THE ART OF ORIENTEERING
Christopher Nyerges
as written for:
Preparedness Journal,
P.O. Box 25454 Salt Lake City, UT 84125


When you mention the topic of orienteering, the eyes 
of some people just glaze over. You know who I mean 
-- the people who buy compasses but never learn how 
to use them, or the folks who did poorly in math in 
school. 
But orienteering is actually something we do every 
day. In the most general sense, it refers to the act 
of getting somewhere by utilizing all possible signposts 
-- whether natural or man-made. In the more specific 
sense, orienteering refers only to the art of using 
a map and compass. 
Let's begin with some of the more general concepts 
of orienteering. We'll work our way up to the map and 
compass.
NATURAL NAVIGATION
There are many observations that we can make in nature 
which help us to determine north, south, east and west. 
However, one generally can't rely on just one of these 
natural signs because there are always local exceptions 
to the general rules.
For example, we've all heard that moss grows on the 
north side of trees, right? But is that a fact? One 
of my teachers, Abby Keith, who involved with Search 
and Rescue teams in the Southern California area, would 
say: &quot;Yes, moss grows on the north sides of trees 
... and the east side, and the west side, and the south 
side.&quot; We'd all laugh, and he would point out 
that in a dense forest, moss can grow entirely around 
a tree, and that the value of moss as a direction finder 
is very limited. Keith would say, however, that if 
you are looking at a pine tree with moss on one side, 
in a clearing, in California, then the moss is probably 
on the north half of the tree. Still, the value of 
such information is somewhat limited.
Sometimes the tips of trees can be observed in order 
to gain a clue about your orientation. Typically, tips 
of pines and hemlocks will point to the east. This 
is due to a prevailing eastward wind which occurs at 
higher elevations. But this is not a hard and fast 
rule, and you must take all local conditions into account. 

In canyons, the stronger wind will usually be the downdraft 
at night, which generally causes the tips of the canyon 
trees to point south. This is most readily observed 
with willows and alders which grow right along streams. 
But once again, canyons aren't all in neat north to 
south lines, so you must make several such observations.
The entire sunflower family is so called because the 
flowers typically follow the sun. They will face the 
east in the morning, south at noon, and the west at 
sunset. This is certainly worth noting. Also, the compass 
plant, actually a wild lettuce within the sunflower 
family, has leaves which point north and south at mid-day. 
It actually faces the edges of its leaves to the sun 
in order to conserve moisture.
American Indians have developed volumes of weather 
lore and direction lore based upon the observation 
of plants and animals. For example, spider webs face 
generally to the south so that the spider can take 
advantage of the warmth and dryness afforded by the 
sun. Though woodpeckers will peck holes all around 
a tree, native Americans long ago observed that the 
pileated woodpecker pecks its holes predominantly on 
the eastern sides of trees.
In California where there are many hills running east 
and west, Chumash and other Indians observed that you 
could tell direction by the &quot;sound&quot; of a 
hillside. That is, the north side of such a hill would 
be very quiet to walk on. This was because that was 
the side of the hill mostly in the shade and where 
water and snow were retained. The north face of the 
hill generally had more ferns, moss, and trees and 
was easily identified. The southern face of a hill, 
on the other hand, was always exposed. There would 
be less vegetation on the south face of a hill, and 
it would be characterized by dry grass and crackling 
dry twigs.
American Indians of the past, or people who spend a 
lot of time outdoors, are often able to fairly accurately 
determine directions based on their observation of 
several of these signs.
NAVIGATION BY THE SUN
There is a simple way to determine the approximate 
time by the sun. When I was first told about this method, 
it was referred to as a &quot;Navajo&quot; method of 
reckoning time. I have since heard it attributed to 
at least a half-dozen other Indian tribes, probably 
due to the fact that this was somewhat universally 
practiced.
In fact, this method doesn't actually tell time. Rather, 
it tells you how many hours you have left until sunset.
Face the western horizon and stretch out your hand 
to the sun. Keep your arm straight but bend your hand 
so that your palm faces the sun and your fingers are 
horizontal. Tuck in your thumb. Align this one hand 
with the sun, and then bring each hand below the other 
in this fashion until you reach the horizon. Interestingly, 
four fingers equals just about the space that the sun 
travels in an hour. Thus, you can ascertain how many 
more hours until sunset, or -- in ancient terms -- 
how many hands til sunset. This method is useful when 
you need to stop work so many hours before dark, or 
when you need to stop hiking and make camp while you 
still have light. Be sure to reckon into this method 
the fact that you still have usable light for approximately 
45 minutes after the sun touches the horizon.
For directions, pioneers and Indians have long resorted 
to driving a stake into the ground. This would be done 
on flat ground on a sunny day. They would mark the 
end of the stick's shadow with a pebble. After a short 
while, they would place a second pebble at the tip 
of the new shadow. A line drawn between these two pebbles 
produces a fairly accurate east-to-west line. 
In fact, many people who work outdoors develop a natural 
sense of direction and time simply by regularly observing 
the position of the sun throughout the day. The only 
reason we have lost this ability today is that too 
many of us have simply forgotten to use our powers 
of observation when we use clocks and wear a watch. 
We have traded our skills for the toys of technology.
Indian scouts in the old days would travel in a straight 
line by locating specific landmarks, generally any 
two or three objects in a straight line along the intended 
path of travel. As each landmark is reached, you need 
to look back to make certain you're still going straight, 
and then pick out a new landmark. As simple as this 
sounds, people get lost all the time in the woods because 
they have the mistaken notion that they are able to 
&quot;naturally&quot; walk in a straight line. Usually, 
they can't or don't.
STAR NAVIGATION
Night navigation brings with it a whole new set of 
problems and challenges. For one thing, you usually 
can't see very well. However, it takes between 30 minutes 
to an hour for most eyes to adjust to the dark, enabling 
you to see in the dark as well as owls.
On the other hand, pray for a full moon.
In the northern hemisphere, the north star is probably 
the single most important star that you should learn 
to identify. Though not the brightest star in the sky, 
all other stars have an apparent rotation around the 
north star. 
The north star is located by first finding the Big 
Dipper, a group of seven stars formed like a bowl and 
handle. The bowl of the Big Dipper has two bright stars 
which are often referred to as the pointer stars because 
they lie in a straight line with the north star. The 
distance to the north star from the two pointer stars 
is approximately five times the distance between the 
two pointer stars. 
There are many other easily-recognized groups of stars 
that are worth learning to identify. The best book 
on this subject that I've found is The Stars by H.A. 
Rey.
THE MAP
OK, let's proceed to your map. For any serious work, 
you want a topographical map produced by the U.S. Geological 
Survey. Topographical maps indicate the rise and fall 
of the land by means of parallel lines. 
To get started, I recommend that you purchase a topographical 
map of your own neighborhood. Take it home and lay 
it out on a big table. Now study it. The map is akin 
to an aerial photograph wherein every picture has been 
&quot;coded&quot; for simplicity. For example, a single 
dotted line is a hiking trail, and a double dotted 
line is a dirt road. Buildings are black squares. Water 
sources, such as lakes, streams, springs, etc., are 
always in blue. 
By simply observing a topographical map, and consulting 
a key for any symbols you can't figure out, you'll 
learn a lot. 
You don't yet have a compass. What can you do with 
just your map? 
If you know your location on the map, you can find 
the easiest route to another site simply by planning 
your journey so that you stay more-or-less within the 
parallel elevation lines. This means that you will 
stay on fairly level ground. Once you align your map 
to the terrain -- a simple task of simply turning your 
map until it visually lines up with two or three prominent 
local features -- you'll be able to &quot;see&quot; 
what's beyond the distant hills. 
Not sure exactly where you are? Find two or three obvious 
tall markers, whether they are peaks, radio towers, 
water towers, etc. When you have accurately adjusted 
your map to the local terrain, take a pencil and draw 
a line on the map from each of the distant markers 
and extend it toward your presumed location. Where 
the lines cross is your location.
THE COMPASS
OK, let's assume you purchased a compass but forgot 
about the map. Bad choice! Generally, a map is much 
more useful than a compass, and a map with a compass 
is extremely useful. But a compass by itself is a bit 
limited in its usefulness.
Of course, you can determine north with the compass, 
but so what? The compass needle is pointing to magnetic 
north, not true north. This difference -- which can 
be over 15 degrees -- is referred to as declination. 
How can you determine declination in the field with 
just a compass? You can't! That's why you need a map. 

However, there are some useful functions of only a 
compass.
You can walk in a straight line using just the compass, 
and you can do this in the dark or in thick fog. And 
by simply turning your compass around, you can walk 
back in a straight line the same way you came.
THE MAP AND COMPASS
I won't kid you here. To truly master the use of a 
map and compass, you owe it to yourself to enroll in 
a college course, or purchase a good book on the subject. 
The best, in my opinion, is Be Expert With Map and 
Compass, by Kjellstrom. 
When you purchase a compass, you usually get a few 
pages of fine print describing how to use that particular 
compass, and how to use compasses in general. READ 
ALL THAT LITERATURE UNTIL YOU UNDERSTAND IT WELL ENOUGH 
TO BE ABLE TO DESCRIBE IT TO SOMEONE. This is very 
important.
The type of compass I recommend is the orienteering 
compass by Silva or Suunto. This has a rectangular 
clear plastic base, and a round movable compass housing. 
Usually, it is designed so you wear it around your 
neck on a cord. 
The compass allows you to quickly and easily align 
your map so that the top of the map is at true north, 
rather than the magnetic north at the top of your needle. 

Once you have mastered the basics of using a map and 
compass, here are some of the things you can do:
1. Find the shortest route to a particular point.
2. Find the easiest route around a mountain.
3. Chart a course to an unseen destination.
4. Chart a course that passes through various environments.
5. Choose a hiking path that allows you to stay on the 
highest ground possible.
6. Choose a hiking route that avoids as much contact 
with civilization as possible.
7. Go directly to the nearest water sources.
8. Go directly to the nearest structure.
9. Chart a safe cross-country, off-trail hike.
10. Go directly to the nearest road.
This is by no means a complete list. Once you learn 
the basic task of aligning your map with the actual 
terrain by adjusting for local declination, you'll 
be able to gain great enjoyment from your new skill.
Nyerges has been conducting Wild Food Outings and Survival 
Skills outings since 1974. A free copy of his schedule 
of classes is available from Survival Services, Box 
41834, Eagle Rock, CA 90041. He is the author of Guide 
to Wild Food ($15), Testing Your Outdoor Survival Skills 
($12), Wild Greens and Salads, and Urban Wilderness. 
He and his wife publish the Talking Leaves Newsletter.

Preparedness Journal,
P.O. Box 25454 Salt Lake City, UT 84125




