod or earth and
are nearly related to the old prairie dugout. 

The sod house is used in the arctic regions because it is warm
inside  and it is used in the prairies because it is cool inside.

THE STEFENSON FRAME:

Is made of larger timbers because it not only MUST support a roof
and side of logs and sod but MUST also be able to sustain any
quantity of snow. 

First erect 2 forked upright sticks and then steady them by 2
braces. Next lay four more logs or sticks for the side plates
with their butt ends on the ridge pole and their small ends on
the ground.

Support these logs by a number of small uprights-as many as
needed for the purpose. The uprights may have forks at the top or
have the top ends cut wedge-shaped to fit in notches made for
that purpose in the side plates.

The shortest uprights at the end of the roof should be forked so
that the projecting fork will tend to keep logs from sliding
down. 

The roof is made by a number of straight rafters placed one with
the butt in front next with the butt in the rear alternately, so
that they will fit snugly together until the whole roof is
covered. 

The sides are made by setting a number of sticks in a trench and
slanting them against the roof. Both sides front and rear of the
building should project 6 inches above the roof in order to hold
the sod and dirt and keep it from sliding off.

Up in the north country one MUST not expect to find green closely
cropped lawns or even green fields of wild sod in all places. 

Although in some places the grass grows taller than a man 's head
in other places the sod is only called so by courtesy.

Consequently we MUST secure the sod by having the walls project a
little above the rafters all around the building. 

Of course in summer weather this roof will leak, but then one may
live in a tent, but when cold weather comes and the sod is frozen
hard and banked up with snow the Stefenson makes a good warm
dwelling.

The same style of camp can be made in the temperate zone of
smaller trees & shingled with browse or in the South of cane or
bamboo & shingled with palmetto leaves or in the Southwest of
cottonwood where it may be covered with adobe or mud.

The front is left uncovered to show its construction and also to
show how the doorway is made by simply leaving an opening like
that in a tent. 

In winter this may have a hall way built like the one described
in the Navajo earth lodge or in milder weather the doorway me be
protected with a skin.  An opening is left in the roof over the
fireplace which answers the purpose of a chimney.

UNDERGROUND HOUSE:

One funny thing about this house is that it MUST be furnished
before it is built, because the doorway and passageway will be
too small to admit any furniture larger than a stool. 

So select or make your furniture and have it ready then decide
upon the location of this dug out on the edge of some bank.


In this diagram the dotted line shows how the bank originally
sloped. The real hard work connected with this is the digging of
the foundation which is hard work. 

The trouble is that with caves there is a danger of caving in but
a properly built underground hogan is perfectly safe from such
accidents. After you have levelled off the foundation erect the
rear posts of two by four A B C D.

These post should be of the same height and tall enough to allow
the roof to slant toward the front. 

The front posts E F G H although shorter than the back post
should be tall enough to allow headroom. One, tow or three more
posts may be erected between the post A B C D* if additional
strength is required. 

The same is true of the sides and in place of having only one
post in the middle of each side, there may be 2 or 3 more posts,
all according to the size of the house you are building. 

The main point is to make a compact and strong box of your
framework so that in wet weather the banks surrounding it will
not be tempted to push in the sides and spoil your house.

Erect the frame by having someone hold the uprights in place
until they can be secured with temporary braces. (Not those in
your mouth)

You may then proceed to board up the sides from the outside of
the frame by slipping the planks between the frame and the bank
and then nailing from the inside. 

The door-jambs will help support the roof which will be covered
by planks etc then by sod.

CLIFF-HOUSES ROOF:

If you wish to make the roof as the cliff-dwellers made theirs,
put your biggest logs crosswise of your house for rafters and
across the large logs lay a lot of small poles as close together
as may be, running from the back to the front of the house. 

Fill in the cracks between with moss or calk them with dry
grass;on them place a layer of brush, browse or small sticks and
over this a thick coating of clay, hard-pan or ordinary mud and
pack it down hard by tramping it with your feet until it becomes
a smooth and* packed crust. Over this you can put your sod and
weeds to conceal your secret house.

PASSAGEWAY: 

To make the frame for the underground hall or passageway first
across the door-jambs to form the top to the doorway, after which
put in the supports. 

Next built the frame and joint it by the two pieces and put in
the middle frame support. The passageway should be about 6 feet
long and the front doorway of sufficient size to enable you to
creep through with comfort. 

The bottom piece can be nailed to a couple of sticks driven in
the ground for that purpose. The next thing in order is the floor
and to make this firm you MUST lay a number of lumber 2 X 4 & see
that they are level.

You will need a number of shorter pieces of the same material to
run parallel for the hall floor. Across these nail your floor
securely.

There are no windows shown in the diagram, but if the builders
wish one it can be placed immediately over the entrance or hall
way in the frame.

In which the covering of dirt MUST be shovelled away to admit the
light in the same manner as the dugout.

The ventilator may be replaced if thought desirable by a chimney
for an opening fire. 

On the variation a stove would not be a properly thing for an
underground house but opening fire could help for the
ventilation.

This diagram the ventilator; it may be help of barrels or barrels
fill in the dirt around by the scanting 2 x 4 and 4 x 4 *#as a
rimer# to cover the roof with small sticks and fine brush and
grass weed grass weed. You should have good strong front door &
padlock from trespassers.

AURE HINGES: 

A rustic hinges may be made by splitting a forked branches and
using the 2 pieces nailed to the sides of the door-jambs run
through them. 

The middle of the B stick is flattened to fit on the surface of
the door of which it is nailed. The hinged was invented by Victor
Aures. 

When all is completed you can conceal the ventilator with dry
brush or by planting weeds or shrubs around it, which will not
interfere with the ventilation by will concealed the suspicious
-looking pipe protruding from the ground. 

The top of the ventilator should be protected by slats or by wire
netting with about one quarter inch mesh in order to keep small
animals from jumping or hopping down into your club house.

TRAP DOOR:

In place of a ventilator or a chimney a trap door may be placed
in the roof and used as a secret place entrance access to inside
being had by a ladder.

Make a chandelier, and as long as the candles burn brightly you
may know that the air in your little hogan is pure and fresh. 

When such a chandelier is used pieces of thin should be nailed
above the candles to prevent the heat from burning holes through
the roof.

HOW TO CUT AND NOTCH A LOG: 

None of us is to young to use an axe. REMEMBER that every time
you hurt yourself with an axe you learn to be more careful. 

Joking aside, we MUST get down to get serious work of preparing
the logs in order to build a little cabin or your own, a log club
house for our gang or a long camp for a troop of scouts.

NOTCHING LOGS:

To make logs hold together at the corners of our cabins it IS
NECESSARY to lock them in some manner and the usual way is to
notch them. 

You may cut flat notches and this will hold the logs together or
you may only flatten the ends, making the General Putnam joint. 

Or you may use the Pike notch which has a wedge-shaped cut on the
lower log, made to fit into a triangular notch which was drawn
from a cabin built in this manner. But the simple notch is the
rounded one shown by A B C.

When these are logged together they will fit. Away up North
dovetail the ends of the logs, so that their ends fit snugly
together and are also locked by their dovetail shape. 

To build a log house, place the two sills logs on the ground or
on the foundation made for them, then two other logs across them.

HANDLING THE LOGS:

That the log may be more easily handled they should be piled up
on a skid way which is made by resting the top ends of a number
of poles upon a big log or some other sort of elevation and their
lower ends upon the ground. With this arrangement the logs may be
rolled off without effort as they are used to.

CHINKING:

A log cabin built with hardwood logs or with-pitch pine logs can
seldom be made as tight s one built with the straight spruce logs
or the virgin? forests. 

These cracks may be stopped by quartering small pieces of timber
and fitting these quartered pieces into the cracks between the
logs where they are held in places by spikes. 

This is called chinking the cabin. To keep the cold and wind out,
the cracks may be muddled up on the inside with clay or ordinary
lime.

MODELS: *

Study the diagrams carefully, then sit down on the ground with a
pile of little sticks alongside of your and sharp jack-knife in
your hand and proceed to experiment by building miniature log
cabins. 

Really this is the best way to plan a large scale cabin if you
intend to built one up.

From your model you can see at a glance just how to divide your
cabin into rooms, where you want to place your fire place,
windows and doors, and we would advise you ALWAYS do make a small
model before building. 

Make the model about one foot 3 inches long by 10 inches wide,
using stick for a log a little less than one inch in diameter. 

That is one inch through one inch thick. I have taken these
dimension or measurements from little model that I have before
here in my studio but of course you can vary them according to
the plans of your cabin dear Crusoe or Jane.

NOTCHED LOG LADDERS:

Our purpose is to tell you to use of the notched logs. Our
pioneers ancestors used them to ascend to the loft over their
cabins where they slept .

It is also good ladder to use for a tree house and a first rate
one for our underground hogans when we have an entrance through
the top instead of one at the side.

Since you have learned how to use the axe you make one of these
primitive ladders to reach the hay loft in your barn if you have
one. 

You make the ladder of one log if you set the pole of log upright
and knot it on both side so that you can clasp it with your hands
and placing one foot on each side of it, climbing down the same
manner.

LOG ROLLING AND OTHER BUILDING STUNTS: (Even the Rolling
Stones!?!)

Of course readers know all about geometry but if not of should
not prevent them from using that science to square the corners of
this log cabin. 

Builders ALWAYS have a tenderfoot measuring rod-that is, a rod or
straight stick ten foot long and marked with a line at each foot
from end to end. 

Make your own ten foot pole as straight as possible from a piece
of wood as you can find. 

With it measure 6 feet carefully on the log C, G and mark the
point measure 8 feet on the other log  C A and mark the point at
N. 

If these measurements have been carefully made from C to O and
from C to N your corner is square.

Then your 10 foot pole will reach between the two point O and N
with the tips of the pole exactly touching N O. 

If it does not fit exactly fit between *N & 0 either the corner
is not square or you have not marked off the distances accurately
on the logs. 

Test the measurements and if they are not found true then push
your logs one way or the other until it is exactly 10 feet from,
O to N*.  Then test the corner at H in the same manner.

LOG ROLLING:  (Rolling stones?)

In the old times log-rolling was ALWAYS a great frolic and
brought people from far and near to lend a helping hand in
building a new house.

In handling logs lumbermen have tools made for that purpose,
cant-hooks etc. But the old lumbermen and pioneers who lived in
log houses owned no tools but their tomahawks, their axes and
their rifles.

So the logs of most of their houses were rolled in place by the
men themselves pushing themselves up the skids laid against the
cabin wall for that purpose; later when the peddlers brought
ropes to the settlements they used these to pull their logs in
place. 

In building my log house we used two methods, one was hand-power.
Taking 2 ropes we fastened the ends securely inside the cabin. 

We then used the free ends of the ropes around the log first
under it and then over the top of it, then up to a group of men
who by pulling on the free ends, rolled the log up to the top of
the cabin. 

But when my buddies were supplied with some oxen they fastened a
pulley-block to the other end side of the cabin.

That is, the side opposite the skids, and ran the line through
the pulley block to the oxen as it is run to the 3 men.

When the oxen were started the log slip up the skids to the loose
rafters N O P* when once there it was easily shoved and fitted
into place.

LOG STEPS:

Sometimes one wants front steps to one's logs house and these may
be made of flattened logs or puncheons.

THE ADIRONDACK OPEN LOG CAMP AND ONE ROOM CABIN: 

The men in the woods often build such a camps of logs with a
puncheon floor and a roof of real shingles. 
 
At the rear the logs are notched and placed like those of a log
house but the front ends of the side logs are toe-nailed to the
two upright supports. 

In this particular camp the logs are also flattened on the inside
in order to give a smooth finish, as they often are in Virginia
log houses. 

In Virginia they formerly hewed the logs flat with broad axes
after the walls were up, but rarely used these days.

CABIN PLANS:

A one room log cabin with double bunk at one end makes a good
camp with room for 2 to  4 sleepers according to the with of the
bunk.

THE BUNKS:

The bunks are made by setting the ends of 2 poles into holes in
the log bored for that purpose and nailing slats across the
poles. 

Over this a bed of browse is laid and on this blankets are spread
and all is then ready for beddy bye bye.

THE NORTHERN TILT AND INDIAN LOG TENT:

Some years ago the Indians built themselves logs like the. These
were the winter houses in the north country. 

A ridge pole was set up on tow forked sticks and the logs slanted
up against each other and rested upon the pole. 

Smaller pole were then laid against this frame, both front and
rear all of which could then be covered with sod or browse and
made into a warm winter house. 

You may build a similar house by using small poles instead of big
logs or they may make a northland tilt which is a modification of
the Indian log tent and has 2 side plates instead of one ridge
pole. 

The log chimney is also added and when this connected with a
generous fireplace the fire will brighten and warm the interior
of the tilt and make things comfortable. The chimney can be
erected in the same manner that you build a log house.

The front of the northland tilt is faced in with small logs set
on end, this makes a substantial warm winter camp. If the logs
fit close together on the roof they may be calked with moss or
dry grass. 

If the cracks are too wide on count of the unevenness of the log,
cover them first with grass, fine brush or browse and over all
place a costing of sod or mud and you will have a house fit for a
king to live in. 

To tell the truth it is much too good for a mere king and almost
good enough for a real american boy even a Rambo.

HOW TO BUILD A RED JACKET, THE NEW BRUNSWICK:

This another camp but this you see has straight walls, marking it
as a white man camp in form not apparently borrowed from the red
men. It is however a good comfortable rough camp. 

To build the Red Jacket one will first have to know how to build
the more simple form which we call the New Brunswick then the
next step will be the Gist then the Red Jacket.

THE NEW BRUNSWICK:

You will see that it is practically a deep Adirondack open-face
with a wind-shield build in front of it. 

To build this camp, make the plan about 6 feet by 12 on the
ground of course the back logs MUST be something over six feet
long to allow for 6 feet in the clear. Notch about 4 or 5 back
logs with the plain rounded notch already described.

Then lay the side sill logs and erect 2 uprights forked sticks
for the front of your cabin to hold the cross stick which
supports the roof rafter. 

Now build up your cabin as you would a log house, notching only
the small ends of the side logs & saving the larger ends for the
front.

Between each of these is the other end of the cabin built just
the same as the rear end, but it should be build of peeled logs
as they are less liable to catch fire than the ones with the bark
upon them.

If you feel real lazy it will only be necessary to peel the bark
off from the inside half of the log. 

Above the door at the end of the roof of the Adirondack camp part
of the space is filled by logs running across, with the lower one
resting upon the top of the door jamb.

This close the shed above the wind shield and leaves a little
open yard in front wherein to build a camp fire.

THE RED JACKET:

It constitute the suggestion offered by the Gist and extends the
side walls all the way across to the wind shield and the latter
now becomes the true end of the log shack. 

The side walls and end wall are built up from the top of the
shack to form a big wide log chimney under which the open
camp-fire is build on the ground.

The Red Jacket is roofed with bark in the same manner as the New
Brunswick and Guist and occupies the important position of the
missing link between the true log cabin or log house and the rude
log camp of the hunter.

CABINS DOORS & DOOR-LATCHES AND FOOT LATCH:

One of the simplest of the foot latches consist of a piece of
wood cut out by the aid of axe and hunting knife to the form
show.

A hole in the door cut for that purpose admits the flattened and
notched end and upon the inside it fits the round log sill. 

The owner of the log when reaching home, steps upon the foot
latch which lifts up the catch on the inside and allows the door
to swing upon ready for Jane?.

TRIGGER LATCH: (Not tiger catch!)

A more complicate form of latch with a trigger protruding from
the lower part of the door which is hinge to a wooden shaft, and
the shaft in turn is connected with the latch. 

The fastening of the trigger to the shaft and the shaft to the
latch are made with hardwood pegs or wire nails which move freely
in their sockets. 

The latch is the simplest form of a wooden bar fastened at one
end with a screw or nail on which it can move up and down freely
the other end is allowed to drop into the catch. 

So that when the weight of the foot is placed upon the trigger
outside the door that end is forced down which pushed the end
attached to the shaft up. This pushes the shaft up & the shaft
pushes the lack up; thus the door is unfastened. 

THE LATCH STRING: 

In the preceding locks and fastening, no matter how generous the
owner may be, his latch-string NEVER hangs on the outside but
this one the latch literally hang outside and any one may enter
by pulling it.

But when the owner is in and does not want to be interrupted with
Jane he pulls the string in which tells the outsider (cops) that
he MUST knock before he can be admitted.

The simplest form of latch has been here put upon the simplest
form of a door, a door with a wooden hinge made by nailing a
round rod to the edge of the door and allowing the ends of the
rod to project above and below the door.

In the sill log below the door a hole about 2 inches deep is
bored to receive the short end of the hinge rod, above a deeper
hole is bored to receive the long end of the hinge rod. 

To hang the door run the long end up in the top hole far enough
to lift the door sufficiently to be able to drop the lower end of
the hinge rod in the lower hole. Your door is then hung and may
swing back and forth at your pleasure. 

Notwithstanding the fact that such a door admits plenty of cold
air, it is a very popular door for camps and even used for log
houses.

HOW TO MAKE A FIRE PLACE AND CHIMNEY FOR A SIMPLE LOG CABIN:

A sample of a fireplace which is practically the granddaddy of
all the other fireplaces. 

It consist of 3 walls for windbreaks a side up in a stone of sod
against some stakes driven in the ground for the purpose of
supporting them. 

The four cornered stakes are notched or forked & small logs, are
laid horizontally in this forks and on top of this a pyramidal
form of a log pen is builded of small logs and  billets and this
answers the purpose of a chimney. 

This type of fireplace is adapted to use in camps and rude shacks
also for the most primitive log cabins but when we make a real
log house we usually plan to have a more elaborate or more
finished fireplace & chimney. 

MUD EARTH:  See also turf & sod #?**

Here you see there is a mud earth, a wall of clay plastered over
the stones of the fireplace. This will prevent the fire from
cracking and chipping the stones but clay is not absolutely
necessary in this fireplace. 

When however you build the walls of your fireplace of logs and
your chimney of sticks the clay IS NECESSARY to prevent fire form
igniting the woodwork and consuming it.

For a long framed-fireplace, make a large opening in the wall of
your house and against the end of the logs where you sawed out
the opening.

Erect jamb pieces of planks two to 3 inches thick running up to
the logs next lay your foundation of sill logs neatly notched so
as to look like the logs in the walls of the cabin. 

Build your fireplace walls after which take your mud or clay and
make the hearth by hammering the clay down hard until you have a
firm smooth foundation. 

The front hearth may be made as shown in the diagram or stones of
any size from pebbles to flagstones with the surfaces levelled by
sinking the under part down into the clay a uniform level till
reached at the top. 

The fireplace may be built with bricks or moist clay and wet clay
used for mortar. Make the clay walls of the fireplace at least
one foot thick and pack it down hard and tight as you build it. 

If you choose you may make a temporary inside wall of plank as
they do when they make cements walls and then between the
temporary boards wall and the logs.

Put in your moist clay and ram it hard down until the top of the
top of the fireplace is reached after which the boards may be
removed and the inside of the fireplace smoothed off by whipping
it  (Ouch!) with a wet cloth.

STICK CHIMNEY:

After the walls of logs and clay are built to top of the
fireplace proper, split some sticks and make them out one inch
wide by one half inch thick or use the round sticks in the form
in which they grow

But peel off the bark to render them less combustible, then lay
them up as shown by log cabin style. With the chimney we have
four sides to the wall in place of 3 sides as in the fireplace. 

The logs of the fireplace where they run next to the cabin may
have to be chinked up so as so to keep them level but the chimney
should be built level as its has 4 sides to balance it. 

Leave a space between the chimney and the outside wall and
plaster the sticks thickly with mud upon the inside which is
supposed to be a section of the chimney.

DURABILITY:

All through the mountains of Tennessse and Kentucky I have seen
these stick chimney some of them many many years old. 

In the mountains countries the fireplaces are lined with stones
but in Illinois in the olden times stones were scarce and mud was
plenty and the fireplaces were made just like those described.

The stone chimney is an advance and improvement upon the log
chimney but I doubt it requires any more skill to build.

CHIMNEY FOUNDATION:

Dig your foundation for your fireplace and chimney at least 3
feet deep then fill the hole up with small cobblestones or broken
bluestone until you have reached nearly level of the ground upon
this you can begin to lay your hearth and chimney foundation. 

If you fail to dig this foundation the frost will work the ground
under the chimney and the chimney will work with the ground
causing it either to upset or to tilt to one side or the other
and spoil the looks of your house even if it does not put your
fireplace out of commission.

STONE CHIMNEY:

In laying up the stones for your chimney REMEMBER that it makes
no difference how rough and uneven it is upon the outside. The
more uneven the outside is the more picturesque it will appear. 

But the smoother and more even is the inside is the less it will
collect soot and the less will be the danger of chimneys fires.

Lay your stones in mortar and cement. See that each stones fits
firmly in the bed and does not rock and that it breaks joints
with the other stone below it. 

By breaking joints I mean that the crack between the 2 stones on
the upper tier should fit over the middle of the stone on the
lower tier.

This with the aid of cement locks the stones and prevents any
accidental cracks which may open from extending any further than
the 2 stones between which it started. 

If however you do no break joints a crack might run from the top
to the bottom of the chimney causing it to fall apart. 

Above the fireplace make 4 walls to your chimney as you did with
your stick chimney extend above the roof at least 3 feet this
will not only help the draught but it will also lessen the danger
of fire.

CAVES:  (CAVEMAN 2001 BC-2001AD)

IN CAVES THE RISK OF CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING IS EXTREMELY HIGH.
USE THEM ONLY TEMPORARILY.

Caves are the most ready made of shelters. Even a shallow cave in
stone usually known in fact as rock shelter offers an excellent
permanent home. 

People still live in them in many parts of the world, sometimes
with all the modern convenience! Caves situated above valley will
be dry even if water seeps through in some places from above. 

They are weather proof and require little constructional work,
usually simply the creation of a barrier to close off the
entrance. Make this of rocks, wattle, logs, turves or almost any
materials.

Caves can be cold and they may be already inhabited by wild
animals, so approach any such shelter with caution. Plenty of dry
plant matters and pine boughs on the ground will provide
insulation. A good fire will usually make animal occupants leave.
Allow them an escape route. 

WATER IN CAVES:

Sometimes a cave will have its own fresh water supply, especially
if it goes deep into a hill-side, either from an underground
stream or from water seeping through the rocks above.

WARNING  WARNING:

Check for the possibility of a rock fall inside or outside the
cave. You might be desperate for shelter but your situation will
be a lot worse if you are trapped or injured by falling rocks.

CAPITALIZING ON CAVES: QUALITIES NEEDED:

Temporary shelters need the same qualities than those of  Stone
Age:

DRY, PROTECTED FROM THE WIND, SAFE AND PREFERABLY SMALL ENOUGH TO
BE EASILY HEATED.

Such natural bivouacs are found everywhere in the wild and rural
area of N. America and the world. 

CAVES ARE FOUND IN:

Caves are usually found in mountain and sloppy regions as well as
cliff near sea, rivers etc. Yet if they are damp stay away.

BEWARE that many good ones are already occupied so be careful
upon checking them out, for bears, lynx Even Fred Flinstone etc. 

Yet whenever possible to build a shelter go for it since caves
can be dangerous for cave  in and the risk of carbon monixide
poisoning is extremely high. Use them only temporarily

HALF CAVE SHELTER:

The Indians were ALWAYS quick to see the advantages offered by an
overhanging cliff for a camp site.

His sample camps all through the arid Southwest had gradually
turned into carefully built houses long before we came here. 

The overhanging cliffs protected the buildings from the rain and
weather and the site was easily defended from enemies. 

Although not ALWAYS necessary, it is sometimes best to make a
shelter for the open face of such a cave and this may be done by
resting poles slanting against the face of the cliff.

And over these making a covering of balsam, pine, for thatch to
shed the rain & prevent it driving under the cliff to wet our
bed.

WALLS:

It is not ALWAYS necessary to thatch the wall; a number of green
boughs with leaves adhering may be rested against the cliffs and
will answer for that purpose. 

Set the boughs upside down so that they will shed the rain and
not hold it so as to drip into camp. 

Use your common sense? which will teach you that all the boughs
should point downward and NOT upward. 

I am careful to call your attention to this matter because it is
important to know better.

DANGERS FROM CARBON MONOXIDE:

It is a potential threat in any closed space be it a tent, cabin,
hut or cave where there is a fire of any kind. 

Even a glaze in a tight new stove with adequate drafts may be
dangerous for the heat reddened metal itself can release
dangerous amount of POISONOUS gas. 

CARBON MONOXIDE results from incomplete combustion is
particularly dangerous because being colourless, odourless and
cumulative. 

The ill effects of breathing small amount of the usually
unsuspected POISON day after day accumulate slowly in the body
until one more perhaps otherwise inconsequential dose lays the
victim low or dead.

It seldom gives any recognizable warnings. There is no difficulty
to breathe for instance. 

What usually occurs is that one is so suddenly overcome that when
first he does something is wrong, he is already nearly if not
entirely helpless.

PREVENTION:

CARBON MONOXIDE has killed many in the wilderness. THE BEST
PREVENTION IS TO MAKE SURE OF GOOD VENTILATION. 

There is even a real danger in a tent for if the spaces in the
weave of the fabric are closed either by waterproofing or by
frost as ex: a small heater can and in many recorded cases has
killed all occupants.

Danger is increased as cold deepens because the human tendency to
restrict ventilation in favour of warmth.

Poor circulation of air not only permit the invisible & odour -
free gas to accumulate in closed area.

But the very fact that the atmosphere becomes progressively more
and more stale itself tends to increase the formation of CARBON
MONOXIDE by not affording sufficient oxygen for complete
combustion.

DEATH AWAITING PARKED MOTORISTS:

It may save lives to draw attention to motorists stalled by snow
and ice. The tendency under such conditions is to keep windows
closed tight and the motor going so as to heat the car. 

The danger when any closed vehicle is so parked particularly if a
white smother of flakes is building up around the car is that the

CARBON MONOXIDE can and many times does collect inside the
unventilated car in killing quantities.

EMERGENCY TREATMENT:

Get outdoor QUICKLY or at least in a position where you can
breath fresh air even if this means slashing or smashing
something. Keep warm. As soon as you are able to do so without
too much risk of being overcome, eliminate the cause. 

If for example this is a wood stove whose drafts have been too
tightly closed, open the outlets as wide as possible and of
course get fresh air into the shelter and from then on keep it
particularly well ventilated. Drink some stimulant such as hot
tea, coffee or chocolate if you have it. 

Take it easy as you can for a while, lying quietly in blankets if
possible, breathing deeply to help rid the blood of the effects
of the POISON.

COLD & WINTER TENT TIPS:

Although not ESSENTIAL a double roof makes the tent much more
comfortable because the air pocket insulation, so if you have an
extra ground sheet use it for that purpose. 

Also in order to AVOID drafts you should raise a wall of snow all
around the tent about 8 to 12 inches high this will also increase
the warmth.

ARCTIC SHELTER:

In polar areas simple shelter will be those already waiting for
you in natural caves and hollows. 

If you can carry some kind of bivouac equipment, you can erect it
and increase its protection by piling up loose snow around and
over it, so long as it can support the weight. 

But to build in hard snow- and at very low temperatures snow will
be solid. You need some kind of implement to cut into it or make
blocks from it. 

SPADES AND ICE SAWS ARE ESSENTIAL EQUIPMENT FOR POLAR
EXPEDITIONS:

Snow or rock caves will be easily recognizable but not so obvious
are the spaces left beneath the spreading boughs of conifers in
the northern forests when the snow has already built up around
them. 

A medium-sized tree may have a space right around the trunk (*A)
or a large one have pockets in the snow beneath a branch (*B).

Try digging under any tree with spreading branches on the Lee
side. Even soft snow can be built into a windbreak. Those with
equipment can cut blocks. (C*).

THIS IS THE MINIMUM SHELTER FOR THE MINIMUM EFFORT.

Anchor a ground sheet or poncho along the top with another course
of blocks, use others to secure the bottom edge. Use more snow
blocks to close the sides.

BUILDING IN SNOW:

A saw, knife, shovel or machete IS NECESSARY to cut compacted
snow into blocks.  The ideal snow will bear a man's weight
without much impression being made, but be soft enough to allow a
probe to be inserted evenly through it.

Cut blocks about 45 X 50cm (18 X 20in) and 10-20cm (4-8in) thick.
These will be an easy size to handle, thick enough to provide
good insulation, yet allow maximum penetration of the sun's rays.

SNOW TRENCH:

This is a much quicker shelter to construct than trying to build
in snow above the ground, but its suitable for only one person
and then only for short term use- while you are on the move or
making something bigger for example.

Mark out an area the size of a sleeping bag including head
support and cut out blocks the whole width of the trench. dig
down to a depth of at least 60cm (2ft).

Along the top of the sides of the trench, cut a ledge about 15cm
(6in) wide and the same deep. Rest the snow bricks on each side
of the ledge and lean them in against each other to form a roof
(A*).

Put equipment below your sleeping bag so that you are not in
direct contact with the snow beneath.

Block the windward end with another block or piled up snow. At
the other end downwind have a removable block as a door (*B) or
dig an entrance (C*) Fill any gaps with snow. 

It is Most effective when built on a slight slope, the cold air
will collect in the entrance leaving warmer air in the sleeping
place.

SNOW CAVE:

Dig into a drift snow to make a comfortable shelter. Make use of
the fact that hot air rises and heavier, cold air sinks. 

Create 3 levels inside: build a fire on the highest, sleep on the
centre one and keep off the lower level which will trap the cold.


Drive a hole through the roof to let out smoke and make another
hole to unsure that you have adequate ventilation.

Use a block of snow as a door and keep it loose fitting and on
the inside, so that it will not freeze up and jam. 

If it does a block on the inside will be much easier to free.
Smooth the inside surfaces to discourage melt drips and make a
channel around the internal perimeter to keep them away from you
and your equipment. 

TO AVOID THE DRIPPING: 

Which comes from the inside heat MAKE SURE that the inside dome
walls are well smoothed use the back of your mittens or mukluks
to do this job not your hand.

REMEMBER ABOUT DRIPS:

If the inner walls start to glaze with ice and drip, you are
overheating. 

DRIPS STOPPED!:

In igloos can be stopped by placing a piece of snow on the
source.

SNOW HOUSE (IGLOO):

An igloo takes time to construct but centuries of use by the
Eskimo demonstrate its efficiency. 

Build the main shelter first then dig out an entrance or build an
entry tunnel which is big enough to crawl along. 

MAKE SURE THAT ITS ENTRANCE DOES NOT POINT INTO THE WIND:

You could bend the tunnel or build a wind break to makes this
less likely. Mark out a circle on the ground about 4m (13 1/2ft)
in diameter and tramp it down to consolidate the floor as you
proceed with the rest of the building. 

Cut and lay a circle of blocks on the perimeter. Be prepared to
dig a tunnel (A*) leave a space for an entrance (*B).

Place another layer on top of them but, as when laying bricks,
centre new blocks over the previous vertical joint.

Build up more layers but place each only halfway over the lower
tier, so that the igloo tapers in or becomes dome shaped. Shape
out the entrance arch as you proceed. Seal the top with a flat
block. 

Make ventilation holes near the top and near the bottom but not
on the side of the prevailing wind or so low that snow rapidly
builds up and blocks it. 

Fill any other gaps with snow. Smooth off all the inside to
remove any drip-points. This will allow any consideration to run
down the wall instead of dripping off.

IGLOO (SPIRAL METHOD):

Lay the first course of blocks and then shape them to the
required spiral. You do not have to overhang the blocks if you
angle your initial spiral downwards and inwards.

And shape the top and bottom faces of subsequent courses to lean
inwards. The last few blocks in the centre may need some support
as you fit them into position.

Cutting the first course to an even spiral eases the whole
process. Angle the top edge slightly down towards the centre. 

THE FINAL BLOCK MUST BE CUT TO FIT- unless the space is small
enough to leave for ventilation, but this blocks helps to keep
the structure from collapsing.

INSIDE THE IGLOO:

Build a sleeping level higher than the floor or dig down when
building to create a lower cold level which can be used for
storage. 

Cut an entrance way through the lower course of blocks or dig a
tunnel beneath them. The central hole can be used as an entrance
if you are too exhausted to complete the structure.

PARACHUTE SNOW HOUSE: 

This is a useful structure if stranded on sea ice where
sufficient snow for an igloo for a larger party may be hard to
find.

Look for snow or convenient blocks of ice in the pushed up
pressure ridge of the ice. Mark out a circle and build up a
circular wall of snow blocks about 1m (4ft).

Leave an entrance space if on ice. You will not be able to dig an
entrance tunnel. Dig a lower area in the floor for cold air to
sink into.

Raise a central column of blocks in the centre about 1-1.5m
(3-5ft) higher than the wall. Drape the parachute over this and
the wall securing it with a further row of blocks on top of the
wall.

REMEMBER:

The structure of this parachute roof makes it a snow trap which
could become a dangerous weight poised above your head. Clear
accumulated snow regularly.

If you want a small fire inside ensure there is adequate
ventilation. Site the fire on the outer shelf where it will not
affect the canopy, not near the central column.

Anchor parachute cords with further block of ice or snow or cut a
hole in the ice and pass the top through it to make a firm
anchorage.

LIVING IN A SNOW HOUSE:

In bad weather MAKE SURE that you have a good supply of timber or
liquid fuel, inside the shelter.

Do not carry loose snow into the shelter, knock it off your boots
and clothing before you enter.That snow would melt inside and
make a mess and more dampness.

Mark the entrance clearly so that it is easily found. Keep
shovels and tools Inside the shelter, you may have to dig
yourself out.

COLD & HOT WEATHER CAMPING:

Camp on the Lee side* of rocks and trees when it's Cold and you
need protection.

When it's Warm, make camp on the Windward side so the breezes
help cool your wilderness home.

NOTES:

ALL SHELTERS MUST BE ADEQUATELY VENTILATED TO PREVENT CARBON
MONOXIDE POISONING AND ALLOW MOISTURE TO ESCAPE. 

Two holes are needed- have one near the top and one near the
entrance. 

SNOW SHELTERS BASIC NOTE:

In snow shelters the holes MUST be regularly checked to ensure
that they have not become blocked by ice or snow.

Regularly clear accumulated snow from any entrance tunnel to
ensure that it does not become blocked. 

The smaller the shelter the warmer it will be inside, but since
it will not be possible to heat the shelter to many degrees above
freezing, you will need a little time to adapt to the environment
so far from Miami.

DOOR IN RELATION TO WIND:

When the wind is any problem, the opening of a temporary shelter
is usually placed on the side away from it. 

DOOR ORIENTATION  IN SNOW OR CANYONS & MOUNTAINS AREAS:

In open SNOW COUNTRY where blocking drifts may form in that lee,
however, the entrance is best built crosswise to the wind.

This is also the most satisfactory compromise when one is camped
where air currants alternate up and down, as in canyons and along
mountain streams.

FOR LONGER STAYS:

If we are putting up a structure that may be used for several
days or longer, we will not be governed too much in this matter
by the direction in which any breezes may be blowing at the
moment. 

We will be more apt to lock around for natural signs, such as
deadfall and leaning trees which indicates the quarter or the
prevailing wind.

THE DOOR ORIENTED SOUTH / SOUTH-EAST IS USUALLY THE BEST ALL
AROUND.

HYGIENE:

Relieve yourself inside the shelter- this is usual practice in
these conditions and conserves body heat. Use plastic bags,
ration tins or other containers and empty when possible. 

Try to discipline the bowels to work just prior to leaving the
shelter in the morning and then remove faecal matter with other
rubbish accumulated.

ORGANIZATION:

In a shelter with several people organize a rooster of duties. It
is important that someone tends the fire at all times. 

Others can check the vent holes, gather fuel, go hunting when
possible, prepare meals and do the other job (s). (Signals when
need be!).

REMEMBER that a low temperature you will need more food.

HEAT:

No matter how low the external temperature, that inside a well
constructed snow house will not drop lower than -10C (0.F) Just 
burning a candle will raise the temperature by 4 degrees. 

The traditional Eskimo way of heating an igloo was a wick in a
bowl of fat. In a large shelter with a wood fire the temperature
is cosy. An oil burner or fat on bones are alternatives where
there is no wood or Casiope.

LONG TERM SHELTER:

If you decide that any possible search for you has been abandoned
& that it is impracticable to make your own way to safety,
whether due to distance, time of the year, lack of equipment or
physical condition, you will want to make the most comfortable
permanent shelter possible. Hilton? 

Somewhere that you will be able to establish yourself cosy until
you can eventually attract rescue or equip yourself to undertake
the journey with your own resources.

In a cold climate you will want to be warm and snug. In a warm
one, on the other hand, you will want to take advantage of any
available breezes. 

Your shelter will need to provide protection against the changing
seasons and night temperatures which may differ from daytime
ones.

WHAT IF THERE IS SNOW?:

Snow can make the task of bivouacking even easier. Suppose we're
travelling along a wilderness river. 

There may be boulders along the shore between which snow walls
can be heaped and over them several young evergreens spread. 

Among the driftwood at hand, you will find some large dry snags
which when a conflagration is kindled against them, will
themselves burn with the help of enough occasional extra fuel to
keep them going. 

Another way to get by is to tunnel into sufficiently deep snow
taking care to do this at right angles to the wind so that there
will be less chance of the opening's being choked by drift. Or:
when snow lies heavy you open a crude hole from the top down. 

Such a trench can often be made by stamping. It may be in the
shape of rough triangle with the wider end roofed and floored
with evergreens, large enough to sit or curl up in and with the
narrower part reflecting a small fire.

PRECAUTIONS WITH SNOW:

AVOID making a snow camp where there are dangers from rapidly
forming snow-drifts, from overhang or from slides. 

If in open country BEWARE of making the shelter on the side of an
elevation that is protected from the wind. 

Taking such a precaution is exactly opposite from what we would
do in the forest, but in open terrain such lees gather drifts
than can bury and suffocate one.

Keeping dry is particularly important under such conditions,
inasmuch as clothing that becomes damp or frozen or lying in
direct contact with snow.

It will be safer to have some protective material between and
this may be an oilskin game bag, section of plastic, mitts or any
handy bark.

HOUSES OF SNOW:

An easy way to go about constructing a snow house in very cold
weather, is to heap snow in a mound slightly larger than the
enclosure desired. Pack down the final surface. 

If the weather is well below freezing and if water is at hand,
throw that over the pile so that a glaze of ice will form. 

Otherwise let the mound harden as well as it will in the air for
1/2 hour or so. The burrow into the pile at right angles to the
wind. 

Keep scooping out snow until as thin a shell as seems feasible
remains. Build a small blaze within. Any melt will be blotted up
by the snow remaining. 

Drag out embers and ashes finally, poke a ventilation hole
through the dome and allow the shelter to ice. 

A very small fire within such a snow house, augmented by body
heat will keep the temperature surprisingly comfortable. 

The tendency in fact will probably be toward overheating.
extremely important in any event will be the maintenance of good
ventilation. (CARBON MONOXIDE)

EVERYONE SHOULD:

Everyone who travels on land in the Arctic or the barren lands in
winter should be able to build a snow house. 

This skill could easily mean the difference between life or
death, if an accident or sudden blizzard conditions make
unexpected delays necessary.

ARTIC TOOLS:

THE COMBINATION SNOW SAW-KNIFE OR A SNOW KNIFE IS ALMOST
ESSENTIAL TO SURVIVAL NORTH OF THE TREE LINE. 

With it snow blocks can be cut to build a shelter while on the
trail or if lost.

MATERIAL:

The snow from which the snow house is built should be in a firmly
packed and frozen form with several characteristics not often
encountered south of the tree line. 

The snow should be solid enough that a cubic foot block will
support the weight of a man, yet it can be cut, sawed or split
with ease. 

ONLY A SMALL PERCENTAGE OF SNOW IS SUITABLE FOR SNOW HOUSE
BUILDING.  

First search an area where snow-drifts are deep enough to permit
cutting snow blocks from a vertical face. 

This will require a depth of nearly 2 feet. The snow should be
firm enough to support your own weight with only a slight marking
of your foot print. 

Probe into the snow with your saw-knife or a long sturdy stick.
Try to find a place where the resistance to the probe indicates
an even firm structure, free of harder or softer layers. 

When you find a spot, probe around to ascertain whether enough
good snow is available. 

IT IS WELL WORTH HUNTING FOR AN HOUR TO FIND PROPER SNOW AS YOU
WILL SAVE THE TIME & ENERGY DURING SNOW HOUSE BUILDING.

If snow of sufficient depth to cut vertical blocks cannot be
found, it will be necessary to cut them from the flat surface of
snow. 

This is time consuming and requires a much larger snow area, and
the snow house will have to be built higher, because it cannot be
dug into the drift.

THE FIGHTER TRENCH: (QUICK AND EFFICIENT) 

If time does not permit building an igloo, A FIGHTER TRENCH CAN
BE BUILT EASILY AND QUICKLY WITH MINIMUM WORK FOR THE RESULT
ACHIEVED.

This is simply a trench dug in the snow and covered by blocks to
form a shelter.  If a large drift of snow at least 3 feet deep is
available, the shelter can be made by cutting large vertical
blocks from a trench wider than the sleeping bag and long enough
to accommodate the one or 2 builders. (2 French trench-her?) 

The snow blocks are stood on each side of the trench. When the
trench is completed a notch is cut along each side to provide
non-slip support for the snow block roof. 

A triangular block is placed at one end of the trench as a
support for the first snow block of the roof. 

The first roofing snow block is cut narrower than the others in
order that the succeeding blocks will overlap, each supporting
the next. The remainder of the roof blocks are placed in a
similar manner.

In a 2 man trench an entrance door is placed halfway down the
trench, opening into a roofed-over square pit which allows room
for "cook-king" and removing clothing before entering the
sleeping bag. 

Be sure to cut a ventilating hole in the roof and have a good
snow block handy to close the entrance at night. 

If no deep snow drifts can be found, a trench style shelter can
be erected by building a wall of blocks enclosing the shelter
area. 

This wall is then roofed over with large slabs which are hollowed
slightly on the inside after erection to form an arch.

The fighter Trench while a good emergency shelter is too
cramped to permit much movement without dislodging the frost on
your clothing and sleeping bag and in time you will become damp
without a good means of drying out. This is why you should begin
your igloo as fast & as soon as possible.

IGLOO# 2 add notes: 

Ideal winter shelter in the Arctic. It is solid, soundproof and
wind resistant and is large enough for comfort. 

There are a few building techniques which MUST be mastered but
none of these are particularly difficult. 

Once the method is learned, the igloo will almost invariably be
the shelter used in an emergency. So when you have found a good
snow-drift, lay out the floor plan Jan!.

Draw a circle centred on snow firm enough to support a person and
at least 20 inches deep with the approximate diameter as follows:

1 man = 8 feet / 2 men = 9 feet / 3 men = 10 feet / 4 men = 12
feet / 5 men = 13 feet / 6 men = 15 feet.

KEY #1 SUCCESS OF AN IGLOO:

NOTE:Once you have laid out your plan and pack down the area
which you want to use for your igloo 

REMEMBER THAT:

#1 KEY FOR THE SUCCESS OF YOUR IGLOO IS THE EXISTENCE OF A
PERFECT CIRCLE. 

One way to ensure this, is to put a peg in the middle of the area
you wish to built then using any rope tied to the centre you tie
the other end to a stick and use it as a compass to draw your
circle.

MAKE SURE the stick stays straight though while you work the
outline of your circle.

IGLOO BUILDING NOTE 3:

Now begin to lay in a supply of snow blocks. Cut them from the
face of a trench, laid out as shown, and to the depth of at least
20 inches. 

Begin cutting blocks by digging out a clear vertical face at A-B*
with a width of about 48 inches and a depth of about 20 inches. 

Smaller blocks are not much easier to cut and igloo construction
is slower and more difficult with them. Using a snow saw-knife
along the ends of the block. 

Cut the blocks about 8 inches thick and break off at the bottom.
Cut about a dozen blocks before starting to build. 

Dimensions of blocks about 36" long, 18" wide  and 6" thick. With
your snow saw-knife, cut a slot at each end of the block about 2"
wide and the full depth of the block. 

Next, score a grove parallel to the face marking off a block
about  6" thick. If you have a snow saw-knife, saw along this
mark, breaking off the block with a firm jab in the centre. 

If you are using a snow-knife, deepen the groove by running the
point back and forth, then 3 or 4 gentle stabs and a firm central
stroke will break it off.

Lift the snow block to one side and begin another.When you have
about a dozen cut, then you may begin to build. 

When the first row reaches the snow block trench, a snow block is
replaced in it to permit the wall to be taken across it. 

NOTE:     The slope of the first row of blocks. All end joints
are fitted with faces radial to the igloo centre, or you are
heading for trouble. 

When the first row is finished, begin the spiral which will end
at the key block. 

If you are right handed, cut away any 3 blocks diagonally,
sloping down form left to right. If you are left handed cut the
slope the other way. 

Now fit the next block, leaning it inward so that its inner face
is roughly a tangent to the dome. 

Even at this early stage the block might fall in, except that it
is supported by the face of the notch and the top of the previous
blocks. 

The block MUST bear only at area A-B- and C it should not bear at
D or it will pivot and slip.

All blocks from this point on until the key block are set in this
manner. Continue cutting blocks from within the igloo circle,
fitting them as you go.  Don't use block less than 2 feet long or
18" wide if you can help it. 

Lay small blocks aside for later use in snow bench and doorway
building. The slope of the block, which of course governs the
shape of the igloo is estimated by eye.

The block is raised into place and the joints are trimmed until
the block settles into position. When the third row is under
construction the slope will be great enough TO MAKE CAREFUL
FITTING ESSENTIAL.

Each block bears on the same 3 positions only = A-B-C* The
remainder of the joint can gape wide, or almost touch, but these
3 faces MUST carry the load to jam in the block. 

The tendency to rotate inward about A-B is resisted by pressure
between the upper third of the faces of the new block and the
previous block at C.*  This face MUST be radial to the igloo
centre or the previous block may be displaced.

When fitting snow block on the A-B-C method described, the block
should be lifted into position and the joint fitted roughly with
the faces in contact and the block supported by the left hand. 

If the snow saw-knife is run between the new block and the
previous one to make them fit, then a slight undercut on the
under face at the end nearest the previous will leave the joint
supported at A and C only.**

A firm tap downward at C as shown* by the arrow will drive the
block into the final position, setting at A, B and *C when it
need no longer be supported. Carry on building block by block. 

You will find that the increasing slope of the igloo wall will of
course increase the tendency for the block to fall in.

But that is compensated by the increasing angle between the A-B
axis of the successive block as the diameter of the opening
decreases. Building actually becomes easier toward the finish as
the blocks will jam firmly into place. 

When you run out of block snow inside the igloo, cautiously cut a
small door as far down the wall as you can, tunnelling underneath
to make enough space for the outside workers to push in more
building blocks. 

Try to keep the curve of the walls symmetrical & AVOID a pointed
igloo, because the high ceiling would reach the limiting warmth
before the sleeping bench gets its share of heat.

It is surprising how flat an arch can be built using the spiral
technique.  The last few blocks will be almost horizontal, but if
you REMEMBER the A-B-C- fit, they won't fall. 

When the remaining in the roof is small enough to permit doing so
a key block is fitted. After what you have been doing, this is
easy. The edges of the hole should be bevelled at about 15 degree
from the vertical. 

The hole should be longer than it is wide to permit passing the
key block up through then juggling it into position. 

This is tricky but not as difficult as it may appear. By
judicious use of your snow-knife, cut away the block, letting it
slowly into position. You have builded your igloo.

NOTE:

The entrance tunnel permits to AVOID drafts. Windows are easy to
build, just freeze water in a round bucket about 1 to 2cm thick
which you can incorporate to your wall. Eskimos use ice block to
replace one of their snow block. 

And they put this ice block at the top near the centre block to
give more light in the igloo, they even add a reflecting block of
snow on the  outside of the igloo top so as to add more light. 

The tunnel length entrance is about 2 1/2ft high and 5ft long and
the door is at right angle from the prevailing wind. Igloo floor
can be covered with evergreen as insulator.

ANOTHER FORM OF IGLOO #5:

According to the latest researches of the Arctic Aeromedical
Laboratory in Alaska, they can not only be builded from solid
block of polar snow pressed together, but also from fresh fallen
snow-as is the practice of the Nunamiut Eskimos in Alaska. 

When the Eskimos of this tribe want to pitch camp, they pile up
branches and bushes and cover them with skins or tarpaulins.

Then heap the loose snow on top (use snow shoes as a shovel).
After about an hour it hardens and the leaves and branches can be
taken away. The igloo is ready.

OTHER SNOW SHELTER added info:

MAKING THE IGLOO HABITABLE:

Across the floor, about one third of the way back from the door,
build a snow wall about 20" high to conserve warmth. 

This will form the front of your sleeping shelf, which will raise
you into the warm air trapped above the door. 

Shove all the snow in the igloo behind the wall to form the
shelf. Break lumps and blocks to soften the bench and to provide
better insolation. 

Level the bench top carefully. At each side of the door leave or
erect little benches allowing about 20" of leg room between the
sleeping shelf and bench.

This is the kitchen and heating area. It MUST be reasonably close
to the bench to permit the cook and lamp tender to reach it
without rising from the sleeping bench on which he is sitting. 

Chink the dome of the igloo carefully with powder snow, which
when packed firmly into the open seems will soon harden  and stop
loss of warm air from the igloo.  If you plan a short stay, chink
only the outer seams, but for a better job do both inside and
outside joints. 

You may throw loose powdery snow on top of the igloo to act as
chinking but not so much as to add to the weight of the dome. You
may bank the bottom row of blocks to prevent wind driven snow
from causing erosion.

IF A HIGH WIND IS BLOWING:

The drifting snow can erode the wall of the igloo can erode the
wall of the igloo very rapidly.
 
A snow wall should be erected to  act as a wind-break and any
broken blocks can be piled against the windward wall to protect
it from the cutting effect of the drift. 

Now, with the igloo chinked, the door cut in and the sleeping
bench completed, all you need to do before moving in is to clear
out all loose snow. 

Then bench is first covered with caribou skin or other insulation
and the sleeping bags are then enroled and placed heads toward
the door, side by side. 

All snow and frost MUST be removed from hides, bedding and
clothing before they are placed on the sleeping bench.

DRYING:

Drying racks made by forcing sticks into the walls, above the
heat sources will serve the following purposes:

A)   Drying of clothing from which all snow, ice and frost have
     first been scraped. NEVER MELT SNOW ON GARMENTS, ALWAYS
     SCRAPE IT OFF. 

B)   Thawing of frozen rations which do not  need "cook-king."
     This requires quite a long time

C)   Protection of the igloo wall & roof from melting.

KOOLIK FOR COOKING: 

Pots can be suspended from pegs driven firmly into the walls
above the fat lamp koolik or the primus stove koolik.

The Koolik has provided heat for comfort and cooking "even
cookin-king" for thousands of years, giving a quiet pleasant
light and warmth to the native home.

Properly tended it does not smoke or smell and it can be
controlled to give more or less heat on demand.

It is carved from soap-stone in the form of a shallow pen of 1/2
moon shape. The straight edge of the lamp are veiled to support
the wick made of Arctic cotton or moss.

Seal oil or caribou fat is used as fuel. To avoid its melting
into the snow shell and to keep it warm enough to render fat, it
is supported on short sticks driven into the shelf.

IMPROVISED KOOLIK:  (Invented by "AL" KOOLIK?)

You can improvise a fat lamp out of any flat pan, such as a
ration can. If you have fat to burn, all that is required is a
piece of heavy cotton, linen cloth or absorbent cotton for a wick
and a slopping ramp to support it.

You can burn lubricating oil in a fat lamp but the flame will
smoke more readily and the wick will have to be trimmed more
carefully to keep the flame below the smoking point.

When the level of the oil drops, the flame may follow down the
wick causing further smoking.

A simple damper, made of sheet metal will prevent this and will
permit closer control of the flame. A few drops of aircraft fuel
used with caution will aid in lighting the wick.

NEVER try to burn a volatile fuel in the koolik, you would be far
too successful and might find yourself in trouble.

Remember that a little animal fat in lubricating oil makes a good
improvement in the flame.

SOME RULES FOR LIVING IN IGLOO:

Persons entering the igloo for a stay of longer than an hour or
so, after removing mukluks and snow from garments, should get up
on the sleeping bench out of the way. 

The cook usually at the right hand bench has the primus stove,
under which is a piece of cardboard from a ration box to prevent
it from melting into the shelf and tipping. He may also have a
koolik,*# if fat is available for slow cooking. 

ONE PERSON MUST BE RESPONSIBLE FOR ADEQUATE VENTILATION!

Keeping the vent holes in the dome and door open enough to AVOID
risk without freezing the occupants.

BEWARE OF CARBON MONOXIDE:

The left-hand man remain on the bench assist in cooking and
maintaining their kooklik.

If this lamp is burning animal fat it requires only moderate
attention.

Lubricating oil is not so easily used, as the flames smokes
easily and the wick needs more frequent attention.

A little animal fat dissolved in the lubricating oil makes a big
improvement in the flame.

If the group finds the igloo cluttered with odds and ends, a
miniature igloo can be built against the outside wall and a
doorway out through to form a cache. Keep the entrance low to
avoid loss of heat.

DANGER:

During the day, the door is left open. At night it is closed by a
snow block which should be chinked and a ventilation hole 3 to
6"in diameter bored through the upper part.

The more fumes generated the larger MUST be the opening. Don't
wait until the lamp won't burn properly and you begin to feel
groggy before letting in air.

It is dangerous and not necessary. If the roof hole does not draw
properly because of the wind, a snow chimney can be made by
setting a perforated block over the hole.

Now that you are in the residence the igloo will warm up rapidly
If the inner walls start to glaze with ice and drip, you are
overheating.

Take corrective actions before icing develops, cut down the heat
if you MUST.

FRYING:  etc.

Frying, baking or broiling have no place in igloo living. Boiling
and stewing are easier and prove very satisfactory.

Canned goods may be heated in the can by bringing them unopened
to a bowl in a pot of water which completed covers them.

Use the pressure cooker or tightly covered pot to avoid steam.
NEVER place an unopened can over direct heat, it will explode.

Two good meals a day, breakfast and the main meal ln the evening
avoid loss of the working day. A snack at noon will not bring the
activity to a halt for more than an hour or so.

Body heat is derived from food intake, so eat all your ration and
supplement with fish whenever possible.

Eat fat rather than burn them if the supply is low. A diet of
meat is good for you.

The explorer Stefenson lived for a full year on meat alone to
prove this point. If you are forced to live solely on the product
of the chase!

You MUST eat flesh, fat, liver and every edible part, to ensure
that you don't suffer from dietetic deficiencies.

Remember FAT is ESSENTIAL in Arctic survival don't waist it.

SNOW SHELTER BESIDE IGLOO:

If you are stranded in forest in the winder and darkness comes
simply dig a hole in the snow at the foot of a tree all around
it. 

Cover the bottom of evergreen branches as well as the walls on
the outside toward the tree which you then cover up with snow. It
is not central home heating but will prevent freezing to death.

Ex:Temperature outside = 0F temperature inside hole = 40F. Many a
mountain climber have thus saved their lives with this simple
snow hole dug in loose snow round a tree trunk and then covered
with branches.

Scientist from Aeromedical laboratory have established that the
temperature within such a shelter even excluding the bodily
warmth of those occupying it can be 18F higher than the outside
where storms may be raging at 36F below freezing point. 

If there are several people in the hole, the temperature will
rise even further, this seems the only explanation that in case
of avalanche death is due more often to suffocation then
exposure. 

To build such a shelter is only profitable of course if the
victim of an accident does not wait till he is too exhausted but
starts on it directly after his crash.

ANOTHER FORM OF SHELTER: 

A hole is covered with branches and a tarpaulin except for the
entrance, a little snow is put on top. 

Inside this primitive shelter the temperature will soon rise.
This would apply in an area where there are no trees of course. 

Using this particular method 2 men and a young woman ran into a
heavy snowstorm on a peak in the Alps nearly 10, 000 feet up.

The storm lasted 5 days they were found alive and well even
through a storm which had blown with a force of 60 mph. 

REMEMBER: That the shelter door MUST be placed at 45 degree from
the wind direction and the shelter has its back to the wind in
order to have good ventilation and not being snow ploughed under.

SNOW CAVE SHELTER:

The first thing is to choose a thick snow bank which you will
make your dug out bottle shape. The best places usually are river
bed, bottom of cliff #ravine#, any snow bank from slopes. 

AVOID to install in fresh fallen snow, or in powdery snow or in
snow too well packed. 

MAKE SURE that when you start digging the entrance that the wind
will not blow the snow inside or that a overhang will not come to
block the entrance. You MUST then dig a small tunnel about 2ft
long directly in the flank of the snow bank. 

Starting from there then you dig a chamber, the best is to dig
from the right and the left so that the chamber is at right angle
to the tunnel entrance. 

If you dig in the tunnel entrance axial you can hit older snow
usually harder than the fresh snow and the task will be harder. 

To speed things up you can dig a second entrance which will be
blocked off when the chamber is ready.

NOTE:

A)   The room MUST be high enough to permit easy sitting, it's
     more comfy. 

B)   When not in use, block the door completely or in part using
     snow block or your bag.

C)   When the entrance is blocked, the tunnel is airtight it MUST
     BE VENTILATED. You need 2 air holes (dome, door.)

SNOW WALL SHELTER:

In winter in arid regions when no shelter, you can build a snow
wall by cutting bock in the compacted snow. 

Use this blocks to build a 1/2 moon shape wall about 3 feet high,
then reinforce it with snow on the wind side. The wall act as
wind-shield beyond which you can sleep. Yet it would be better to
build an igloo.

COLD SLEEPING NOTE:

NEVER SLEEP AT ANY TIME DIRECTLY ON THE GROUND, WINTER OR NOT,
USE A GROUND SHEET or if none then use evergreen as a thick
mattress to isolate you from the cold ground. Cold comes from the
ground.

SNOW BLOTTER FOR CLOTHING:

An old Eskimos trick for any one who falls through ice in order
to dry your garments before they freeze. 

Undressing QUICKLY they stamp foot their wet garments in the
powder snow around them, this snow is so dry that it acts as a
blotter and will absorb sufficient water to AVOID the
catastrophe.

SUNGLASSES YES?:

IN POLAR REGIONS IN SPRING FROM APRIL TO JUNE & IN WINTER YOU
MUST WEAR SUNGLASSES AT ALL TIME. 

When the sun is high or even when the sky is partly cloudy you
have great danger to be hit by snow-blindness otherwise which
brings grave consequences.

PARACHUTE SHELTHER TIME:

PARACHUTE TEEPEE: 

A parachute suspended by its centre makes an instant teepee. Peg
out the bottom edge. Parachute material can be used to cover a
teepee but even simpler is to suspend one from a tree. 

Give the sides a steep angle and even when the fabric is not
impervious, water will run off. Fold a segment of the chute
double for a door flap, slit along a seam and make a tie
fastening to close it.

STICK WALLS AND SCREENS:

It is easy to build walls by piling sticks between uprights
driven into the ground & if possible tied at the top. 

Caulk them well to keep out wind and rain. These are ideal for
making one side of a shelter for blocking a shelter's opening or
for a heat reflector behind a fire. 

If large rocks are not available use this method to dam a stream.
To make very sturdy stick walls, increase the space between the
uprights, use two stacks of sticks and as you build it, fill the
space with earth.

COVERING: 

Make wattle and woven covering for roofs or walls from springy
saplings, plant stems, grasses and long leaves either whole or if
large enough, shredded for tighter weaving. 

First make a framework from less pliable materials either in situ
or as a separate panel to attach later. Tie the main struts in
position. Weave in the more pliant materials. 

If no ties are available drive vertical stakes into the ground
and weave saplings between them. Caulk with earth & grasses.  If
suitable firm cross pieces are too few, weave creepers between
the uprights.

Very large leaves, lashed or weighted down or hooked over lines
of creeper, can be overlapped like tiles or shingles to keep out
the rain. Long grass can be bunched and woven, overlap the ends
irregularly to make a continuous warp and weft. 

Or use birch bark to make shingles. Ring a birch tree with even
60cm (2ft) cuts and carefully remove the bark. (*A).

Across a frame fix pairs of canes or creepers in close-spaced
pairs. (*B). Upper ends of shingles are gripped between the
canes, the lower ends rest on top of those below (*C).

PARA-TEEPE:

This is a simply erected teepee. Cut 3 poles approximately 12
feet in length.  Tie these with rope or strips of skins or bark
about 8" from one end and set up as a tripod. Place extra poles
about the tripod and lace together at the top. 

Theses may be covered with canvas or spruce boughs. Arrange the
boughs in rows starting at the bottom and ending at the top. 

REMEMBER:

THE FRONT OPENINGS OF ALL SHELTERS SHOULD BE KEPT CROSSWIND.
     A FIRE IS USUALLY BUILT IN FRONT OF THE OPENING.

DESERT: SHELTER FROM HEAT:

DON'T REMOVE CLOTHING / KEEP HEAD COVERED.

As you find / make shelter, move slowly to avoid excessive:
sweating, waste of energy & dehydration. Stretch tarp, blanket
overhead.

Don't stay in car, or enclosed tent that restrict air
circulation. If no tarp of blanket is available for shelter, find
shade under brush, shady side of car, boulder, ledges etc.

Try not to sit or to lie directly on hot ground, which is usually
much hotter than air temperature. Above or below ground is
desirable.

Sit or lie on brush, packs or other improvised elevation,
preferably with air circulation underneath.

IF? travel is ESSENTIAL, Move ONLY during evening, morning hours
or during moonlit nite. BEST to stay in shelter, put on aerial
marker, prepare to signal*.

Leave shelter ONLY if you know precisely where to go, the length
of the journey, & limits of your strength and water supply.

DON'T venture far from established shelter, you could become lost
a second time.
 
