

#ESTIMATE# :

In  a survival situation BEFORE LEAVING A SPOT, Remember
that  is also  important  to note the time, distance of your
path,  trip, just as much as to maintain a straight course
on your goal.

MEASURING STEP + OR - :

For anyone in survival it is important to predetermined
ahead the average  length  of  his  step in inches  or  foot
the  distance travelled in 10 steps then to divide it by 10
= your step size.

On  the  terrain the account of the average step MUST be
verified checked according to the following conditions:

SLOPE OR INCLINATIONS:

The steps are longer going down,  shorter = up.

WIND:     Against the wind steps are shorter, With wind = longer.

SURFACE:  Sand, gravel, mud all alike surfaces = shorter steps.

WEATHER:  Snow, rain or ice = shorter steps.

CLOTHING: Too heavy = shorter steps,

DIFFERENT SHOES:    Can also affect the traction and
consequently the length of steps.

ENDURANCE & RESISTANCE AND  FATIGUE: Make us crawl at time.

DISTANCE APPEAR LONGER:

Than  they are in reality when the terrain is accidented,
rough. If  there are shadows  or fog, also at sunset the
object observed is  hard  to see lacking contrast, or
because we are too  low  or hot.

DISTANCE APPEAR SHORTER:

Than  they are if: the terrain is flat, or weather is real
clear (after  rain or storm), or just before and just after
the  sunset or  if  you  observe over a water area. Or if
there is  a  colour contrast  between the object under
observation and the background or  when  we observe from a
high point, or above a valley  or  if snow.

Now  the  quick evaluation of distance is not the only
habit  to acquire  but  also  to learn to estimate in one
quick  look  the surface & quantities, to evaluate weight
and time.

ARMY EVALUATION:

In the German army the rules given to judge the distances
are:

At 50m: One sees clearly they mouth and eyes of a man. / At
100m: The  eyes  look like dots. At 200m: We still see the
buttons  and the  details of the clothing. / At 300m: We
still distinguish the face  of  a man. At 400m: We see the
legs moving. / At  500m.  we still can distinguish the
colour of the uniform.

ON THE MOVE: 

Having  chosen a course and planned a route, you MUST be
able  to maintain direction, to match your progress to the
type of terrain and  the  nature  of  the  survival group,
and  to  exploit  any techniques that make progress easier.

This  selection deals with skills needed on the move.  It
should read  in  conjunction  with the techniques described
earlier  in Climate.

Careful  reconnaissance may be necessary to  choose  the
easiest routes-which may not be the obvious or the quickest ones.

Groups MUST be organised to suit the least able or provision
made for carrying them.

Waterways can offer the easiest routes to move along, if
they are easily  navigable and you are able to construct a
raft. They  can also present formidable barriers if they lie
across the route you have to follow.

Rivers can be dangerous. You MUST learn to assess the
hazards they present and select the best places and  methods
of crossing, if crossing is unavoidable.

Whether setting off on a hunting expedition or beginning the
trek back to civilization, you will need skills in
negotiating terrain and in navigation-either to ensure your
return to camp or to keep to  your  chosen route.

Even if you do not have a map,  your  own reconnaissance
will  have established  your  immediate  terrain. Guessing
what is beyond is much more problematic if you  have  to
assess it yourself.

On  short  expeditions  take note of  the  terrain  as  you
move outwards to ensure that you can find your way back to
camp.  Over short distances physical features will be your
guide and you  can also mark your trail, but when going
further or striking back  to civilization you will need all
the navigational aids available

THE DECISION TO MOVE:

Except  when  local dangers or the need to find  water  and
food makes  it  imperative that you move away from the  site
of  your accident to make camp, you will stay close in the
hope of rescue. If  you have injured persons and only
limited food and water,  it would  make  sense to send a
party to contact help  while  others stay to care for the sick.

The  fittest  and most able should be chosen to  make  the
trek. Unless  they  include a trained medic, who would  stay
with  the sick.

IF NO RESCUE THEN WHAT?:

But   what  if  no  rescue  comes?  Local  resources  may
become exhausted: you go farther each day to collect
firewood, the  game in  the  area has gone, plants, fungi,
fruits and nuts  are  more difficult to find or require long
forays out of camp.

Under  survival  conditions there is also an  increased
risk  of disease  from  staying  too  long in one  place.

Even  with  the strictest  sanitary  management the chance
of  disease  gradually builds  up. All these will be
pressing you to move. Whether  that be  a  move to new
territory or the beginning of a trek  back  to civilization.

Many  of the same problems will occur and since there are  a
few situations so idyllic that survivors will prefer their
new  life to  their old-it would be sensible to plan any
move as the  first stage of the journey out. The exceptions
will be where there  are still  sick people on their way to
recovery, or better  resources are needed to provision a
push through alien territory.

A  move to a more comfortable camp in a more hospitable area
will provide better chances' recovery for the injured or
sick and  the chance to build up and the necessary surplus
and equipment  ready for  the final trek.  

Deciding which way to go will be influenced by  all the information 
you have been able to  gather,  by  the fitness  and  endurance
of the party and by  the  nature  of  the terrain.

ALWAYS REMEMBER THAT THE MOST DIRECT LOOKING ROUTE MAY NOT
BE THE EASIEST TO TRAVEL.

If  you  have a map or a clear idea of your location make
for the nearest known settlement. If you have no idea where
you are  then the  best course is usually to follow
waterways  DOWNSTREAM,  for they  will  be  clearly  define
a route  and  generally  lead  to populated areas.

Even  if you are simply changing the location of your camp
there is  no point in just moving a mile away-as you will
soon have the same problems that made you decide to leave
your first camp.

The territory will not be entirely fresh. Move two or three
days' journey  at  least  so that fuel, flora and  fauna
will  all  be undisturbed.  Although  you may expect similar
resources  to  be available, as long as you are travelling
through similar terrain.

REMEMBER  that you have been hunting and foraging with
experience of where things are best found or trapped and
with known supplies of  fuel & water.

You will have to find your basic needs in new territory  
and when you move into different terrain availability may 
change dramatically for better or worse.

PREPARATIONS:  (BEFORE YOU GO!)

1)  Before you finally abandon camp leave signs that will
make it clear  you have been there & have moved on and where
did you  go. Leave  a message giving a list of who is in the
party and details of your intentions.

2)    Mark the trail as you proceed so that if searchers do
find the original camp they will be able to follow you.

3)    Build up a stock of preserved food, make water bottles
and larger containers  too  if  you  envisage  crossing
waterless territory,  litters or other means of transporting
any  remaining sick, the old or very young.

4)   Make suitable foot-coverings & clothing for everyone &
packs to carry equipment & supplies.

5)    Some  form of transport may be possible- a sledge or
raft. Take  shelter  material  with you cloth,  canvas,
ponchos,  even sticks  if  they are likely to be scarce in
the terrain  you  are crossing.

6)    A  shelter  which can be quickly re-erected  will
conserve energy  for  more  urgent gathering than  roofing
materials  and supports.

7)    Naturally you will take signalling gear, for you  may
find and  opportunity  to  make  that vital contact  that
will  bring rescue.

8)   Study weather patterns carefully to choose a time for
travel when the weather is likely to be settled.

HUDSON BAY PACK:

A  comfortable  and easily improvised way of carrying
equipment, this  needs strong and preferably waterproof
material about  90cm (1  yard)  square, 2 small stones and
cord or thonging more  than long enough to loop across the body.

Place  stones in diagonally opposite corners of the  cloth.
Fold ends  of  the  cloth  over  stones. Tie cord  below
the  stones, securing them in position.

The  stones in turn prevent the cord slipping off. Lay
cloth  on the  ground and roll possessions up tightly. Wrap
pack around the body, either across the back or around the waist.

BACK-PACK FRAME:

Make  a ladder frame to fit against your back, with a right
angle projection at the bottom secured by side struts.

Add shoulder straps and a belt loop. Use this to support a
bag, a bundle of supplies or equipment tied into place.

FORK FRAME:

A  quicker but less efficient support can be made from  a
forked bough with cross-pieces to which baggage can be tied.

BABY BAG:

Carry  babies  and small children papoose style on your
back  or front.  Tie  lower  corners of a rectangle of
cloth  around  the waist,  pop  in the child and tie the
upper corners  around  your neck. Pad at neck to ease the
pressure or chafing

CARRYING PEOPLE:

Pick-a-back  and  firefighter's lift are impracticable  for
long distances  and  stretchers are difficult  to  handle.
Sit  small children on a back-pack frame or make carrying
chairs on poles to be  borne  by several people. If you are
alone, try a  sledge  or travois. Equipment can be carried
the same way.

MAKING A SLEDGE:

Sledges  are particularly useful on snow and ice, when they
will move most smoothly, but also be used on smooth ground.

THE SHAPE OF FRONT RUNNERS IS CRITICAL, ESPECIALLY ON SNOW.

You can make use of doors and cowlings from a crashed
aircraft or vehicle in the construction. Tie lines to the
front runners  with a bowline to the people hauling-ideally
two at the front, and two at  the  rear as brakemen on
gradients or slope. Test  thoroughly before using a long trek.

Choose  2 forked branches and remove one side of each fork.
Make smooth  for the runners and lash on cross members.

Alternatively, choose  2  longer supple runners. Bend and
brace as  shown.  This arrangement  keeps the lashing off
the ground  and  may  be  more comfortable for an injured
person. Whichever methods you use, add at least one diagonal
for strength.

PLANNING:

If  you  are on very high ground, above a large plain, it
may  be possible  to  plot  out  a  route with some
precision.  In  most situations'  visibility will be
restricted and you will  have  to guess what is over the
farthest ridge and what occupies the  dead ground ahead.

Even  when you can see the terrain ahead it is difficult  to
see the details. What looks like a manageable slope may
prove to be a barrier when you get closer to it. If you have
them, make a  good use of field glasses in studying every
potential route.

To see farther you may consider climbing a tree-but keep
close to the trunk and test every branch before risking your
weight on it. This is NO time to risk a fall.

FOLLOWING RIVERS:

Following  a  watercourse,  however  small,  offers  a
route  to civilisation  and a life-support system on the
way.  Most  rivers lead eventually to the sea or great
inland lakes. Apart from  the rare  exception where rivers
suddenly descend beneath the  earth, they offer clearly
defined routes to follow.

Sometimes,  in  their upper reaches, they may cut through
gorges and  it  can  be impossible or inadvisable to take a
route  along their banks, which may be steep, rocky and
slippery. In that case take  to high ground and cut off the
bends, following the general course of the stream.

On  more  level ground a river is easier to follow and  may
well have  animal  trails  beside it that you  can  use.  In
Tropical conditions the vegetation is likely to be denser by
the river-for the  light  can  reach below trees, & the
banks may  be  hard  to negotiate.

If  the  river  is  wide  enough it would  be  worth
considering building a raft.

Even  if  there  is no bamboo, which makes an ideal raft-
building material,  there are likely to be sound fallen
trees for  timber. When, on flat plains, a river makes huge
meanders, the inside  of the loops may be swampy and prone
to flooding.

You  can  recognise such very wet ground by the lushness  of
the vegetation and rush like plants. Avoid marshy areas if
you can, & cut across the loop.

MAINTAINING DIRECTION:

Having  decided upon a direction, try to maintain  it.
Choose  a prominent  feature in the distance and keep
heading  towards  it. Travelling through forests makes
orientation very difficult and a compass becomes a valuable asset.

If you are in a featureless territory, but in a group of
three or more,  separate to follow each other at wider
intervals and  look back frequently. If you are following in
each other's track those behind you will be directly behind
each other.

If  the  party  ALWAYS moves in relay-one moving  on  ahead
then resting  while everyone else moves up from the rear-the
straight line  will  be  maintained. On your own  you  can
try  to  align yourself  by  looking backwards at your own
tracks  if  they  are visible, as they are likely to be on
snow or sand.

Better  still,  you  can  set up sticks or  piles  of
stones  in alignment with each other so that you can check
that you are  not deviating from your route.

If  possible  skirt rocky outcrops and areas of dense
vegetation and  once on high ground, stick to it until
certain that you have found  the spur down which you can
make the best progress in  the desired direction.

MOVING IN GROUPS:

ALWAYS  move  in an organised manner, in some kind of
formation, and  not as an unruly gaggle. This way it will be
easier to check that no stragglers have been left behind and
to ensure that there is help for anyone in difficulty.

Before setting out for the day, have  a  briefing to discuss
the route, any obstacles expected  & any special procedures.

DIVIDE RESPONSIBILITIES:

One  person becomes a scout, responsible for selecting  the
best route, avoiding dead falls, loose rocks, etc. & finding
the  best way  down a slope. Number two is responsible for
making sure  the scout  who will be preoccupied with
skirting obstacles, maintains correct overall direction.

Others  should relieve them frequently, for the lead scout's
job in particular is very tiring.

The  rest  of  the party should keep their eyes open  for
edible plants, berries and fruits and everyone should be
responsible for at  least  one  other person to ensure that
no one drops  by  the wayside.

A  head  count and check on everyone's condition are
particularly important  after a river crossing or
negotiating  a  particularly tricky  stretch  of  terrain.
Someone should  initiate  equipment checks at frequent
intervals. (Every pit stop!)

ALWAYS TRAVEL IN AT LEAST PAIRS.

And  be  especially careful in bad weather, and if  you
have  to travel at night, that you do not get split up.

IT  IS  USUALLY THE PERSON IN FRONT WHO GETS SPLIT OFF FROM
THE GROUP.

People are more likely to REMEMBER to look for the stragglers.

The  scout  climbs over an obstacle, the second person  sees
the scout  struggling and then sees an easier route to take-
the  rest of  the  party follows and the lead person is
separated from  the group.

This is when the benefit of everyone knowing the proposed
route  &  nominating  prominent features  as  rallying
point  is apparent. If separated or in an emergency everyone
knows where to regroup.

Availability  of water, fuel and plants may be an
indication  of what  is  available in similar locations
farther  ahead.  An  eye should ALWAYS be open for places
that offer good shelter. If  the weather suddenly turns bad
you can backtrack to one of them.

PACE AND PROGRESS:

A   large  group  can  send  an  advance  party  ahead  with
the responsibility for clearing the route and setting up the
night's camp, ready for the slower-moving injured or less
able.

A  clear  trail will make the carrying of baggage and  any
unfit person  much  easier. Sick and injured should  be
provided  with fully fit escorts in case they encounter any
difficulties. Ensure that  the lead person in the party does
not go too fast for those behind.  After an obstacle waits &
allows everyone  to  catch  up before moving on.

IT  IS  BEST TO TRY TO MAINTAIN AN EVEN PACE. SMOOTH
PENDULUM  -LIKE  MOVEMENT TIRES THE LEGS LESS THAN A JERKY
PACE  OR  FLEXING THE KNEES.

It  helps  to  swing the arms and they should  certainly
not  be pushed in the pockets, especially when going up or
down hills for if  you  then  slip  you  have less chance or
stopping  yourself falling or sliding.

REST FREQUENTLY, WHETHER IN A PARTY OR ALONE:

Stop,  sit down and see how everyone is doing. Adjust loads
that are  uncomfortable and repack them if need be. On
average take  a break  of 10 minutes every 30-45 minute,
depending on the terrain and condition of the group.

On  steep  ground the pace should be shortened,  on  easy
ground lengthened. On  descents  avoid  overstepping for
this  jars  the  body  and increases fatigue.

On steep or slippery ground ropes can provide a hand-hold to
help people negotiate a particularly tricky stretch. (Quite
apart from abseiling and other climbing techniques.) They
will be  an  asset on scree, as much as on icy slopes.

You can also use a line with Prusik knots (see knots)
attached so that  the  young and aged can be tied to a fixed
rope  for  extra safety.  In  estimating distances you have
covered  allow  3  km (under 2 miles) per hour, but going
uphill knock off a third.

WALKING AT NIGHT:

Negotiating unknown territory at night can be very
dangerous, but may be necessary in an emergency, or there
are circumstances-into the desert for instance-when it may
be more comfortable to travel at night.

The  night  is  NEVER completely dark and outdoor vision  is
not totally lost, even for a man.

However,  because it is difficult to see things clearly  you
are easily  disoriented, which leads to a feeling of  being
lost.

A compass  is  a great help in maintaining a heading and
dispelling any  such fears. It is ALWAYS darker among trees
than out in  the open. So keep to open country if you can.

NIGHT VISION:

WHEN  LOOKING AT AN OBJECT AT NIGHT IT'S BEST TO LOOK AT ONE
SIDE OF IT THAN DIRECTLY AT IT.

It  is  difficult to distinguish anything in a dark central
mass but  the edges show more clearly and in poor light
objects at the edges of your vision are often seen more
distinctively. Once  the eyes  get accustomed to the dark,
more and more is seen as "night vision" is acquired.

IT  TAKES  ABOUT 30-40 MINUTES FOR THE EYES TO GET
ACCUSTOMED  TO THE DARK.

Once  this  is  achieved the eyes MUST be protected  from
bright light or the night vision will be impaired for quite
a while.  If there  is an unavoidable reason for having to
use a light,  cover one eye so that the vision in that eye
at least will be retained.

If  for instance, you need to consult a map, a red filter
over  a torch  will help you retain your night vision. The
ears are  good sensors in the dark-the sound of a river for
instance, provides a good guide to how fast it is flowing.
Vegetation can be smelt  in the dark and familiar smells can
aid identification.

WALK  SLOWLY IN THE DARK & TEST EACH STEP BEFORE PUTTING ALL
YOUR WEIGHT FORWARD.

If going down a slope use a shuffling step.

UPLAND TRAVEL:

In  mountainous  and hilly country it is best  to  keep  to
high ground-it  makes navigation easier. Rivers may be  in
steep-side gullies  and  have  rapids, falls, and slippery
rocks  that  are difficult  to  negotiate on foot. You could
end  up  spending  an unhealthy length of time in the water.

Use  spurts  to climb out of valleys & get on to the
ridges.  If they  are very exposed you may have to drop down
into the valleys for  shelter at night and to find water but
you will be  able  to cover  more ground than by negotiating
the spurs.  It is  NO  USE following a river as it winds in
deep valleys through very  hilly country.

By  climbing from the valley  and following the ridge, steep
and tiring  descents  & climbs are avoided. At night  halt
is  taken dropping  down  to the first available water
source.  This  could provide  shelter  too,  which may be
unavailable  on  an  exposed ridge.

Be  aware of fading light and your own flagging energy. Look
for shelter  before they are exhausted. Do not go down to
the  valley bottom  if  you can find shelter and water on
the way.  Not  only will you save energy,  you may be
warmer. Pockets of cold air are quite often trapped in the
bottom of valleys.

If  you  carry water and shelter materials, stay on high
ground, choosing  the  most sheltered spot or nearest
Holiday  Inn?  The route  follows  the ridge farther before
dropping down  into  the widening main valley to follow the
watercourse again. Follow  the tip of a spur to go down into
the valley when a river gets larger and the valley opens out.

STEEP SLOPES:

In  mountainous country and on high hills, snow and  ice
may  be encountered, and even without them such country can
be  dangerous with  loose  scree,  steep  slopes and  crags
that  have  to  be negotiated.  Traverse steep slope in
zigzag  and  as  you  change direction ALWAYS set off with
the uphill foot.

This avoids having to cross your legs over each other, which
can make you lose balance. When climbing steep slopes lock
your knees together  after  each  step. This rests the
muscles.  Descending steep  slopes, keep your knees bent.

Try to go straight down  and if you are picking up too much
speed, sit back.

Avoid  loose rocks and scree but, if you have to negotiate
loose surfaces,  it  helps  to dig in the heels  and  lean
back  while descending.

IN CLIMBING TEST EVERY FOOTHOLD BEFORE PUTTING YOUR WEIGHT
ON IT.

Don't  step on stones or logs on steep slopes, they may
dislodge. With practice it is possible to jump down loose
ground-dig in the heels  and  slide-provided that there are
no sudden drops  below. Keep the feet square and shoulder-
width apart & allow yourself to slide.

As  you increase in speed, dirt will build up under your
feet and you  will  loose control. Jump and start again. If
the  slope  is very  steep abandon this method - abseiling
(rappelling)  is then the answer.

JUNGLE TRAVEL:

In  dense jungle you may have to cut your way through if
there is no  way of going round. Chop downwards and as low
as possible  at the  stems on both sides so that they fall
away from the path you are making, not across it.

Avoid  leaving spikes standing, bamboo points can  be
lethal  if someone  stumbles. High growth and creeper can
often  be  cut  & travelled  over. Jungle vegetation seems
to be covered in  thorns and  spikes.  You may have to twist
and turn to avoid  vegetation that seems to surround you.

Rushing only makes it worse. Those types of the climbing
atap and rattan,  that are known as nanti sikit "wait a
while." In  Malaya and similar names elsewhere, they have
thorns like fish-hooks  at the  end  of the leaf.

When snared by them you MUST back off  and untangle. Do not 
try to tear through wait-a-while vine,  it  will strip you or
her naked. You will soon see why it got its name!

However  it  has  many uses and rattan is one of best  of
jungle water  vines.  Keep  feet covered to protect  them
from  sapling spikes, snakes & chigoes or (chiggers) (not
check-hers!)?!). Stop frequently to remove parasites.

Chigoes ignored for more than  an hour or so will cause
infection.  (Ouch!)

THE MOST ENERGY SAVING WAY TO CLIMB A SLOPE:

50 degree angle and bend down so low that your hands nearly
drag in the snow and do it in zigzag.

