
BRAMBLES(blackberries & raspberries)

SYMPTOMS                POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROL AND COMMENTS

Plants wilt; leaves      -Dry soil               -Supply water
turn yellow at bottom    -Water-logged soil      -Improve drainage
of plant                 -Root knot (nematode    -Rotate; soil fumigation
                          problem)              

Ripening berries         -Fungal fruit rot       -Use registered fungicide
covered with tufts        (any of several)        pick berries regularly and
of gray, green, white                             immediately
or black moldy growth     

White or tan spots       -Anthracnose (fungal    -Use registered fungicide
with purple borders       disease)                in early spring and fall; 
appear on canes; canes                            prune out old canes
die

Leaves curl downward     -Leaf curl (virus       
leaves smaller than       disease)               
normal; internodes                                   
shorter than normal                                       
                         -Aphids                  -Look for clusters of small
                                                  gray insects on undersides
                                                  of leaves; control with
                                                  registered insecticide
                         -Herbicide injury

Blister-like reddish     -Rust disease           -Resistant varieties; remove
orange pustules develop   (fungal disease)        and destroy affected plants;
develop on lower leaf                             remove nearby wild brambles
surfaces 

Insects feeding inside   -Cane borer             -Sanitation; destroy infested
cane                                              canes
A SMALL-SCALE AGRICULTURE ALTERNATIVE

                               BRAMBLES

     Few crops are as well suited for small-scale agriculture as the
brambles--raspberries and blackberries.  Significant production can be
achieved on just a few acres and berries are in great demand, not only
for fresh eating but for desserts, jams and jellies, and wine.  

     Raspberries and blackberries are very high in fiber, vitamin C,
phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium and have more calcium than any
other temperate fruit. 

     Exquisite flavor, high nutritive value, and an exotic image push
brambleberry prices to $1 per half pint in rural areas and $5 in urban
centers.  With yields of about 5,000 lbs. per acre, a gross return of
more than $13,000 per acre can be realized even with the lower price.  

     A wide variety of brambles includes summer-bearing red
raspberries (fruiting occurs on second year canes), first to market--
usually in late June or early July.  Next are black and then purple
raspberries.  Blackberries (including Loganberries and Boysenberries)
and blackberry-raspberry hybrids (e.g., Tayberries) ripen from late
July through August.  

     Finally, from late August through frost, red raspberries are
again available from varieties that produce on the tops of first year
canes.  A few raspberry cultivars have yellow fruit.  

     In all but the most severe climates, a grower can select bramble
types that continuously supply the market from late June through frost.

     The challenges are many.  Brambles need much labor.  Canes must be
annually pruned and trellised; this cannot be done well mechanically.  

     FRESH MARKET FRUIT MUST BE HAND-HARVESTED AND SOLD SOON AFTER
PICKING.  Raspberries and blackberries have the shortest shelf life of
any temperate fruit; only special care can maintain quality.  

     Few commercial growers have more than 5 acres in production; and
even this requires excellent management.


ASSESS RESOURCES FIRST

     Potential growers should assess natural, capital, and human
resources and likely markets before considering brambles.  Climate
largely determines which types can be grown.  Cold winters limit
northern ranges; lack of adequate chilling during dormancy limits
southern ranges.  In general, blackberries are more adapted to
southern and raspberries to northern climates.  





     The coastal Pacific Northwest offers an ideal climate--with
winters and summers that are usually mild.  Brambles can be severely
injured when temperatures drop rapidly between late fall and early
spring.  

     In most areas, special sites and cultivars are required.
But the many cultivars will allow growers to produce at least one
variety of bramble fruit.  Local county cooperative extension agents
can recommend varieties for a particular area.

     Important for brambles is a well-drained soil.  Many varieties
are extremely susceptible to diseases in cool, wet soils. Artificial
drainage is usually a sound investment.  

     Although raspberries and blackberries do not tolerate wet soils,
neither do their relatively shallow root systems bear drought.  Drip
irrigation, with a good water source, is generally needed.  See
"Trickle Irrigation in the Eastern United States" ($3.25), NRAES-4,
Northeast Region Agricultural Engineering Service, 152 Riley-Robb Hall,
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, and "The Basis of Trickle
Irrigation," VC-23-82, Univ. of Illinois Cooperative Extension Service,
Urbana, IL 61801.

     The site should allow cold air to drain; in northern areas,
northeast slopes minimize temperature fluctuations until spring.  

     Prior cropping history is important; weeds and vegetable crops
can harbor verticillium wilt disease to which many brambles are
susceptible.  Growers should identify land for rotation before
replanting old fields.  

     If the crop is to be marketed on a pick-your-own basis, parking
space must be available nearby.  

     Regarding capital needs, it usually takes more than $6,000 an
acre to establish brambles.  Total investment may be recovered within 6
years, according to Mark Castaldi's "The Cost of Establishing and
Producing Small Fruits for Pick-Your-Own and Commercial Harvest" ($3),
Department of Fruit and Vegetable Science, Cornell University, Ithaca,
NY 14853.  

     University of New Hampshire economists have developed a bramble
crop budgeting template for Lotus software and a manual (NCS-30, $30),
NRAES, 152 Riley-Robb Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853.   

     "Farming Alternatives: A Guide to Evaluating the Feasibility of
New Farm-Based Enterprises" ($5.50), NRAES-32, Riley-Robb Hall,
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, a workbook, can help small-
scale growers decide whether to invest.  

     Labor needs, very inconstant, are a major factor. In full
production, each acre may need 10 pickers.  State and Federal labor
laws must be adhered to.  See "Agricultural Employers Notebook," ($14)
from Cornell Cooperative Extension, P.O. Box 217, Alton, NY 14413.  


MARKET ASSESSMENT

     Fruit growers should explore potential markets before investing. 
Prices can vary considerably with supply, location, demographics, and
time of year.  Eastern prices are generally higher than those in the
West; the large Washington-Oregon processing industry can depress
prices.  In the South, many consumers won't pay prices listed for
exotic produce.  

     Dale Stokes, former president of the North American Bramble
Growers Association, says MARKET IDENTIFICATION IS THE MOST IMPORTANT
COMPONENT OF SUCCESS.

     Pick-your-own (PYO) is popular for marketing because it reduces
harvest labor costs.  Successful PYO operators link entertainment with
harvest; many customers view picking as recreation.  

     Westmoreland Berry Farm, outside Washington, DC, markets
blackberries both PYO and retail.  The typical customer buys $18 to
$20 worth of fruit.  The farm is within 2 hours' drive of three
marketing outlets--Washington, Richmond, and Baltimore, ideal for PYO. 
Owners Charles and Anne Geyer say their first 2 acres of blackberries
grossed over $30,000 in their third year.

     Supermarkets often buy fruit from a grower to bypass a warehouse. 
Such growers must pay much attention to quality and consistency,
packing and cooling fruit soon after picking to extend shelf life.

     Some restaurants pay top dollar for fresh raspberries and
blackberries but each restaurant uses only a relatively small quantity
and deliveries cost time and gasoline.

     Roadside stands can be popular but a diverse selection of items
may be needed to justify a stand.  Many growers sell to others' stands.

     Besides fresh fruit, a small-scale grower can produce value-
added jelly, juice, wine, syrup, or candy.  In St. Louis, Bissinger's,
a small candy store, chocolate-coats raspberries in summer, hardly
keeping up with demand at $32 a pound.  

     Sand Hill Berry Farm in Pennsylvania markets a gourmet raspberry
vinegar--raspberries, apple cider vinegar, and sugar.  The Tomasello
Winery in New Jersey finds its raspberry wine popular.  

     Liquor Store magazine reports raspberry will be the next flavor
rage.  Raspberry-flavored products are leading sellers at many outlets. 
Whistling Wing Farms in Maine sells raspberry products, such as jelly
and syrup, all over the world by mail order.  Its bakery does well
selling raspberry pies, muffins, and turnovers.  Opportunities are
limited only by imagination.





SITE PREPARATION

     With adequate resources and an identified market, a grower needs a
year to prepare a planting site.  Certain changes are difficult if not
impossible to make once a planting is established.  

     First comes an adequate drainage and irrigation system.  USDA's
Soil Conservation Service (SCS) may help.  

     Second, perennial weeds should be eliminated through repeated
cultivation (as with an organic-enhancing cover crop), herbicides, or
soil sterilization.  

     Third, potential nematode populations should be assessed and
controlled.  Nematodes not only can damage plants directly but carry
viruses that can decimate plantings.  They are more of a problem in
warmer climates and in lighter soils.

     Fourth, adjust the soil chemistry for adequate nutrients and 
a 6.5 pH--best for brambles.  Soil testing varies among laboratories;
each has its recommendations for phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, and
calcium.  Tests may point to peculiar soil conditions.  Lime or sulfur
can adjust the pH value; a year or more may be required for amendments
to effectively change soil chemistry.  


OBTAINING PLANTS

     In the early 1900's, viruses destroyed a thriving U.S. bramble
industry in the East.  Uninfected plant materials were unavailable for
propagation.  But in the 1970's, nurseries, applying tissue-culture
techniques, produced brambles without harmful viruses or exposure to
diseases.  

     Nurseries offering tissue-cultured brambles include Ahren's
Strawberry Nursery, RR 1, Huntingburg, IN 47542; Congdon & Weller,
Mile Block Rd., North Collins, NY 14111; North Star Gardens, 19060
Manning Trail North, Marine, MN 55047; Nourse Farms, Inc., Box 485 
RFD, S. Deerfield, MA  01373;  and Champlain Isle Agro Associates,
Isle La Motte, VT 05463.  

     Never propagate brambles from a neighbor's patch; infection with
viruses from nearby wild brambles is likely.

     The performance of cultivars varies considerably with location.  

     A high demand exists for yellow (golden) raspberries, but plants
seem more susceptible to diseases than traditional red raspberries.   








CULTURAL PRACTICES 

     The most complete reference is "Bramble Production Guide," $35,
NRAES-35, Riley-Robb Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853.  It
notes how each type must be treated differently.

     Federal and State researchers recently have learned that:

     *  Plants propagated from tissue-culture, although vigorous and
virus-indexed, are sensitive to herbicides normally applied at
planting.  A straw mulch during the planting year or planting through
black plastic may be better than conventional herbicide weed control.

     *  Spreading fruiting canes apart in the row in a V-
configuration significantly improves fruit yield and hastens drying
within the plant canopy and makes spraying and harvesting easier.

     *  New trellising systems for mechanical harvesting include use of
monofilament nylon wire as strong as metal but not conductive of
lightning.  (Amberg's Nursery, 3164 Whitney Road, Stanley, NY 14561, is
a distributor.)  

     *  Although raspberries are not widely grown in the South,
displaced northerners will demand fresh fruit.  Some recently
developed southern blackberries include several erect types--no
trellises needed--such as Arkansas' recently released thornless
Navaho.    

     *  A combination of first year cane suppression, plus mowing half
the planting every other year, can bring yields equal to conventional
annual intensive pruning and fruiting.  This also reduces labor and
spray costs--half the cost of planting fruits in any one year.

     *  Using a floating row cover in early spring over fall-bearing
raspberries, such as Heritage, accelerates cane growth and yields. 
Covers in the north can minimize damage from frosts.

     *  Inoculating brambles at planting with new strains of
particular soil fungi and bacteria may prevent subsequent harmful
infection.

     *  A combination of rapid cooling after harvest, storage of fruit
near 30 oF, and maintaining high humidity and carbon dioxide in the
storage room prolongs shelf life.


PEST PROBLEMS

     Among pests, of most concern are viruses that can be transmitted
by aphids, leafhoppers, nematodes, or even bees carrying pollen from
wild brambles.  See "Virus Diseases of Small Fruits," ($20), Ag
Handbook #631, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.




      Water or high humidity is essential for infection by most
disease organisms, so proper pruning and trellising for good air
drainage cuts disease pressure.  Since most root diseases require
standing water to complete their life cycle, good soil drainage
minimizes these problems. 

     Several insects attack bramble canes, flowers, fruit, and leaves. 
Responsible growers scout plantings regularly, applying insecticides
only when pests reach damaging levels.  Avoiding locations near insect
habitats helps.

     The American Phytopathological Society has a "Compendium of
Raspberry and Blackberry Diseases and Insects," describing with
colored photographs many bramble problems--such as herbicide injury
and nutritional deficiencies.  ($25, APS, 3340 Pilot Knob Road, St.
Paul, MN 55121)   


ORGANIZATIONS AND NEWSLETTERS

     The North American Bramble Growers Association provides helpful
information.  Membership is $45 plus $5 per acre up to a maximum of 7
acres.  (Richard Fagan, Executive Secretary, Rt. 2 Box 539, Cumberland,
MD 21502)  

     Other sources of newsletters on small fruit crops: Bernadine
Strick, Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, OR 97331; Paul Otten, 19060 Manning Trail North, Marine on
St. Croix, MN 55047-9723; Fruit Extension Secretary, Department of
Fruit and Vegetable Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853.  

                                   * * *

Prepared by Marvin P. Pritts of the Department of Fruit and Vegetable
Science, Cornell University, and George B. Holcomb of the Office of
Public Affairs, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), for USDA's
Office for Small-Scale Agriculture (Howard W. "Bud" Kerr, Jr., Program
Director).  OSSA's address: Cooperative State Research Service, USDA,
Room 342-D, Aerospace Building, Washington, DC 20250-2200.  (Telephone:
202-401-4640 or Fax: 202-401-5179)


Mention of commercial enterprises or brand names does not constitute
endorsement or imply preference by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
   
August 1991
                      'BERRY' GOOD NEWS


    The information that follows is condensed from an article
in the March, 1990 Organic Gardening. It concerns a new var-
iety of strawberry called day-neutral.

    As their name implies, day-neutrals are not as sensitive
to the summer daylight that cuts off production of June-
bearers and curbs everbearers. While it is true that June-
bearers produce bigger berries during their short growing
season, day-neutrals can eclipse their cousins with a steady
output of smaller but equally succulent berries over 3 sea-
sons (with yields equal to & usually surpassing other var-
ieties).

    Interest in this new type of strawberry was slow to
develop at first, since many growers didn't know how to
handle them. "They demand more attention because they can
produce fruit throughout the summer" says Jan Stokesbary of
Nourse Farms in South Deerfield, Mass. "They also need more
water & fertilizer."

    "Because they flower all summer long" she states, "they
are also more susceptible to insects (particularly the
tarnished plant bug)." Although they are often listed as
everbearers in many catalogs, they are a different type
entirely. Ever-bearers basically produce 2 crops a year: a
traditional one in spring and another smaller crop in the
fall.

    Phillip Ahrens, owner of Ahrens Strawberry Nursery in
Huntingburg, Indiana says TRIBUTE & TRISTAR are the dominant
day-neutrals favored for home gardeners virtually everywhere.
Introduced in 1981, these sister plants - bred from the same
wild parents - are prefixed with a 'Tri' because they yield
fruit in 3 of the 4 seasons. Their hardy mountain ancestry
predisposes them for all but the coldest areas of the East.
They also predominate in Northern & Midwestern climates as
well. "It's a function of ground level temperature" Ahrens
explains. "Lowering the temperature of the plant's crown in-
creases summer & fall productivity." In any climate, he says
a 1/2 inch layer of straw mulch in summer will help cool the
soil. "As long as you don't get into 95 + degrees temperature
you'll get yields from TRISTAR & TRIBUTE equal to or greater
than June-bearers."

    Gene Galleta (a member of the USDA team that furthered
the original research done in this area) notes that the main
tradeoff between day-neutrals & June-bearers is size. "Reg-
ular June-bearers are 10 - 14 grams per berry or about the
size of a half-dollar in diameter. Day-neutrals are 6 - 8
grams ... in a summer crop, which is about 30% smaller. But
you could still make a good shortcake ... and there's no
compromise in flavor." A distinct advantage he adds, is that
TRIBUTE & TRISTAR  are more disease- & stress-tolerant. The
plants and their root systems are larger, which makes them
more resistant to heat & moisture loss. Thus, they are a
little more tolerant to leaf and stem pests. These varieties
also show high tolerance to stele & red stele, root rot,
verticillium wilt, and leaf & stem rot. TRISTAR is more
adaptable to warmer weather, produces better-tasting fruit
and higher yields, while TRIBUTE has slightly larger,
healthy-looking berries (but these are not hard and fast
rules Galleta notes).

    Generally, day-neutral ripening in the spring lasts
approximately 30 days from open flower to mature fruit. As
temperatures rise, this drops to 21 - 23 days. Conversely, as
things cool off in the fall, it goes back up to as long as 45
- 50 days. In the spring, TRIBUTE usually weighs 10 - 12
grams per berry, with TRISTAR at 8 - 10 grams each. In the
fall, TRISTAR averages 12 and TRIBUTE 15. Ahrens estimates
that a spring planting of about 50 plants will be enough to
guarantee about 1 quart of berries every day or two during
the most productive part of the summer. "There's about a 30 -
50% gain in size during cooler temperatures," Galleta says.
"If you keep them watered and keep the bugs off, you'll get
even better than that for size. It takes a little know-how."

    The main reason the care & feeding of day-neutrals differ
from June-bearers is that day-neutrals don't produce as many
runners. They start to flower within a couple of days after
planting and don't stop until they pack it in for the winter.
Set them out as early as possible in the spring. Research
shows that the later you plant, the poorer they perform. If
you can't plant them by mid-May in the north, it may not be
worth it. Set them as close as 4 - 5 inches apart. They do
best if staggered in rows instead of next to each other,
since they apparently compete with each other.

    To prevent stunted growth, it's a good idea to pinch off
flowers for 6 weeks after initial planting to allow them to
reach sufficient size before bearing fruit. Thirty days after
that, you should be picking berries! Pinch off runners all
during the season as well, so plants will concentrate their
energy on berry production, not daughter plants. Since day-
neutrals don't produce as many runners as other varieties,
this isn't as difficult as it may sound at first.

    Soil temperature is a key to successful cultivation.
Since day-neutrals have a shallow root system, immediate
mulching (with straw, for example) helps. In warmer climates,
the recommendation is a white plastic mulch over a dark
plastic. The white plastic doesn't allow light penetration
and keeps soil temperatures below 85 degrees, while the black
plastic helps retain moisture. To protect berries from the
hot days of August, take a tip from commercial growers and
try evaporative cooling. Rig up a mist-type sprinkler and
place it in the middle of your beds. It will release a small
amount of moisture into the air, not flood them with water.
The secret is not to use it after 4 P.M. (noon to 3 P.M. is
best). This will keep them cool during the heat of the day,
but not get them so wet that diseases caused by too much
dampness might occur.

    Proper feeding is also important. Traditional straw-
berries are fertilized once a year, usually in June. Day-
neutrals prefer a slow, steady feeding of nitrogen. Add
compost, well-rotted cow manure or fish emulsion every 2
weeks or so throughout the growing season. Work a moderate
amount in the top layer of soil.

    Although many prefer to treat them as annuals, they can
be overwintered. Begin mulching in late fall (after 1 or 2
good frosts), with 1 1/2 - 2 inches of loosely applied straw
which should be removed when spring growth starts. If plants
become too dense in their 2nd & succeeding years, the size of
fruit will diminish accordingly. Thin runners enough to be
able to spot your closed fist in the growth before it touches
the crown of the plants. If you do overwinter, you should
have fruit in June. In their 2nd year, expect a flush of
berries in June, then rest in early July, coming back with
more in early August. They don't do much more for the rest of
the 2nd season.

    As mentioned earlier, the tarnished plant bug is the most
prevalent pest. It feeds on the flowers and causes the fruit
to become nubby. They tend to increase during the summer,
getting progressively worse. One defense is spunbonded-
polyester row covers on the plants when the bugs are at their
peak (at night & early morning). Another is to remove the
covers after blooms open, about midday, to encourage polli-
nation. An organic spray of sabadilla dust once or twice
weekly is also helpful. If you do, be sure to rinse them well
before eating. Ahrens says he has been able to harvest right
up until Thanksgiving by using the row covers in spring &
fall. "They are more efficient in fall than spring ... you
have a residue of warm temperature in the ground and ... get
8 - 12 degrees of protection during the cool fall evenings."
Agrinet has a new, lighter weight product than the frost
protection ones that provides an insect barrier as well. It
offers almost total light transmission and is 100% effective
at keeping the tarnished plant bug out come springtime.
Ahrens says "It's like a real fine hair net. Water trickles
right through it."

SOURCES:

Ahrens Strawberry Nursery      Brittingham's Plant Farms
RR 1                           P.O. Box 2538
Huntingburg, IND. 47542        Salisbury, MD. 21801
(812) 683-3055                  (301) 749-5153


Nourse Farms, Inc.             Stark Bros. Nurseries
Box 485 RFD                    Louisiana, MO. 63353
South Deerfield, MA. 01373     (800) 325-4180 or
                               (314) 754-4525 (in MO.)


Rayner Bros., Inc.             Allen Company
P.O. Box 1617                  P.O. Box 310
Salisbury, MD.21802            Fruitland, MD. 21826
(301) 742-1594                 (301) 742-7122
                                   
