                                                 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LATIN NAME: Betula papyrifera Marshall                                                                        1
                                OTHER LATIN NAMES:                                                            1
                                COMMON NAMES:                                                                 1

                DESCRIPTION OF PLANT:                                                                         1
                                APPEARANCE                                                                    1
                                LEAVES                                                                        1
                                FLOWERS:                                                                      1
                                FRUIT/SEEDS                                                                   2
                                TWIGS:                                                                        2
                                BARK:                                                                         2
                                HABITAT                                                                       2
                                RANGE                                                                         2

                KEY TO VARIETIES                                                                              3
                                var. commutata (Regel) Fernald                                                3
                                var. papyrifera                                                               3
                                var. subcordata (Rydberg) Sargent                                             3

                SOME SIMULAR SPECIES                                                                          4
                                1. Betula glandulosa Michaux                                                  4
                                2. Betula pumila L.                                                           4
                                3. Betula neoalaskana Sargent                                                 5
                                4. Betula occidentalis Hooker                                                 5
                                5. Betula pendula Roth                                                        5
                                6. Betula pubescens Ehrhart                                                   6
                                7. Betula humilis                                                             6
                                8. Betula maximowicziana                                                      7
                                9. Betula lutea                                                               7
                                10. Betula lenta L.                                                           7
                                11. Betula populifolia Marsh.                                                 8

                CLASSIFICATION                                                                               10
                                CLASS                                                                        10
                                SUBCLASS                                                                     10
                                SUPERORDER                                                                   10
                                ORDER                                                                        10
                                FAMILY                                                                       10
                                SUB-FAMILY                                                                   11
                                TRIBE                                                                        11
                                GENUS                                                                        11

                PLANT CHEMISTRY                                                                              12
                                CONSTITUENTS                                                                 12
                                TOXICITY                                                                     13

                FOOD USES OF BIRCH                                                                           14
                                NATIVE FOOD USES                                                             14
                                EUROPEAN FOOD USES                                                           15
                                BIRCH BARK FLOUR                                                             16
                                                        BIRCH BEER:                                                      16
                                BIRCH SAP                                                                    17
                                GUMS:                                                                        18
                                LIQUEURS:                                                                    18
                                TEAS                                                                         18
                                SALID MATERIAL:                                                              20
                                WINTERGREEN OIL:                                                             20

                MEDICINAL USES OF BIRCH:                                                                     20
                                MODE OF ACTION                                                               20
                                NATIVE MEDICINAL USES                                                        21
                                EUROPEAN MEDICINAL USES                                                      23
                                RUSSIAN MEDICINAL USES                                                       27
                                CHINESE MEDICINAL USES                                                       28
                                INDIAN (AYURVEDIC) USES                                                      28
                                PREPARATION & DOSAGES                                                        28
                                COLLECTING & DRYING                                                          29
                                VETERINARY MEDICINE:                                                         29

                MATERIAL USES OF BIRCH                                                                       29
                                PREPARING THE BARK FOR USE                                                   29
                                BASKETS:                                                                     31
                                BLANKET MATERIAL:                                                            32
                                BURIAL PRACTICES:                                                            32
                                CANOE:                                                                       32
                                CHARCOAL:                                                                    34
                                COOKING CONTAINERS:                                                          34
                                COMPOST:                                                                     35
                                COSMETICS:                                                                   35
                                COVERINGS FOR DWELLINGS:                                                     36
                                CULTIVATION                                                                  36
                                DISHES AND TRAYS:                                                            37
                                DYEING                                                                       37
                                FANS:                                                                        38
                                FIREWOOD                                                                     39
                                FUNNELS OR CONES:                                                            39
                                INK                                                                          39
                                IMPLEMENTS (General)                                                         39
                                INSECT REPELLANT                                                             43
                                LUMBER:                                                                      43
                                MEAT BAG:                                                                    44
                                MUSIC INSTRUMENT:                                                            44
                                PUNISHMENT:                                                                  44
                                SMOKING MIXTURE                                                              44
                                SNOW GLASSES                                                                 44
                                STORAGE OF FOOD:                                                             44
                                TANNING                                                                      45
                                TORCHES AND TINDER:                                                          46
                                WRITING OR ART MATERIAL                                                      46

                HISTORY & BELIEFS                                                                            48
                                HISTORICAL RECORDS                                                           48
                                SPIRITUAL BELIEFS                                                            49
                                                        NOMENCLATURE:                                                    50
                                RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER LIFE-FORMS                                             50
                                INSECT AND OTHER PESTS:                                                      51
                                AGE                                                                          52

                STORIES                                                                                      53

                ILLUSTRATIONS                                                                                55

                <<WARNING>>                                                                                  56

LATIN NAME: Betula papyrifera Marshall (164-144) 

OTHER LATIN NAMES: B. papyracea (369-37); 

COMMON NAMES: 

Paper Birch, White Birch, Canoe Birch (164-144); Spool Wood (369-37); Western
Paper Birch (137-195); wi'gwasa'tig (Chippewa, 211-288); k'i (birch tree,
Carrier, 251-298); kwelh7in (birch-bark container, Lillooet, 148-57); Haawk,
Waawg (Birch tree, Tsimshian, 243-35); haawak (Birch tree, Gitksan, 358-11);
bouleau blanc (French, 435-2206); wi'gwasa'tig (Chippewa, 435-2259); wigwas
(Ojibwa, 435-2259); wuskwi (Cree, 435-2259); lhenxwmes (Kwakiutl, 150-279);
Belaya Bereza (Russian, 215-38); Tree of Life (Siberian shamanism, 208-211);
bhurja (Sanskrit, 208-218);    
DESCRIPTION OF PLANT:

APPEARANCE: Probably the most variable tree species in Canada.  A tree up to
30 m tall, with variously coloured but commonly white bark, smooth and marked
with conspicuous brown horizontally elongated lenticels, readily peeling in
sheets. Crown oval or columnar, with ascending branches.  Branchlets dark
brown even on white-barked individuals, spreading or sometimes pendulous.
Slender twigs pubescent with long hairs, and occasionally glandular. 
Juveniles with smooth brown bark. In winter distant stands appear reddish, and
streaked by the frequent white trunks. (164-144);  The shoots are hairy when
young and slightly glandular. (403-136); Large deciduous tree 30 m,
occasionally 40 m tall. (403-136); Birches are deciduous, wind-pollinated
trees with alternate, simple leaves. (403-136); A small to medium, deciduous
tree up to 15-20 m (50-65 ft) high, the young twigs usually hairy and often
glandular (137-195);  

LEAVES: Leaves ovate (4-) 5-9 cm long, doubly or simply serrate, dull-
surfaced, the undersides variously pubescent with long hairs, especially along
the midvein, with tufts of hairs in vein axils, and sometimes minutely
glandular. The foliage turns light yellow in the fall. (164-144); The leaves
ovate, 4-10 cm long, with flat or heart-shaped base (403-136); The leaf
blades, 4-7 cm (1.6-2.8 in.) long, are oval-shaped to nearly round or slightly
heart-shaped, sharply pointed, and coarsely or finely toothed.  The leaf
stalks generally exceed 15 mm (0.6 in.) in lenght (137-195);

FLOWERS: All catkins pendulous when mature.  Fruiting catkins tapering toward
ends, with strongly overlapping bracts; generally 2 together (sometimes 1)
from spur shoots with 2 or occasionally 3 leaves.  Bracts with long terminal
lobe and ascending or diverging rounded lateral lobes that are relatively
short in western forms, ciliate and puberulent. (164-144); Male and female
flowers borne on the same tree.  The male flowers are reduced to a mere two
perianth segments and two stamens.  The latter, however, are cleft, consisting
of a two-branched filament, each branch terminated by half an anther (a single
pollen sac).  The female flowers have no perianth. The pistils have two
stigmas; in the two-chambered ovary only a single ovule develops into a seed. 
In the slender male catkins there are three naked flowers to every bract. 
Only the central flower has bracteoles that unite with the bract to form a
three-lobed scale.  At maturity, in winter, the female catkins disintegrate
and the winged fruits (achenes) drop and are dispersed together with the
bracts." (403-137); The flowers are borne in separate male and female catkins,
the former long and clustered, the latter shorter and usually single (137-
195);

FRUIT/SEEDS: Samaras 3 per bract, with broad wings, the lateral samaras in a
group sometimes with 1 wing much reduced. (164-144); The male catkins are
large, up to 10 cm long when ripe.  The female catkins develop into a
structure about 5 cm long. (403-136); It is propagated by seed, sown in early
spring (March and April); in practice it is sometimes sown on snow. (403-136);
Wings twice as wide as the seed in their middle.  The catkins on stalks,
smooth, 3-5 cm long. (369-37); The catkin scales are shed with the fruits,
which are small with lateral wings (137-195); The seed readily germinates and
often makes birch a rapid colonist of abandoned or cleared land (258-12).


            NOTE: Birch seeds will not stand much drying out, and young trees are therefore
            typical of moist places.  The seeds when first shed require temperatures as high
            as 90oF. to induce sprouting; but after lying at winter temperatures for several
            months, they will in spring sometimes germinate in melting snow, a feature not
            common in woody plants. (71-116)

TWIGS: Reddish brown, slender; terminal bud, lacking except on spur shoots
which are conspicuous features: lateral buds, broadest near the base, sticky
when pressed between the fingers (71-123);

BARK: The bark when mature is reddish-brown to chalky white, usually peeling
readily in horizontal strips and separating into thin layers (137-195); Most
birches are noted for their white bark but Canoe Birch has the whitest bark of
all.  Though it is blackish brown on the young shoots, on the trunk and thick
branches it is smooth and white with prominent horizontal lenticels, and peels
off in thin layers.(403-136); At first, and usually until the tree is serveral
inches in diameter, reddish brown, then peels off to show the new white layers
beneath; eventually, entirely chalky white and peels off in papery curls; on
old trees, black near the base of the trunk." (71-125);

- 1987 Eleanor G. Viereck, Alaska's Wilderness Medicines, pg. 9. "Twigs
growing above the reach of browsing moose have a smooth bark, but the lower
ones are covered with white bumps called lenticels.  The lenticels are
believed to be associated with defense against browsing herbivores." (407-9)

HABITAT: A transcontinental forest tree, B. papyrifera may be found in dry
upland or alluvial sites. (164-144); Canoe Birch, like Silver Birch, is very
adaptable, tolerating dry as well as wet and poor soils. (403-136); Grow in
environments ranging from dry slopes to muskeg and peat bogs (305-40); Moist,
open woods along streams and lake edges from valley bottoms to moderate
elevations in the mountains (137-195); Found mostly on moist sandy soils;
especially common after fires, mixed with trembling aspen and fire cherry (71-
125);

RANGE: Canoe Birch is native to North America, its range extending from
Labrador to British Columbia and south to Pennsylvania, Michigan, Nebraska and
Montana.  It is very hardy. (403-136) Nfld., Lab., N.B., P.E.I., N.S., Que.,
Ungava Bay, Ont., Great Bear L., Yukon and Alaska, s. to Wash., Mont., Colo.,
Nebr., Minn., Pa. and N.Y. (369-37); Widespread throughout the Interior (of
B.C.), and also common in some areas of the Coastal Mainland; rare on
Vancouver Island and not found on the Queen Charlotte Islands.  At least three
varieties are distinguished in the Province (137-195); 

NOTE: Gleason and Cronquist 1963 consider it perhaps a circumboreal species
with European B. alba. (369-37).

VARIETIES: Many varieties of this species have been described, some of them
being hard to recognize.  The wide diversity in character of all parts is
further extended by frequent crossing with B. occidentalis, B. neoalaskana,
and B. pumila. (164-144); 

                                                 KEY TO VARIETIES

1a. Leaf base rounded, truncate, or cordate.  Bract with ascending lateral
lobes..................................................................... 2.

1b. Leaf oval or rhombic, cuneate at base, biserrate. Bract with lateral lobes
diverging almost at right angles from central lobe.  Mature bark white, or
yellowish- or reddish-brown or dark grey, the darker kinds tending to resist
peeling......................................var. commutata (Regel) Fernald

            Variety commutata occurs commonly in the Lower Fraser Valley and on the
            Coast, and scattered with var. papyrifera inland, and less commonly
            eastward, especially in moist areas.  The brown bark, which tends to
            peel less readily than white bark, is often associated with humid
            habitats, and may be a physiological effect of environment.  Bark colour
            was not mentioned in the orginal description of var. commutata, and its
            employment as the distinguishing feature of this variety by Fernald
            (1945) and other recent authors has led to some confusion in the
            classification of birches. At Sumas Prairie, the type locality of this
            variety, trees commonly, but by no means always, have yellowish-brown
            bark. (164-144)

            Other Latin Names:  Betula alba subsp. occidentalis (Hook.) Regel, var.
            commutata Regel; B. papyrifera var. occidentalis Sarg. (not B.
            occidentalis Hook.) B. papyrifera subsp. occidentalis Hult. (342-367)

2a. Leaf ovate, normally 5-7 cm long, rounded to truncate at base, acuminate
at apex, serrate, or biserrate.  Twig pubescent, not glandular.  Mature bark
always white........................................var. papyrifera

            Variety papyrifera is the common form across most of Canada, and occurs
            in the Interior of British Columbia. (164-144)

2b. Leaf almost circular, truncate to cordate at base, acute at apex, usually
less than 5 cm long, stiff.  Twig glandular, sparsely pubescent.  Mature bark
white or brown...............................var. subcordata (Rydberg) Sargent

                        Variety subcordata has been shown by J.R. Dugle (1966) to be an
            introgressant resulting from crossing of B. papyrifera with B.
            occidentalis. (164-144)



SOME SIMULAR SPECIES:     

1. Betula glandulosa Michaux (164-137)

       OTHER LATIN NAMES: B. nana L. var. sibirica Ledebour in part, B. nana L. ssp. exilis (Sukatschev) Hulten
       (164-137); 
       NOTE: In the "Flora of Alaska and Neighboring Territories", by Eric Hulten, Betula nana L. subsp exilis
       (Sukatsch.) Hult and Betula glandulosa Michx. are treated as separate plants entirely. (342-365)

       COMMON NAMES: Bog Birch, Dwarf Birch (164-137);

       DESCRIPTION: Ascending or spreading shrub up to 2 m high. Twigs distinctly roughened with a dense
       sprinkling of minute pale grey or yellowish, resinous wart-like glands, and inconspicuously puberulent with
       very short hairs between the glands.  Older branches and stems dark grey-brown to blackish (164-137); 
       LEAVES: Leaves nearly orbicular, sometimes wider than long, 1-2.5 cm long, rounded at the base and broadly
       rounded to truncate at apex, crenate-dentate with 10 or fewer teeth each side, and with 3 or fewer lateral
       veins each side, stiff and shiny, glandular-dotted beneath; turning deep orange in the fall (164-137);

       CATKINS: Catkins less than 10 mm long in winter, flowering with the appearance of the leaves in spring; the
       staminate catkins expanding to 1-2 cm long; the pistillate catkins erect, becoming 10-15 mm long in fruit. 
       Samara with wing less than 1/2 as wide as the central nutlet body." (164-137)

       HABITAT: A plant typically of bogs and seepage areas at low elevations, and to some extent on dry unland
       sites especially at alpine levels (164-137);

       RANGE: It ranges across the continent from the east side of the Coast and Cascade Ranges to Northwestern
       Quebec (164-137); 

       OTHER: In the fall, extensive colonies of this species become conspicuous by reason of the deep orange to
       russet colours that they assume (164-137); 

2. Betula pumila L. (164-151)

       COMMON NAMES: Dwarf Birch (164-151); Low or swamp birch (435-2259); Bouleau nain (French, 435-2259); bine
       micins (Ojibwa Pillager, 435-2259); 

       DESCRIPTION: Ascending shrub up to 3 m tall.  Stems dark brown.  Twigs pubescent, often densely so, and
       glandular or not (164-151);

       LEAVES: Leaves obovate to nearly orbicular, 1.5-3 (-4) cm long, cuneate or rounded at base, acute to obtuse
       or rounded at apex, simply crenately toothed with 10 or more teeth each side, and with 3 or 4 or more
       lateral veins each side of the midvein, tough and shiny, on short petioles up to 5 mm long; foliage turning
       deep orange in the fall (164-151);

       FRUIT: Fruiting catkins erect, single on very short spurs, 1-3 cm long.  Bract with ascending lateral lobes
       shorter than the terminal lobe.  Samara with wings narrower than, but at least half as wide as the central
       nutlet body (164-151); 
                        HABITAT: Var. glandulifera Regel is the common variety of the species in British Columbia, the typical form
       being found east of the coastal ranges (164-151);

       RANGE: This is a transcontinental species, found in bogs and other areas of poor drainage (164-151);

3. Betula neoalaskana Sargent (Alaska Birch, Northwestern White Birch):

       OTHER LATIN NAMES: B. resinifera (Regel) Britton as to description only, not type.  B. alaskana Sargent,
       not Lesquereux. [Not B. papyrifera var. humilis (Regel) Fernald & Raup, which = B. minor (Tuckerman)
       Fernald]. (164-139); Betula alba subsp. papyrifera var. humilis Regel; B. papyrifera var. humilis (Regel)
       Fern; B. papyrifera var. neoalaskana (Sarg.) Raup; B. alaskana Sarg.; B. resinifera Britt. (342-367);

       DESCRIPTION: Tree, usually 10-15, rarely up to 20 meters tall; with trunk up to 60 cm in diameter and white
       bark; young twigs strongly resiniferous; leaves yellowish-green, ovate, with elongated apex and cuneate or
       truncate base, serrate, glabrous above and in margin, resin-dotted below, with tufts of hairs in angles of
       nerves below; catkins short, thick, greenish-brown; bracts with median lobe usually longer than the blunt,
       diamond-shaped, lateral lobes; nutlets with wings broader than body. (342-367)

       RANGE: Common in the lowlands; to 800 meters in McKinley Park; to 1,200 meters in the Yukon.  Forms hybrid
       with B. kenaica as well as hybrids with B. nana subsp. exilis and B. glandulosa. (342-367)

4. Betula occidentalis Hooker (Water Birch, Black Birch):

       OTHER LATIN NAMES: B. fontinalis Sargent, B. papyrifera Marshall var. occidentalis (Hooker) Sargent. (164-
142); Betula microphylla of American authors; B. glandulosa X resinifera of Fl. Alaska & Yukon; B. commixta
       Sarg; B. Eastwoodae Sarg.; B. Beeniana Nels (342-366);

       DESCRIPTION: Dark, coppery-red to purplish-brown bark which does not separate easily into layers (137-195);
       Under this name is included a number of shrubs (or, rarely, small trees), smaller than the tree birches but
       larger than B. glandulosa, which are characterized by highly variable form and serrulation of the leaves;
       variable pubescence and short catkins; leaves that are mostly ovate and acute, often with finely pubescent
       petioles; twigs that are very densely glandular; and not uncommon occurrences of specimens lacking
       fructification." (342-366)
  
5. Betula pendula Roth (Weeping Birch, Bouleau, Common Birch, European Birch, White Birch [164-147,438-42]; White
Birch, Canoe Birch, Paper Birch [195-117]; Berke, Bereza [141-103]); Silver Birch, Bouleau blanc (French), Bouleau
verraqueux (French), Birke (German), Weissbirke (German) [439-198]; European White Birch (71-128); Lady Birch (394-
95);
       OTHER LATIN NAMES: B. alba Linn., in part.  B. verrucosa Ehrhart. (164-147); Monoecia triandria, B.
       pubescens (141-103);

       NOTE: The common birch (Betula alba; sometimes divided into the species B. pendula or silver birch
       and B. pubescens or downy birch) is a tree...found in the hilly regions of Europe, Asia and North
       America (90-222).

       APPEARANCE: Tree, up to 30 m (98') high (438-42); A small tree characterized by its papery-white bark which
       peels away in strips.  Base of trunk grey, rough; branches have small warts on their surface (439-199); The
       tree is monoecious (439-199); 

       LEAVES: Leaves are more triangular, the angles of the base being somewhat rounded (distinction from allied
       species), 4-7cm (1.5-2.75in) long with serrately toothed margin.  Taste of leaf: bitter, slightly aromatic
       (438-42); Leaves deciduous, alternate, pointed, oval, turning yellow in autumn (439-199); The leaves are
       stalked, oval or broadly triangular with a double-toothed margin.  They are 2-7 cm. long.  The young leaves
       are covered in downy hairs but the mature leaves are smooth (119-276); 

       FLOWERS: Flowers April to May (439-199); The male and female flowers are borne in separate pendant catkins. 
       The male catkins have flowers with brown bracts and yellow stamens.  The female flowers have light green
       bracts and purple stigmas (119-276);

       FRUIT: the fruit is an achene (439-199); The fruits are winged nutlets, the wing being formed from fused
       bracts (119-276);

       TWIGS: Branches often pendulous; when young bearing many minute rough and resinous scaly glands.  Free from
       hairs (in some allied species the branches are downy and not scaly)(438-42); The twigs are brown and
       covered in flat-topped resin-glands (119-276);

       BARK: with white bark marked with black (diamond-shaped) patches (438-42); The white colouring comes from
       the cells in the bark which contain a substance called betulin (119-276); The bark at the base of the trunk
       is fissured and black (119-276);

       HABITAT: Common in lowland areas; cool woods, damp soils. (439-198); Grows abundantly in open deciduous and
       coniferous forests as admixture and undergrowth, in clearings, on slopes and rocky hillsides, often with a
       ground cover of heath, from lowland to mountain elevations. Generally found on acid, sandy-loamy to sand,
       stony and peaty soils (38-86); It is found all over Europe, as well as in the Caucasus, in Siberia and Asia
       Minor.  It forms large forests in Finland and in Russia (119-276);

       RANGE: Widespread in northern and central Europe and in mountainous areas of southern Europe; common in
       woods and copses throughout Britain. (438-42); Europe, from Sicily to Iceland. Northern Asia. (141-103);
       Has long been planted in towns and gardens, across N. America (000-25); The range of distribution embraces
       Europe, the Middle East and western Siberia, south to the Altai and east to about longitude 100o E. (38-
86);

       DESCRIPTION OF B. alba:  Grows to a height of 65 feet.  It has white bark which can be peeled off in
       horizontal strips.  Its leaves are cordate, bright green above and lighter beneath, serrate, and glabrous
       or minutely hairy.  The flowers are borne in male and female catkins, the female developing into seed
       cones. (195-118). RANGE OF B. Alba: Northern U.S., Canada, and northern Europe. (195-118)

6. Betula pubescens Ehrhart (Silver Birch):

       OTHER LATIN NAMES: B. alba L., in part. (164-149)

       DESCRIPTION: Tree up to 20 m tall.  Bark silvery-grey and smooth, remaining so on nld trunks.  Branches
       ascending nr spreading.  Twigs finely, though often sparsely, puberulent with very short hairs, sometimes
       glandular.  Leav ovate, rounded to truncate or cordate, or sometimes broadly cuneate at base, acute at
       apex, puberulent beneath.  Catkins normally single, the fruiting ones 1-2 cm long.  Fruiting bracts with
       lateral lobes ascending, or sometimes recurved, rlightly shorter to longer than the terminal lobe.  Stigmas
       exceeding samara wings. (164-149)

       RANGE: Introduced from Europe as an ornamental street tree, this species is occasionally seen growing in
       the peat lands of the Fraser River delta and on southern Vancouver Island.  In the former area it is
       accompanied by B. pendula and intermediates between them, and by B. papyrifera. (164-149)

7. Betula humilis (Birch): 

                        DESCRIPTION: A Euro-Siberian species whose range extends to northern Asia and the Altai Mountains.  It
       grows on moorland an on peaty soils as a component of deciduous shrub communities. (403-134);

8. Betula maximowicziana (Maximowicz's Birch): 

       DESCRIPTION: This birch is native to Japan and was introduced into Europe around 1890.  It is only seen in
       collections and some large gardens in Britain. (403-137);

9. Betula lutea (Yellow Birch; Merisier (French, 435-2206); wi'nisik (Ojibwa, 435-2230); wi'umis'sik (Ojibwa, 435-
2259); 
       OTHER LATIN NAMES: Betula alleghaniensis Britt. (279-122, 98-47)

       DESCRIPTION: It yields high quality wood called 'American birch'.   The leaves give off a pleasant
       fragrance when rubbed between the fingers. (403-137); 

       APPEARANCE: A medium-sized forest tree, 60 to 70 ft high and 1 to 2 ft. in diameter (max. 100 by 4 ft).  In
       the forest, the trunk is relatively clear of branches and supports an irregular crown; the roots are
       shallow and wide-spreading. (71-118);

       LEAVES: Alternate (on spur shoots appearing opposite or whorled), simple, 3 to 4 in. long, 1 to 2 in. wide,
       ovate to oblong-elliptical, sharply doubly serrate, smooth above, sometimes tufted hairy below, in the vein
       axils. (71-118); Leaves have a large number of veins (11 pairs). (403-137);

       FLOWERS: Male and female borne in separate catkins on the same tree; male catkins present during the
       winter, female developing from buds the following spring. (71-118);

       FRUIT:  A minute winged nutlet (seed) borne in large numbers in an ovoid cone whose scales fall tardily
       from the axis at maturity; cone upright, about 1 1/2 in. long. (71-118)

       TWIGS: Greenish brown, slender, aromatic (oil of wintergreen); terminal bud, lacking except on spur shoots
       which are conspicuous features. (71-118);

       BARK: At first, bronze in color, thin, readily peeling in papery curls; later, changing to coarse scaly
       plates. (71-118); The bark is yellow-brown, peeling in rolls. (403-137);

       HABITAT: A cool, moist site is most typical for this tree. (71-118); Rich woodlands, lower slopes, and
       occasionally cool marshlands, usually below 1000 meters (3300 ft) elevation. (279-122)

       DISTRIBUTION: The Lake states, southern Canada, the northeast, and in the Appalachians to northern Georgia.
       (71-118); It is native to the region from Newfoundland to Manitoba and south to Georgia and Tennessee.
       (403-137); Typical component of the hardvood forests from Nova Scotia to central Ontario and extending into
       the boreal forest refion in eastern Canada (98-47);

10. Betula lenta L. (Black Birch, Cherry Birch, Mountain Mahogany, Sweet Birch [362-104]; Mahogany birch, Spice
Birch [195-118]; merisier rouge (435-2230); djo'djo'ra (Iroquois, 435-2230); winsik (Ojibwa, 435-2259); kade-wigwas
(Chippewa, 435-2259); wuskwi (Cree, 425-2259); Mahogany Birch (394-95);

       APPEARANCE:  Averaging 50-60 feet tall, with a trunk 2-3 feet in diameter, black birch is known for its
       wintergreen scent and mahogany-red to gray bark (372-104); Maximum size is 80 by 5 ft., with a somewhat
       tapering trunk and narrow rounded crown (71-120);  

       LEAVES: The ovate, pointed leaves occur alternately in pairs and are finely serrate (195-118); Slender
       branches bear thin, pointed leaves 2-5 inches long and hairy underneath.(372-104); On spur shoots appearing
       whorled or opposite.  Leaves are simple, 2.5 to 5 in. long, 1.5 to 3 in. wide, ovate to oblong-ovate,
       sharply singly serrate or inconspicuously doubly serrate, more heart-shaped at the base than those of
       yellow birch, smooth above, often with tufts of hair in the vein axils below (71-121); Leaves Turn
       brilliant gold briefly in the fall (71-121); 
 
       FLOWERS: The flowers grow in male catkins about 3 inches long and female catkins about 1 inch long, the
       male appearing in the fall and the female the following spring (195-118); Reddish brown flowers (April-May)
       grow in dangling [male pollen-bearning] clusters (catkins) on the same tree with pale green female ones
       (372-104); The female, or seed-bearing, catkins are stout, upright, and solitary (98-47); 

       FRUIT: One-inch cones contain numberous tiny [three-lobed scales] winged [heart-shaped] seeds (the true
       fruit). (372-104); A minute winged nutlet (seed) borne in large numbers in an oblong-ovoid cone whose
       scales fall tardily from the axis at maturity [late fall]; cone, upright, about 1.5 in. long (71-121);  
       TWIGS: Dark brown, slender, aromatic (oil of wintergreen); terminal bud, lacking except on spur shoots
       which are conspicuous features; lateral buds, sharp pointed (more so than that of yellow birch). (71-121);
       Non-peeling, sweet, aromatic, black bark, often smooth...not papery (000-294); 

       BARK: The bark is brown when the tree is young, dark gray later, and is horizontally striped.  On old trees
       the bark is more irregularly broken (195-118); Has smoky gray-black to dark red bark with purplish flakes
       (71-121); Nearly black (resembling that of black cherry), at first smooth, eventually scaly plated (71-
121);

       HABITAT: Most typical on cool, moist sites (71-121); ..grows best in rich, rather moist woods, it can adapt
       itself to a variety of conditions, often starting on old logs or stumps or perched on rocks or growing from
       cracks or seams of rocks (7-204); It prefers deep, rich soils, and always grows scattered among other
       hardwood trees (98-47);

       RANGE: Grows from southern Canada south through the Appalachian Mountains and as far west as Ohio (372-
104); The range of sweet birch in Canada is extremely limited.  Authentic collections have been made in
       only southeastern Ontario west of Port Dalhousie.  In the United States it grows east to Maine, west to
       Iowa, and southwards to Tennessee (98-47); 

11. Betula populifolia Marsh. (B. alba var. populifolia): American White Birch (369-37); Gray Birch (000-24); 

       APPEARNACE: Small tree to 10 m (369-37); A small tree, 20 to 30 ft. high and 6 to 12 in. in diameter (max.
       50 by 1.5 ft.), with a slinder trunk and open, pyramidal crown.  A common feature is the occurrence of
       several trees in a group, all apparently coming from the same root system (71-126);    

       LEAVES: distinctively lonf-tailed leaves (000-24); The leaves with two sets of teeth, smooth beneath when
       old, bright green above, paler beneath (369); Alternate (on spur shoots appearing opposite or whorled),
       simple, 2.5 to 3 in. long, 1.5 to 2.5 in. wide, triangular, narrowly pointed, and doubly serrate,
       essentially smooth above and below, somewhat sticky when young (71-127); 

       FLOWERS: Catkins on stalks 13-30 mm. (369-37); Male and female borne in separate catkins on the same tree;
       preformed male catkins present during the winter (71-127);

       FRUIT: A minute winged nutlet (seed) borne in large numbers on a cylindrical cone whose scales fall readily
       when mature; cone, pendent or spreading, about 3/4 in. long (71-127);

       TWIGS: Reddish brown, slender, covered with numerous warty glands; terminal bud, lacking except on spur
       shoots which are conspicuous features; lateral buds, spindle shaped, widest near the middle, somewhat
       sticky (71-127);

                        BARK: Has very white bark with black 'Chinaman moustaches' where branches have arisen (000-24); smooth pure
       white bark that is difficult to separate into thin sheets (369-37); At first dark brown, latter dull
       grayish white, smooth, does not peel so readily as that of white birch (71-127);

       HABITAT: Common and prolific, even on the poorest of dry, sterile soils (71-127); in woods and old fields
       (369-37);

       RANGE: N.B., P.E.I., N.S., Que. City, Ont. n. to Ottawa, s. to n. Del., Pa., O., nw. Ind. (369-37);
       Newfoundland south to northern Delaware, southwest along the St. Lawrence River and to Western New York and
       Pennsylvania (isolated areas in Indiana at the foot of Lake Michigan). 

       REMARKS: Gray birch is one of the most characteristic and aggressive trees of New England, commonly in
       mixture with pitch pine and scrub oak.  On better soils, gray birch is also found with young white pine;
       and although at first it serves as a protecion, later it crowds out the pine.  This birch follows fire,
       much as does trembling aspen and, like it, is short-lived and more or less of a "weed tree", although the
       wood is used for spools and other small articles (71-127);                                             
 
CLASSIFICATION:

CLASS: Angiospermae (Flowering Plants, 164-10, 118-10)

SUBCLASS: Dicotyledonae (Dicots, 164-10, 118-10)

SUPERORDER: Hamamelidae (118-14)

ORDER: Salicales (Willow, 164-10), Fagales (118-14)

FAMILY: Betulaceae (Corylaceae) (Birch, 164-13)

- 1969 R.C. Hosie, Native Trees of Canada, pg. 154. "Probably 50 or more
species of birch, varying from dwarf shrubs to trees, grow in the north
temperate and arctic regions of the world.  The actual number has still not
been ascertained, because relationships are not completely understood and
distinctions between species are often obscured by hybridization.  About 10
species are distributed in Canada, six of which are trees." (39-154)

- 1976 T. Christopher Brayshaw, Catkin Bearing Plants of British Columbia,
B.C. Provincial Museum, No. 18 Occasional Paper Series, pg 127. "Deciduous
trees and shrubs with alternate, simple, pinnately veined, toothed leaves with
caducous stipules.  Buds with 2 to several scales.  Flowers unisexual,
monoicous, wind-pollinated, apetalous, in separate staminate and pistillate
catkins.  Staminate flowers in elongating hanging catkins, 2 or more flowers
with their bractlets adnate to a subtending bract, and arising together at
each node in the catkin axis.  Stamens 2 to several.  Pistillate flowers
either subtended by or enveloped by bracts and bractlets.  Ovary incompletely
2-chambered, with 2 ovules.  Fruit a one-seeded nut or small samara (winged
nutlet).  Seed germinated epigaeous (the cotyledons raised above the ground). 
B.C. genera: Corylus (Hazelnut), Alnus (Red Alder, Betula (Birch)." (164-127)

- 1978 V.H. Heywood, Flowering Plants of the World, pg. 59. "A family of trees
and shrubs which includes the birches (Betula), Alders (Alnus), Hazels
(Corylus) and Hornbeams Carpinus)...The family belongs predominantly to the
north temperate regions, though also occurring on tropical mountains, the
Andes of South America and in Argentina." (118-59)  

- 1978 V.H. Heywood, Flowering Plants of the World, pg. 59. "The Betulaceae is
generally though to belong with the Fagaceae to the order Fagales, but each
family is often placed in its own order.  Some workers now go further and
split up the Betulaceae, recognizing each of the three tribes as a family in
its own right: Betulaceae, Corylaceae and Carpinaceae." (118-59)

- 1991 Alan Mitchell, Trees, pg. 24. "The Birches are a group of about 50
species which grown around the northern circumpolar plains and to the south
from FL and Spain to China.  Many are only shrubs and seven are native North
American trees.  They are all rather similar and hybrids are frequent.  The
bark of most species rolls or peels off and it contains a white pigment,
betulin.  Birches grow rapidly when young and they are short-lived; they may
die back and decay rapidly when 60-100 years old.  They are pioneer trees,
seeding on to open ground and unable to establish in shade." (000-24)
SUB-FAMILY: Betuloideae (118-59)

- 1978 V.H. Heywood, Flowering Plants of the World, pg. 59. "The male flowers
are borne in three-flowered groups and have a perianth.  The female flowers
lack a perianth." (118-59)

TRIBE: Betuleae (118-59)

- 1978 V.H. Heywood, Flowering Plants of the World, pg. 59. "Has two genera,
Betula (about 50 species) and Alnus (about 30 species)." (118-59)

GENUS: Betula

- 1976 T. Christopher Brayshaw, Catkin Bearing Plants of British Columbia,
B.C. Provincial Museum, No. 18 Occasional Paper Series, pg 136. "Trees and
shrubs with thin bark usually marked with conspicuous, horizontally, elongated
lenticels, slender twigs with flattened pith, young twig puberulent or
glandular (or both), and several-scaled buds, the terminal bud absent. 
Lateral spur shoots bearing usually 2, sometimes 3, leaves in one season. 
Epidermal hairs on the twigs are of two kinds, long and loose (1-2 mm), and
very short, dense, and puberulous.  Staminate catkins pendulous, more or less
sessile, with 3 bractletted flowers in the axil of each main bract.  Staminate
flower with a 2- or 3-lobed calyx and 2 stamens split at the top with a single
anther chamber at the tip of each branch.  Pistillate catkins pendulous to
erect, with 2 or 3 flowers, without sepals, in the axil of each compound
bract; the latter usually 3-lobed and formed of a bract and 2 adnate axillary
bractlets; the fruit and bract eventually deciduous together from the
persistent axis of the catkin.  The pistillate flower consists merely of the
ovary and a pair of linear stigmas. The fruit is a small samara with the
persistent stigmas, and wings forming a border around the central single-
seeded "nutlet".  (164-136) 

- 1976 T. Christopher Brayshaw, Catkin Bearing Plants of British Columbia,
B.C. Provincial Museum, No. 18 Occasional Paper Series, pg 136. "A difficult
though not large genus of perhaps 60 species, mostly in northern Asia but with
about 10 in Canada.  Prolific hybridization has resulted in confusing swarms
of hybrids, many of which have been named as species and which tend to blur
the distinctions between the real species, whatever they are." (164-136)

- 1976 T. Christopher Brayshaw, Catkin Bearing Plants of British Columbia,
B.C. Provincial Museum, No. 18 Occasional Paper Series, pg 136. "HYBRIDS: 
Many names have been given to hybrids in this genus.  For each hybrid
population arising from a given combination of parental species, only one of
the specific names given is strictly correct.  Backcrossing between a hybrid
and one of its parent species may give rise to offspring that are classed as
varieties of the latter.
The following combinations have been found, involving species in British
Columbia: 

- 1985 Eleanor Lawrence, The Illustrated Book of Trees & Shrubs, pg. 134. "The
genus Betula includes some 120 existing species and about 40 more that are now
extinct." (403-134)


PLANT CHEMISTRY: 

CONSTITUENTS:

- 1931 M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, pg. 103, (B. alba). "Birch bark only
contains about 3 per cent of Tannic acid, but is extensively used for tanning,
wherever there are large birch forests, throughout Northern Europe.  As it
gives a pale colour to the skin, it is used for the preliminary and the final
stages of tanning.  It contains betulin and betuls camphor.  The leaves
contain betulorentic acid. By destructive distillation, the white epidermis of
the bark yields an empyreumatic oil, known variously in commerce as oil of
Birch Tar, Oleum Rusci, Oleum Betulinum or Dagget.  This is a thick,
bituminous, brownish-black liquid, with a pungent, balsamic odour.  It
contains a high percentage of methylsalicylate, and also creosol and guaiacol. 
The Rectified Oil (Oleum Rusci Rectificatum) is sometimes substituted for oil
of cade.  Birch Tar oil is almost identical with Wintergreen oil.  It is not
completely soluble in 95 per cent acetic acid, nor in aniline, but Turpentine
oil dissolves it completely." (141-103)

- 1973 Frantisek Stary & Vaclav Jirasek, Herbs, pg. 86. "B. pendula: The parts
collected for medicinal purposes are young spring leaves (Folium betulae)
while they are still slightly sticky.  These are dried in the shade or by
artificial heat at temperatures not exceeding 45o C. The drug has a faintly
aromatic, disagreeable odour and bitter taste.  It contains saponins, some
essential oil, resin, tannins and flavones.  Young leaves also contain vitamin
C. The drug has a diuretic and disinfectant action but does not irritate the
kidneys.  It also stimulates the sweat glands." (38-86)

- 1973 Frantisek Stary & Vaclav Jirasek, Herbs, pg. 86. "B. pendula: The bark
and wood serve for the extraction of a tar containing cresol, traces of phenol
and sulphur compounds.  It has an anitparasitic action but is mildly
irritating to the skin." (38-86)

- 1977 Francesco Bianchini & Francesco Corbetta, Health Plants of the World,
pg. 222. "The drug is derived from the bark and leaves.  The leaves contain
tannin, essential oil and a saponin, and have diuretic properties.  Dry
distillation of the bark produces the so-called 'birch oil', which is
efficacious in the case of certain skin complaints.  Birch bark contains a
glycoside which decomposes to give methyl salicylate.  It is used as a remedy
for rheumatism in Canada and the USA." (90-222)

- 1977 Schauenberg & Paris, Guide to Medicinal Plants, pg. 199 [Betula
pendula, Roth].  "The young leaves (Fol. Betulae) are rich in saponins; they
contain a diuretic flavonoid derivative (hyperoside), sesquiterpenes and
tannins.  The buds (Gemmae Betulae) contain a volatile oil; the bark contains
betulinol, and a glycoside (betuloside)." (439-199)

- 1978 Nancy J. Turner & Adam F. Szczawinski, Wild Coffee and Tea Substitutes
of Canada, pg 49. "..the bark and twigs of the sweet and yellow birches
contain an aromatic oil, methyl salicylate, virtually identical to that
produced by the small, shrubby wintergreen plant (Gaultheria procumbens)...The
compounds are the same except for a minute difference in molecular structure,
and are impossible to differentiate without the most sophisticated chemical
procedures.  In fact, the wintergreen flavouring, so commonly used in candies,
chewing gums, toothpastes, and medications, when not artificially produced as
is not usual, is more often derived from sweet birch than from the real
wintergreen plant." (98-49)

- 1980 David G. Spoerke, Jr., Herbal Medications, pg. 31. "Leaves and shoots
[of Betula alba] secrete a resin, which when combined with alkali is said to
create a laxative substance.  The bark contains 10-14% betulin (a dihydric
alcohol). When made into birch bark tar, the tar contains creosol, traces of
phenols, creosote, and guaiacol.  Betula lenta bark contains significant
amounts of methyl salicylate." (135-31)

- 1981 Arnason et al., Use of plants for food and medicine by Native Peoples
of eastern Canada, 2311. "Betula lenta L.(Cherry Birch) Gallic acid,
chlorogenic acid. Betula lutea Michx. (Yellow Birch) Gallic acid, chlorogenic
acid."

- 1985 Eleanor Lawrence, The Illustrated Book of Trees & Shrubs, pg. 136. "The
white colour (of the bark) is ascribed to the presence of betulin crystals in
the outer layers." (403-136)              

- 1987 Eleanor G. Viereck, Alaska's Wilderness Medicines, pg. 9. "The Merck
Index cites betulin (betula camphor) 10% to 15% in the outer portion of the
white bark.  Leaves contain betuloresinic acid, essential oil, ether,
betuloside, gaultherin, methyl salicylate, and ascorbic acid; in the bark of
the sweet birch is salicylic acid." (407-9)

- 1988 Hans Fluck, Medicinal Plants, pg 42. "Constituents and Action: Volatile
oil, resin, a saponin, a flavonoid.  Used as a diuretic which does not
irritate the kidneys.  They have a mild antiseptic action." (438-42)

- 1990 Steven Foster & James A. Duke, A Field Guide To Medicinal Plants, pg
294. "Betula lenta: Essential oil (methyl salicylate) distilled from
bark...Essential oil was formerly produced in Appalacia.  But now, methyl
salicyulate is produced synthetically, using menthol as the precursor." (447-
294);

TOXICITY:

- 1978 Nancy J. Turner & Adam F. Szczawinski, Wild Coffee and Tea Substitutes
of Canada, pg 47. "Methyl salicylate, or oil of wintergreen, when taken in
excess can be toxic, especially to children.  It can cause nausea, vomiting,
acidosis, pulmonary edema, pneumonia, convulsions, and death.  Doses of 4 to
10 ml in children and 30 ml in adults can be fatal.  It is related to aspirin
but more toxic.  Of course, the small concentration to be found in birch tea
is harmless, but children who are hypersensitive to aspirin should not drink
the tea or even touch the plants." (98-47)

- 1980 David G. Spoerke, Jr., Herbal Medications, pg. 31. "There does not
appear to be enough pharmacologic activity associated with the betulin to make
overdose a hazard.  One could become poisoned on the methyl salicylate in
B.lenta bark, or have significant dermal irritation due to the phenolic
components of the birch bark tar." (135-32)

- 1989 Janice J. Schofield, Discovering Wild Plants, pg. 64. "Prolonged
boiling in closed containers could concentrate the salicylic acid of birch and
spark problems with those hypersensitive to aspirin.  Steeped gently as a tea,
the herb is generally regarded as quite safe." (444-64)

- 1990 Steven Foster & James A. Duke, A Field Guide To Medicinal Plants, pg
294. "WARNING: Essential oil toxic.  Easily absorbed through skin. Fatalities
reported." (447-294)

FOOD USES OF BIRCH:

- 1919 U.P. Hedrick, Sturtevant's Edible Plants of the World, pg. 95. "Betula
alba Linn.:  Europe, northern Asia and North America.  The bark, reduced to
powder, is eaten by the inhabitants of Kamchatka, beaten up with the ova of
the sturgeon, and the inner bark is ground into a meal and eaten in Lapland in
times of dearth.  Church says sawdust of birchwood is boiled, baked and then
mixed with flour to form bread in Sweden and Norway.  In Alaska, says Dall,
the soft new wood is cut fine and mingled with tobacco by the economical
Indian.  From the sap, a wine is made in Derbyshire, England, and, in 1814,
the Russian soldiers near Hamburg intoxicated themselves with this fermented
sap.  The leaves are used in northern Europe as a substitute for tea, and the
Indians of Maine make from the leaves of the American variety a tea which is
relished.  At certain seasons, the sap contains sugar.  In Maine, the sap is
sometimes collected in the spring and made into vinegar." (394-95)

- 1977 Lee Allen Peterson, Edible Wild Plants, pg 200. "The sap of all
birches, Betula spp., is edible.  Spring (sap, inner bark); all year (twigs)."
(418-200)

- 1979 Barrie Kavasch, Native Harvests, pg. 24. "Natural Sugars can be derived
from the sap of several other native trees, much the same as the Indians
refined them from the maples.  In the early spring the three major species of
birches were tapped: Black Birch, Cherry Birch or Sweet Birch (Betula lenta),
Yellow Birch (B. lutea), and White Birch (B. papyrifera).  A number of
beverages, liquors, vinegars, syrups, and sugars are easily rendered from
these trees." (157-24)

NATIVE FOOD USES:

- 1609 Marc Lescarbot, Nova Francia, a description of Acadia 1606, 301. "As
for the trees of the forests, the most common in Port Royal be...birch (very
good for joiner's work)...247.  If they be pressed with thirst, they have the
skill to suck the trees, from whence do trickle down a sweet and very pleasant
liquor, as I myself have tried it sometimes." (369-38)

- 1624 Father Theodat Gabriel Sagard, Le gran voyage du pays des Hurons, situe
en l'Amerique vers mer douche, es dernier confines de l a Nouvelle Franch,
dite Canada, Published in translation by the Champlain Soc. XXV 1939 ed.
Wrong. fac. ed. 1968 Greenwood, N.Y. 99. "If they have an urgent thirst and no
water they know how to suck it from birch trees." (369-38)
- 1823 Sir John Franklin, Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar
Sea in the Years 1819, 20, 21, and 22. London: John Murray.  "The Hudson's Bay
Company's people whom we passed on the 23rd, going to the rock house with
their furs, were badly provided with food, of which we saw distressing proofs
at every portage behind them.  They had stripped the birch trees of their rind
to procure the soft pulpy vessels in contact with the wood, which are sweet,
but very insufficient to satisfy a craving appetite." (305-42)

- 1932 Osgood, Cornelius B., The Ethnography of the Great Bear Lake Indian,
National Museum of Canada Bulletin 70. Ottawa. 31-97. "Indians like to chew
spruce gum, and the Kutchin tap birch trees, catching the sap in small
baskets.  This birch syrup is eaten in its natural form or boiled.  They
sometimes chew the under bark of the spruce tree." (305-2)

- 1977 Berndt Berglund & Clare E. Bolsby, The Complete Outdoorsman's Guide To
Edible Wild Plants, pg. 163. "Historically, Huron Indians often used the bark
or the young twigs both as a stimulant tea and as a food seasoning, as
observed by the French explorer, Samuel de Champlain in 1615, during his stay
with the Hurons.  He found that the women often used black birch bark to
improve the taste of their food, which indeed it did." (168-163)

- 1981 Arnason et al., Use of plants for food and medicine by Native Peoples
of eastern Canada, 2206. "Algonquin [Betula lutea Michx. f.] Sap mixed with
maple sap for sugar making (Black 1980); Montagnais [Betula papyrifera Marsh]
Inner bark grated and eaten (Speck 1917); Cree [Betula papyrifera Marsh] Sap
used for syrup (Black 1980)." (435-2206)...."Iroquois [Betula lenta L.] Twigs
made into a small bundle and steeped, sap drunk (Waugh 1916); Ojibwa [Betula
lutea Michx. f.] Sap added to maple sap for a cold beverage (Smith 1932);
Micmac [B. lutea] Twigs used for tea (Lacey 1977); Malecite [B. lutea] Bark
tea (Speck & Dexter 1952)." (435-2230)

EUROPEAN FOOD USES:

- 1919 U.P. Hedrick, Sturtevant's Edible Plants of the World, pg. 95. "Betula
lenta Linn.:  The sap, in Maine, is occasionally converted into vinegar."
(394-95)..."Betula nigra Linn.: From Massachusetts to Virginia.  The sap
contains sugar in the spring, according to Henfrey (Henfrey, A., Bot. 356.
1870)." (394-95)

- 1977 Lee Peterson, A Field Guide To Edible Wild Plants of Eastern and
Central North America, pg. 200. "Syrup, sugar, water, flour, tea.  Birch sap
flows abundantly and can be processed like maple sap to make a sweet,
molassseslike syrup; the flow is usually best in late March or April.  The
inner bark can be dried and ground into flour for emergency use.  The twigs
can be steeped in hot water to make tea.  NOTE: The sap of all birches, Betula
spp., is edible." (269-200)

- 1977 Berndt Berglund & Clare E. Bolsby, The Complete Outdoorsman's Guide To
Edible Wild Plants, pg. 165. "Put a small handful of twigs or some bark in a
piece of cloth and tie it securely.  When boiling meat, add the spice-bag.  It
will improve the flavor." (168-165)

- 1979 Nelson Coon, Using Plants For Healing, pg. 76 [Betula lenta]. "..the
oil [of Betula lenta] thus extracted is practically indistinguishable from oil
of wintergreen and is much used for the purpose, the sweet sap of the birch
trees was collected as a source of sweetening, and was used as a basis for a
fermented beer." (134-76)

BIRCH BARK FLOUR:

- 1931 M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, pg. 104, (B. lenta). "The cambium, or the
layer between the wood and the bast, is eaten in the spring, cut into strips
like vermicelli..." (141-104)

- 1957 William M. Harlow, Trees of the Eastern and Central United States and
Canada, pg. 122. "For emergency food the inner bark is pounded to yield a
flour, and syrup can be made from the sap, which itself is a pleasant cooling
drink." (71-126)

- 1980 Bradford Angier, Feasting Free on Wild Edibles, pg. 159. "The inner
bark, dried and then ground into flour, has often been used by Indians and
frontiersmen for bread.  It is also cut into strips and boiled like noodles in
stews.  But you don't need to go even to that much trouble.  Just eat it raw."
(204-159)

- 1984 Marilyn Walker, Harvesting The Northern Wild, pg. 41. "The inner bark
of white birch can be ground into a flour and used as an emergency bread-
stuff." (305-41)

BIRCH BEER: 

- 1957 William M. Harlow, Trees of the Eastern and Central United States and
Canada, pg. 122. "Birch beer is made from the sap of sweet birch.  Gibson says
to tap the tree, put the sap together with a handful of corn in a jug, and let
fermentation do the rest!" (71-123) 

- 1962 Euell Gibbons, Stalking the Wild Asparagus, pg. 34. "Betula lenta
(Sweet Birch): A better-known beverage that can be made from this tree is
Birch Beer.  Measure 4 quarts of finely cut twigs of sweet birch into a bottom
of a 5-gallon crock.  In a large kettle, stir 1 gallon of honey into 4 gallons
of birch sap and boil this mixture for 10 minutes, then pour over the chopped
twigs and return the liquid to the crock.  Spread 1 cake of soft yeast on a
slice of toasted rye bread and float this on top of the beer.  Cover with a
cloth and let it ferment until the cloudiness just starts to settle.  This
will usually take about a week, but it depends somewhat on the temperature. 
Bottle the beer and cap it tightly.  Store in a dark place, and serve it ice
cold before meals after the weather gets hot.  It has a reputation for
stimulating the appetite.  More than a glass or two at a time is likely to
stimulate other things, for this beer has a kick like a mule.  This is one
birch beverage that is definitely not suitable for children." (2-34)

- 1973 Eliot Wigginton,  Foxfire 2, pg. 53. "Tap trees when sap is rising. 
Jug sap and throw in a handful of shelled corn. Nature finishes the job."
(228-53)

- 1973 Alan Hall, The Wild Food Trailguide, pg. 61. "All three Birches [B.
lenta, B. lutea, B. papyrifera] are copious producers of sap.  This is tapped
in the same way as Maples but it reaches its peak later, usually in April. 
The sap can be used as a beverage as it comes from the tree or boiled down to
a syrup or sugar.  While Birch sap contains only about half the sugar of Maple
sap, it flows much faster.  Birch Beer can be made by combining sap with sugar
or honey, boiling for about an hour, cooling, and adding yeast.  Another
method is to steep young twigs of the Sweet Birches in boiling water, add
sugar (3 pounds to 5 gallons of liquid), cool, and add yeast.  Sap can be made
into vinegar by adding yeast. Young twigs and fresh or dried inner bark of
Sweet Birches can be used to make wintergreen tea." (79-61)

- 1982 Thomas S. Ellis & Peter A. Dykeman, Field Guide To North American
Edible Wild Plants, pg 125. "Sweet Birch or Black Birch (Betula lenta): For
birch beer, pour solutions of 4 gal birch sap and 1 gal honey (or 5 gal sap
and 3 lb sugar), which has been boiled 10 minutes, over 4 quart fine twigs in
crock.  Cool, strain to remove twigs, add 1 cake of yeast. Cover; ferment
about 1 week, until cloudiness starts to settle.  Bottle and cap tightly."
(279-125)

- 1989 Janice J. Schofield, Discovering Wild Plants, pg. 63. "Alaskan
homesteader Yule Kilcher allows sap to stand uncovered until fermentation
occurs; he then filters the sap, adds a pinch of sugar and yeast, corks and
ages the brew, and serves it as "birch champagne." (444-63)

BIRCH SAP:

- 1939 Oliver P. Medsger, Edible Wild Plants, pg 204. "The sap of the Black
Birch (B. lenta) may be used for making sugar.  It is only about half as sweet
as that obtained from the Sugar Maple.  It flows freely in April, or about a
month later than that of maple trees." (7-205)

- 1982 Thomas S. Ellis & Peter A. Dykeman, Field Guide To North American
Edible Wild Plants, pg 122. "Yellow Birch (B. lutea): Boil sap in shallow open
container outdoors, adding more as volume decreases, until evaporation leaves
viscous, molasses-flavored syrup with temperature about 104o C (220o F). Ratio
of sap to ultimate syrup is far greater than for sugar maple. Store in
sterilized, filled, sealed jars." (279-122)

- 1983 Tom Brown Jr., Tom Brown's Field Guide To Wilderness Survival, pg. 54.
"Since water gathered by this method [Tapping] contains a high concentration
of sugar, drinking large amounts of it (say, more than a pint or two a day)
can cause an upset stomach or cramps.  For the same reason, the liquid tends
to spoil when it's not drunk soon.  Personally, I like to use it to brew a
presweetened herbal tea.  In a pinch, you can get pure water by evaporating
the liquid inside a solar still." (270-54)

- 1984 Marilyn Walker, Harvesting The Northern Wild, pg. 41. "Sap tapped from
the tree is slightly sweet and can be used just as it is; or, it can be boiled
down to make a syrup similar to that made from maple trees in regions farther
south.  The sap runs for two weeks or so at a time of year when the nights are
freezing, but the days warm.  At the beginning of the running, the sap will be
clear; at the end it turns milky and bitter.  This is the sign that the season
is over.  The amount of sap produced varies considerably from tree to tree and
from year to year, so it is best to tap several trees at once." (305-41)

- 1984 Marilyn Walker, Harvesting The Northern Wild, pg. 41. "To collect birch
sap, drill a hole in the tree about 5 cm (2 in) deep and 60 to 90 (2 to 3 ft)
from the ground.  Make a spout from a piece of metal (such as a clean and
rust-free tin can) and put this into the hole; then hang a bucket below the
spout to catch the dripping sap.  Boil down on a stove, or outdoors over a
wood fire, being careful not to burn the sap.  You have to start out with
quite a large amount of sap: it must be reduced by about 35 times its volume
to make a thick syrup! Thats almost twice as much boiling as needed to make
maple syrup, and the resulting birch syrup will still be thinner than maple
syrup.  In Russia and some northern European countries, the sap is fermented
to make wine and vinegar.  It can also be used to make birch beer." (305-41,
407-11)

GUMS:

- 1979 Barrie Kavasch, Native Harvests, pg. 24. "Black Birch bark (Betula
lenta) was carefully peeled, and small pieces were enjoyed raw or boiled for
several minutes and then chewed.  This gum provides refreshing and beneficial
juices." (157-168)

LIQUEURS:

- 1862 Bernard R. Ross, An Account of the Botanical and Mineral products,
Useful to the Chipewyan Tribes of Indians, Inhabiting the McKenzie River
District. Canadian Naturalist and Geologist 7. 133-137. "The Canoe or Paper
Birch (Betula papyracea)...In spring, the sap forms a pleasant drink from
which a syrup can be manufactured by boiling, and which may be further
transformed, by fermentation, into an agreeably flavoured wine of considerable
potency." (305-42)

- 1931 M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, pg. 103, (B. alba). "When the stem of the
tree is wounded, a saccharine juice flows out which is susceptible, with
yeast, of vinous fermentation.  A beer, wine, spirit and vinegar are prepared
from it in some parts of Europe.  Birch Wine, concocted from this thin, sugary
sap of the tree, collected from this thin, sugary sap of the trees in March,
honey, cloves and lemon peel being added and then the whole fermented with
yeast, makes a very pleasant cordial, formerly much appreciated.  From 16 to
18 gallons of sap may be drawn from one large tree, and a moderate tapping
does no harm." (141-103)

- 1931 M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, pg. 104, (B. lenta). "The liquor is used in
Kamschatka without previous fermentation." (141-104)

- 1984 Marilyn Walker, Harvesting The Northern Wild, pg. 41. "In Russia and
some northern European countries, the sap is fermented to make wine and
vinegar.  It can also be used to make birch beer." (305-41)

TEAS:

- 1914 H. Cody, On Trail and Rapid by Dog-sled and Canoe: The Story of Bishop
Bompas' life Amongst the Red Indians and Eskimo, Told for Boys and Girls.
London: Seeley, Service and Co. Ltd. 171. "Raspberry shoots, birch-buds, and
some other berry-trees are also at times used to make tea in the absence of
the genuine article, but they are rather medicinal." (305-41) 

- 1939 Oliver P. Medsger, Edible Wild Plants, pg 204. "The black Birch (B.
lenta) makes a most delightful tea, the same in taste as that of Mountain Tea
or Wintergreen.  For this purpose, the rapidly growing young twigs are
generally used. The thick inner bark from the trunk is good, but to remove it
injures and disfigures the tree....This bark is almost red, easily separates
from the wood in the spring and early summer, and is strongly flavored.  It
may be dried and kept for months without losing much of its spicy taste. 
Sugar and cream added to the tea is preferred by most people." (7-204)

- 1939 Oliver P. Medsger, Edible Wild Plants, pg 205. "In Maine the Indians
make a tea from the leaves of the Paper or Canoe Birch, Betula papyrifera, as
recorded by Henry D. Thoreau in the The Maine Woods, and seem to greatly
relish it." (7-205)

- 1962 Euell Gibbons, Stalking the Wild Asparagus, pg. 33. "Betula lenta
(Sweet Birch): To make a wintergreen-flavored tea, cut some sweet birch twigs
in small pieces and cover them with boiling birch sap.  Let it steep for a
minute or two, then strain out the twigs and sweeten the tea to taste.  Some
like to add cream or hot milk." (2-33)

- 1962 Euell Gibbons, Stalking the Wild Asparagus, pg. 33. "Betula lenta
(Sweet Birch): Birch Tea can also be made of the red, inner bark of sweet
birches, but removing this bark from standing timber disfigures and injures
the trees....The bark from the stumps and roots is considered the best.  Use a
knife or a carpenter's wood scraper to remove the outer, dry layer and then
peel off the red inner bark.  It peels best in spring or early summer.  If
this is cut in small pieces and dried at ordinary room temperature, then
sealed in fruit jars, one can have the makings of Birch Tea throughout the
year.  Use boiling water when birch sap is not available.  Never boil the
twigs or bark in making this tea and never dry the bark in too warm a place,
for the wintergreen flavor is very volatile, and is easily driven off by too
much heat." (2-34)

- 1977 Berndt Berglund & Clare E. Bolsby, The Complete Outdoorsman's Guide To
Edible Wild Plants, pg. 163. "BLACK BIRCH TEA: Cut a strip of bark from a
young tree, or use twigs cut into small pieces.  Immerse in water and bring to
a boil.  Remove from the heat and cool on the side of the stove, letting the
mixture stand and brew for at least 30 minutes.  Reheat, strain, and serve as
a stimulating tea." (168-163)

- 1979 Barrie Kavasch, Native Harvests, pg. 24. "Cherry Birch, Sweet Birch
(Betula lenta).  The Twigs and bark are a primary source of oil of
wintergreen.  A pleasing, golden woodland tea is derived by steeping fresh (or
dried) bark chips and twigs in enough boiling water to cover for 15 minutes in
a covered pot or cup." (157-131)

- 1980 Bradford Angier, Feasting Free on Wild Edibles, pg. 157. "This latter
reddish bark [of Black Birch] easily stripped off in the spring and early
summer, can be dried at room temperatures and stored in sealed jars in a cool
place for later use.  A teaspoon to a cup of boiling water, set off the heat
and allowed to steep for 5 minutes, makes a tea that is delicately spicy. 
Milk and sugar make it even better." (204-158)

- 1982 Thomas S. Ellis & Peter A. Dykeman, Field Guide To North American
Edible Wild Plants, pg 125. "Sweet Birch or Black Birch (Betula lenta): For
tea, steep (do not boil) twigs or fresh or dried inner bark in water or,
preferably, birch sap.  Boiling destroys volatile wintergreen oil." (279-125)

- 1984 Marilyn Walker, Harvesting The Northern Wild, pg. 40. "The white papery
bark of some species makes a pleasant tea with a faint caramel odour.  To try
this, first peel off thin outer strips of bark from a tree, and rinse them to
remove dust and flaked bark.  Using about a handful per person, pour boiling
water over the bark and steep for 3 to 5 minutes." (305-40)

SALID MATERIAL:

- 1989 Janice J. Schofield, Discovering Wild Plants, pg. 63. "For spring
salads, add young birch leaves and catkins (from any species) with other
milder greens and toss with your favorite dressing.  Birch buds and twigs,
gathered from the small or tall birches, can be tied in a muslin bag and
boiled in vegetable and meat stews as a spice." (444-63)

WINTERGREEN OIL: 

- 1939 Oliver P. Medsger, Edible Wild Plants, pg 204. "Large quantities of the
oil of wintergreen are distilled from the twigs and bark of the Black Birch. 
The essence is exactly the same as that produced from the true Wintergreen
(Gaultheria)." (7-204)

- 1957 William M. Harlow, Trees of the Eastern and Central United States and
Canada, pg. 122. "Sweet birch (B.lenta) and Yellow birch (B.lutea) are the
only birches from which oil of wintergreen can be obtained by distilling the
twigs and inner bark.  Of the two, sweet birch will yield by far the most, so
that yellow birch is probably not treated for this purpose." (71-122)

- 1958 H.E. Jaques, The Economic Plants, pg 140. "The twigs and leaves when
boiled and distilled yield oil of wintergreen, much used in food flavoring and
also in medicine.  Much of the oil of wintergreen now in use is made
synthetically." (169-140)


MEDICINAL USES OF BIRCH:

MODE OF ACTION:

- 1970 Virgil J. Vogel, American Indian Medicine, pg. 181. "Sweet-birch oil
was official in the USP, 1894-1916, and remains one of the officially
recognized forms of methyl salicylate, in the USP since 1894.  It is obtained
by distillation from the twigs and bark of B. lenta L., (Black birch), an
indigenous species, reported to be stimulant, diuretic, and astringent. 
Rectified birch-tar oil, listed in the National Formulary, 1916-55, was
distilled from the dry bark of foreign species, and used externally as a
counterirritant, parasiticide, and antiseptic in skin diseases." (146-281)

- 1977 Schauenberg & Paris, Guide to Medicinal Plants, pg. 199 [Betula
pendula, Roth].  "The leaves are diuretic and help the heart; the buds are
choleritic.  The birch is used in various ways (infusion, oil, extract) to
treat disorders of the urinary tract; in herbalism to treat some skin
complaints...To treat urinary insufficiencies, dropsy, rheumatism and
infections of the urinary tracts. Parts used: The young leaves." (439-199)

- 1980 David G. Spoerke, Jr., Herbal Medications, pg. 31. "The methyl
salicylate  of B.lenta may be used as a counterirritant in treating
rheumatism.  It also has some analgesic properties.  The betulin has unknown
pharmacologic properties. (135-31)

- 1986 Reader's Digest, Magic and Medicine of Plants, pg 104. "Black birch
bark has astringent properties, which account for its effectiveness in
treating wounds, and it contains methyl salicylate, which explains its
usefulness as a pain reliever.  When applied externally, the oil is an
excellent counter-irritant to alleviate the pain of sore muscles." (372-104)

- 1990 Steven Foster & James A. Duke, A Field Guide To Medicinal Plants, pg
294. "Betula lenta: Essential oil (methyl salicylate) distilled from bark was
used for rheumatism, gout, scrofula, bladder infection, neuralgia; anti-
inflammatory, analgesic.  To alleviate pain or sore muscles, the oil has been
applied as a counterirritant." (447-294);

NATIVE MEDICINAL USES:

- 1634 HURON, 1610-1791 Travel and explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in
New France, vol. 7; 129. [B.p.] "Up to the present I have observed three
natural remedies among the savages...the third of these medicines is composed
of the scrapings of the inside bark of the birch, at least it seems to be this
tree.  They boil these scrapings in water, which they afterwards drink to make
them vomit."

- 1672 John Josselyn, New England Rarities Discovered, In Archaeologica
Americana, Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society. 
Boston, 1860, Vol. IV, 185. "The bark of birch is used by the Indians for
bruised wounds and cuts, boyled very tender, and stamped betwixt two stones to
a plaister, and the decoction therof poured into the wound; and also to fetch
the fire out of burns and scalds." (146-280)

- 1828 Dr. Jonas Rishel, The Indian Physician, pg 6. [Black Birch: Betula
lenta]. "Virtues: It is both stimulating and strengthening.  It is good in all
syrups and decoctions, and is useful to remove cold swellings.  For this
purpose, several thicknesses of flannel should be bound round the part
affected, and kept constantly wet with a strong decoction of the bark." (440-
7)

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Uses of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 364.
"Enemas..B. papyrifera Marsh (White Birch)...Inner Bark...Steeped. (211-364)

- 1957 William M. Harlow, Trees of the Eastern and Central United States and
Canada, pg. 123. "Josselyn wrote of the inner bark of black birch and white
birch, "the bark is used by the Indians for bruised wounds and cuts, boyled
very tender and stampt betwixt two stones to a plaister, and the decoction
thereof poured into the wound; and also to fetch Fire out of burns and
scalds." (71-123)

- 1970 Virgil J. Vogel, American Indian Medicine, pg. 95. "The properties of
birch oil, an officially recognized source of methyl salicylate, were known to
the Indians.  All writers on the materia medica of the northern tribes mention
the use of various parts of this tree by the Indians, and we have an
interesting anecdote from the diary of J.W. Phelps, an army officer stationed
at Mackinac in 1840-41.  While exploring an island with a group which included
the Ojibwa wife of Henry R. Schoolcraft, he related that Mrs. Schoolcraft
"stripped off the bark from a birch tree and scraped from the trunk a milky
substance which is said to be a good remedy for consumptives." (146-96)

- 1970 Virgil J. Vogel, American Indian Medicine, pg. 95. "Throughout their
natural range, birch trees were widely used as medicine by American Indians. 
A decoction of the inner bark of "Mountain birch," Hunter reported, was used
by Indians west of the Mississippi as a remedy in coughs, colds, and pulmonary
ailments.  Many of the frontier settlers, he observed, valued highly as a
table beverage.  Hoffman reported that the Ojibwas mixed the inner bark of
"Yellow birch" (which he called B. excelsa Ait.) and mixed it with that of
sugar maple for a diuretic decoction, a usage considered rational and
efficacious by Dr. Edmund Andrews.  Smith reported that the Ojibwas used the
root of paper birch (B. alba L., var. papyrifera) in medicine as a seasoner to
disguise unpleasant tastes; it was also cooked with maple sugar to make a
syrup for stomach cramps.  The cones of low birch (B. pumila) were heated over
coals by the Pillagers to make an incense for catarrh patients.  A tea was
made from them for women in menses and as a post-parturition tonic.  The
Potawatomis used the twigs of yellow birch (B. lutea Michx.) and paper birch
for an oil extract used as a medicinal seasoner.  Paper-birch bark has also
been reported used by the Ojibwas in a medicinal enema.  Bark of paper birch
and balsam fir was grated and eaten by the Montagnais as beneficial to diet. 
The Catawbas, Speck reported, boiled the buds of B. nigra L., to a syrup and
added sulphur to make a salve for ringworm and sores.  The Alabamas of Texas
boiled the bark of the same tree for a remedy used in treating sore hooves in
horses.  The Creeks used white birch as a tuberculosis remedy." (146-281) 

- 1980 Michael A. Weiner, Earth Medicine, Earth Food, pg. 117. "Red Birch
(Betula nigra): The Catawba Indians prepared a salve of red birch by boiling
the buds of this tree until they were thick and pasty and then adding sulphur. 
This salve was applied externally to skin sores and ringworm." (147-117)

- 1981 Arnason et al., Use of plants for food and medicine by Native Peoples
of eastern Canada, 2259. "Ojibwa (Chippewa) [B. lenta L.] Pneumonea, diarrhea:
bark decoction; pulmonary trouble: bark with beech bark and red-oiser dogwood
(Gilmore 1933); Algonquin [B. lenta L.] General medicine: tea (Black 1980);
Cree [B. lenta L] Consumption, lung disease: bark infusion used with hemlock;
gonorrhoea: buds used (Strath 1903); Ojibwa [B. lutea Michx. f.] Diuretic:
inner bark with bark of sugar maple (Hoffman 1891); Maritime [B. lutea Michx.
F.] Hot-water bottle: wood (Chandler et al.1979); Abitibi [B. lutea]
Dysentery: bark infusion (Jenkins 1939); Micmac [B. lutea] Diarrhea: tea from
bark (Lacey 1977); Ojibwa [B. papyrifera Marsh] Enema: inner bark steeped
(Densmore 1974); Ojibwa [Stomach cramps: cook root bark, take with maple sugar
(Smith 1932); Algonquin [B. papyrifera] Diaper rash, skin rash: white powder
from bark (Black 1980); Cree [B. papyrifera] Chapped skin: boil wood in
Labrador tea, dry rub into powder (Holmes 1884); Cree [B. papyrifera]
Gonorrhoea: buds used; lung trouble: bark infusion used with hemlock (Strath
1903); Maritime [B. populifolia Marsh] emetic: inner bark (Chandler et al.);
Malecite [B. populifolia Marsh] Infected cut: inner bark (Mechling 1959);
Ojibwa [B. pumila L. var glandulifera Regel] Catarrh, inflamed nasal passages:
incense from cones; menstruation, after childbirth: tea from cones (Smith
1932)." (435-2259)  "Iroquois [B. populifolia Marsh] Bleeding piles (Herrick
1977)." (435-2313)

- 1982 Howard H. Hirschhorn, The Home Herbal Doctor, pg.118. "Young crushed
leaves applied to wounds and insect bites and stings." (278-118)

- 1990 Steven Foster & James A. Duke, A Field Guide To Medicinal Plants, pg
294. "Betula lenta: Our most fragrant birch was widely used by American
Indians, in bark tea for fevers, stomachaches, lung ailments; twig tea for
fever." (447-294)

EUROPEAN MEDICINAL USES:

- 1642 Nicholas Culpeper, Culpeper's Complete Herbal, pg. 50.  "Description:
This groweth a goodly tall straight tree, fraught with many boughs and slender
branches bending downward; the old being covered with a discoloured chopped
bark, and the younger being browner by much.  The leaves at the first breaking
out are crumpled, and afterwards like beech leaves, but smaller and greener,
and dented about the edges.  It beareth small short catkins, somewhat like
those of the hazel-nut tree, which abide on the branches a long time until
growing ripe they fall upon the ground, and their seed with them.  Place: It
usually groweth in woods.  Government and Virtues: It is a tree of Venus.  The
juice of the leaves, while they are young, or the distilled water of them, or
the water that comes from the tree being bored with an auger, and distilled
afterwards; any of these being drunk for some days together, is available to
break the stone in the kidneys and bladder, and is good also to wash sore
mouths." (144-50)

- 1672 John Josselyn, New England Rarities. Birch bark was boiled and pounded
into a poultice and applied to wounds and cuts.  The exudation of birth gum
was used as 'touch wood' for the treatment of sciatica, an all too common
colonial complaint. [See elder for its uses by the Indians to burn their skin,
the pain of this burn being worse than that of the sciatica, it was relieved].
(369-39)

- 1735 John K'Eogh, Botanalogia Universalis Hibernica, [An Irish Herbal,
1986], pg 30. "The liquid that is drained off this tree in the springtime is
good for dispelling urinary disorders, like stones, pains and bleeding.  A
decoction of the leaves, when drunk, is considered good for scurvy." (412-30)
- 1737 John Brickell, The Natural History of North-Carolina, With an Account
of the Trade, Manners, and Customns of the Christian and Indian Inhabitants.
Dublin, James Carson, 1737. pg. 72. (Reprint, ed. by J. Bryan Grimes, by
authority of the Trustees of Public Libraries, Raleigh, 1911)  "[Birch
leaves]..are cleansing, disolve and purge watry Humours, help Dropsies and
Stone in the Bladder, the Ashes of the Bark is effectual to heal sore Mouths,
and take away Scabs." (146-280)

- 1828 Dr. Jonas Rishel, The Indian Physician, pg.6, (Betula lenta L.).
"Description: The bark of this tree resembles that of black cherry: the leaves
resemble those of yellow birch: its flavour is like that of winter-green
somewhat stimulating and aromatick. Place: It generally grows in the coldest
parts of this country; on the sides of hills, mountains, &c.  Virtues: It is
both stimulating and strengthening. It is good in all syrups and decoctions,
and is useful to remove cold swellings.  For this purpose, several thicknesses
of flannel should be bound round the part affected, and kept constantly wet
with a strong decoction of the bark." (  -6)

- 1931 M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, pg. 104. (Betula alba L.) "Various parts of
the tree have been applied to medicinal uses.  The young shoots & leaves
secrete a resinous substanbe having acid properties, which, combined with
alkalies, is said to be a tonic laxative.  The leaves have a peculiar,
aromatic, afreeable odour and a bitter tarte, and have been employed in the
form nf infusion (Birch Tea) in gout, rheumatism and dropsy, and recommended
as a reliable solvent of stone in the kidneys.  With the bark they resolve and
resist putrefaction.  A decoction of them is good for bathing skin affections,
and is serviceable in dropsy.  The oil is astringent, and is mainly employed
for its curative effects in skin affections, especially eczema, but is also
used for some internal maladies.  The inner bark is bitter and astringent, and
has been used in intermittent fevers.  The vernal sap is diuretic.  Moxa is
made from the yellow, fungous excrescences of the wood, which sometimes swell
out from the fissures. Dosage: Of alcoholic extract of the leaves, 25 to 30
grains daily." (141-104).

- 1931 M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, pg. 104, (B. lenta). "..the bark is
stimulant, diaphoretic, and astringent, in a warm infusion.  In decoction or
syrup it forms an excellent tonic for dysentery, and is said to be useful in
gravel and female obstructions." (141-104)

- 1931 M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, pg. 104, (B. nana). "Smooth Dwarf Birch,
rarely grows above 3 feet in height.  Moxa is prepared from it and regarded as
an effective remedy in all painful diseases." (141-104)

- 1957 William M. Harlow, Trees of the Eastern and Central United States and
Canada, pg. 123. "As a tonic, Seton suggests boiling 2 lb. of twigs to a
gallon of water, until a pint of strong brown tea is left, which can be sipped
a half pint a day.  Birch tea is best made, however, by steeping, not boiling,
the twigs.  Boiling tends to drive off the wintergreen oil." (71-123)

- 1970 Joseph M. Kadans, Modern Encyclopedia of Herbs, pg. 59.  "Betula alba
(European Birch): This herb increases the tone of the gastro-intestinal mucous
membrane and is therefore known as a bitter.  By contracting tissue and
arresting discharge of fluids, it is also an astringent.  An ounce of the
dried leaves may be steeped in hot water to produce a pint of solution that
may be taken several times a day for the stomach and intestines.  The bark of
this tree yields a tar, from which is derived a volatile oil by distillation,
known as Oleum Rusci or Oleum betulinum.  This oil has been used internally
for the treatment of gonorrhea but is more widely known as a remedy for skin
diseases, especially those of the type known ass eczema where there is
itching, redness or infiltration, a condition where the skin contains deposits
of diseased fluid." (250-59)

- 1970 Virgil J. Vogel, American Indian Medicine, pg. 181. "Samuel Stearns
called the "juice" of Betula alba (White Birch) antiscorbutic, deobstruent,
diuretic, and laxative; the leaves and bark resolvent, detergent, and
antiseptic.  The leaves and bark applied externally, he claimed, "are said to
resolve hard tumours, cleanse foul ulcers, and resist putrefaction." 
Moreover, "the fumigations of the bark have been employed for correcting
contagious air."  When Dr. Clapp compiled his "Report on Medical Botany"
(1852), the B. nigra L. (Red Birch) and B. lenta L., (Cherry or Sweet Birch)
were listed in the United States Dispensatory.  The bark and small twigs were
sometimes used in infusion as an aromatic diaphoretic.  On distillation they
yielded an oil identical to that of wintergreen." (146-281)

- 1972 Don & Nancy Jason, Some Useful Wild Plants, pg. 150. "Birch buds and
leaves can be used as a salve for arthritis and rheumatism; methyl salicylate
is the active ingredient.  A strong bark decoction removes gravel stones from
the kidneys and a milder solution is good for sore throat.  Sap or juice from
the young leaves is effective in treating external skin irritations and
scurvy." (12-150)

- 1972 Jeanne Rose, Herbs & Things, pg. 44. "Commercial birch oil is marketed
as oil of wintergreen and used as an astringent, in antiseptic ointments for
skin diseases, and as a counterirritant for sore and stiff muscles and joints. 
Some mix this oil with other aromatic oils and use the combination as an
insect repellent (spread over the body). A decoction of the leaves is used as
a diuretic, is said to break kidney stones, and is gargled for sore mouths and
canker sores.  The dose is one teaspoon to a cup of boiling water.  Birch leaf
is also important as a gentle sedative.  Drunk at night it encourages quiet,
peaceful sleep with no druglike hangover." (314-44)

- 1973 Alma R. Hutchens, Indian Herbalogy of North America, pg. 38.
"Externally: Drink the tea freely when troubled with boils or skin eruptions. 
The oil of birch is applied to the skin for eczema and cutaneous diseases; the
tea is an effective when gargled for canker and mouth sores." (215-38)

- 1973 Frantisek Stary & Vaclav Jirasek, Herbs, pg. 86. "B. pendula: It [the
drug from the leaves] is used internally as an infusion in diseases where the
treatment requires increased excretion of urine to rid the body of harmful
substances, such as diseases of the kidneys and the urinary organs,
rheumatism, gout and dropsy.  The drug is therefore often used in urological
herbal teas.  Externally, it is used as a bath preparation." (38-86)

- 1974 John Lust, The Herb Book, pg. 118, (Betula alba). "Properties and Uses:
Astringent, diuretic, diaphoretic.  The leaf tea made by infusion is said to
eliminate gravel and dissolve kidney stones when taken daily for a time, 1
(one) to 1 1/2 cups a day.  It can also be used as a wash or bath additive for
skin problems.  A decoction of the leaves is sometimes recommended for
baldness (or try the expressed juice). If you have trouble sleeping, try the
decoction before going to bed as a mild sedative.  For chronic or severe skin
problems, use a decoction of birch bark as a wash or bath additive.  The inner
bark contains an oil which is sometimes substituted for wintergreen in
liniment. Preparation and Dosage: The leaves must be used fresh. Infusion: Use
1 tbsp. leaves with 1/2 cup hot water.  Decoction: Use 1 tbsp. leaves with 1/2
cup water.  Boil briefly, let stand for 2 hours, then add 1/2 tsp. bicarbonate
of soda.  Take up to 1 cup a day. Expressed Juice: Take 1 tsp. at a time, as
required." (195-118)

- 1974 John Lust, The Herb Book, pg. 118, (Betula lenta). "Properties and
Uses: Anthelmintic, astringent, diuretic.  Use leaf for urinary problems and
to expel intestinal worms.  A tea made from the inner bark makes a good
mouthwash, and taken internally is good for diarrhea, rheumatism, and boils. 
An oil similar to wintergreen can be distilled from the inner bark and twigs. 
Preparation and Dosage: Decoction: Use 1 tsp. inner bark or leaves with 1 cup
of water.  Take 1 to 2 cups a day. Tincture: A dose is 1/4 to 1/2 tsp." (195-
118)

- 1975 Dr. J. Triska, The Hamlyn Encyclopedia of Plants, pg. 276. "Betula
pendula Roth (Silver Birch): Birch Tar Oil is obtained from the white bark and
is used for the preparation of Russian leather to which it gives its
characteristic smell.  It is also a fungal and insect repellant." (119-276)

- 1979 Nelson Coon, Using Plants For Healing, pg. 76 [Betula lenta]. "Oil of
Sweet Birch is produced commercially, the supply coming from Connecticut and
Tennessee, according to Youngken's Textbook. He says that "the bark and twigs
are gathered from the trees from May to late September, chopped or ground and
placed in retorts with water which are kept warm overnight by a low fire
beneath them.  The following day the oil is distilled...Methyl salicylate, the
active principle constituting oil of sweet birch...is formed" in the process. 
Thus is produced an aromatic flavoring agent and an antirheumatic.  Salicylic
acid is a major ingredient of aspirin, and one supposes that the action of
birch oil in rheumatism is much the same as aspirin, which is so often
prescribed." (134-76)

- 1979 Malcolm Stuart, The Encyclopedia of Herbs & Herbalism, pg. 163. 
"Betula pendula Roth (Silver Birch): Uses (dried young leaves) Diuretic, with
mild antiseptic action, thus used in urinary tract infections.  Formerly used
for gout and rheumatism." (272-162)

- 1980 David G. Spoerke, Jr., Herbal Medications, pg. 31. "Alleged Uses: The
leaves [of Betula alba] have an agreeable, aromatic odor and have been used as
an infusion for rheumatism and dropsy.  Both the leaves and the bark have a
bitter taste.  The bark has been used as an astringent, while birch has found
use in treatment for various types of skin disorders." (135-31)

- 1983 David Potterton, Culpeper's Color Herbal, pg. 28. "Betula pendula (B.
alba):  'The juice of the leaves is good to wash sore mouths.' Astrology: It
is a tree of Venus.  Medicinal virtues: The juice of the leaves, or the
distilled water of them, breaks the stone in the kidneys or bladder, and is
good for sore mouths.  Modern Uses:  The bark and leaves are used in
preparations for skin diseases.  Distillation of the bark yields Birch Tar
Oil, an astringent ingredient of ointments for eczema and psoriasis.  Birch
tea is an infusion of the leaves.  It is bitter tasting but helpful in gout
and rheumatic complaints." (398-29)

- 1985 Eleanor Lawrence, The Illustrated Book of Trees & Shrubs, pg. 134. "B.
pendula (Silver Birch): The young leaves have been used in folk medicine for
their diuretic effect." (403-134).

- 1989 Janice J. Schofield, Discovering Wild Plants, pg. 63. "The bark and
leaves [of birch] are often used in teas for headache and rheumatic pain; for
these purposes, I like blending birch with willow, poplar, and nettle.  For a
calming tea that eases insomnia, I mix birch with pineapple weed flowers and
valerian.  Birch leaf infusions are often recommended to those with urinary
problems and kidney stones.  Herbalists have used decoctions of the astringent
bark internally for fevers and diarrhea, and externally for boils, psoriasis,
and vaginal douches for troublesome discharges.  Add birch buds and leaves to
salves for persistent skin afflictions such ringworm.  Blend leaves and bark
in liniments and massage oils for sore or strained muscles." (444-64)

RUSSIAN MEDICINAL USES:

- 1973 Alma R. Hutchens, Indian Herbalogy of North America, pg. 38. "Belaya
Bereza, Birch, is inseparable from the Russian people as it is their most
poetic tree.  In some way or time of life the Birch will be known to them
through their history, literature, poetry, songs, art and fairy tales.  They
consider it the most attractive and beautiful of all the trees in the world. 
Besides emotional and spiritual popularity, the use as medicine from time
immemorial goes back to the oldest tale of Russian history and their witness
of Folk Medicine and Birch.  The American Birch has admirable attention in
Russian botanical literature and they have a high opinion as to decorative and
industrial use.
Folk Medicine: For centuries Fold Medicine has used Birch in many preparations
for empirical and therapeutic results, long before clinical achievements and
approval in 1834.  One of the serious conditions being Cardial Dropsy. 
Birch Buds: Gathered and preserved with vodka (Nastoika) for out-of-season use
is an invaluable home medication.  This is used for Colds, Pain, Rheumatic
conditions, Stomach ulcers and pain, Vitality, Blood purifying, Appetiser,
Avitaminois, Liver and Gall-bladder, to dissolve stones of Kidney and Bladder
and many other individual complaints.  Birch Charcoal:  Used as an absorbent
in cases of poisoning, gas bloating and indigestion.
Birch Sap: In the spring is prepared as tea and is considered a vitamin treat
as a tonic for Anaemia, Gout, Scurvy, Rheumatism, etc.
Externally: Extract of leaves, buds and bark are applied to ulcers, wounds,
boils, eczema and all skin conditions of broken and unbroken surfaces;
rheumatic pain, swelling, albuminuria.  Russian history and life is
unthinkable without a steam bath.  Bania. Once a week this is the accepted
routine.  The stout-hearted race prepare a room with leaves placed over the
hot rocks which expel the cleansing vapours of moist heat as hot and as long
as the person's health will stand, and Russians excel in physical endurance. 
When perspiration is established, if the leaves were not placed over the rocks
a Beresovy Venic, Birch Broom, is used to vigorously thrash the body.  They
know any trouble will be taken care of, whatever it is, if the person can
stand the heat and the thrashing.  In our condition we can do something
similar, but not as severe.  Boil 2-5 lb. of leaves with enough water to cover
for 1-2 hr. in a pillow case or cotton cloth, pour this along with enough hot
water in the bath tub to reach the waist when seated.  Drench the shoulders,
neck, back, face and arms with the container for as long as you feel
comfortable.  In this case your heart will be your doctor; if you feel weak,
or relaxed to the point of falling asleep, make yourself get out.  This type
of herbal bath done once or twice a week for thirty time consecutively will
prove most beneficial for internal and external complaints, as the proper
function for both will be improved." (215-39)

- 1987 Eleanor G. Viereck, Alaska's Wilderness Medicines, pg. 9. "Birch sap as
medicine and spring tonic is bottled and sold in Russia (L. Viereck, personal
communication) Kari reports the Tanainas put fresh fresh birch sap on boils
and sores.  The old way to obtain sap is to peel back the bark and scrape or
suck the sap off the wood." (407-11)

CHINESE MEDICINAL USES:

- 1973 Li Shih-chen, Chinese Medicinal Herbs, pg. 68. "Betula alba (Hua-mu,
Hua-mu):  This is the White Birch tree which grows commonly in the mountains
of Northern China.  The bark is used by Chinese saddlers, shoemakers, cutlers,
and candle-makers, who turn its tanning or fatty principles to account in
their several trades.  The bark may also be used for torches.  The drug is
used in decoction for jaundice and bilious fevers, and the incinerated bark is
used as an application in mammary cancer and rodent ulcer.  It is also one of
the substances used to dye the whiskers, which, developing late in life in the
Chinese, are apt to soon turn grey or reddish-brown." (343-68)

- 1977 Francesco Bianchini & Francesco Corbetta, Health Plants of the World,
pg. 160. "The Birch (Betula alba)...the Chinese use a decoction of the bark
for jaundice and bilious fever, and as a tonic for the middle-aged and
elderly." (90-160)

INDIAN (AYURVEDIC) USES:

- 1986 Dr. Vasant Lad & David Frawley, The Yoga of Herbs: An Ayurvedic Guide
to Herbal Medicine, pg. 194. "Betula alba (White Birch): TASTE: bitter,
pungent. ENERGY: Cooling. PD-EFFECT: Pungent. DOSHA: PK-V+. ACTIONS:
Diaphoretic, diuretic, astringent." (396-194)

PREPARATION & DOSAGES:

- 1973 Alma R. Hutchens, Indian Herbalogy of North America, pg. 38. "A
teaspoonful of the leaves and/or bark infused in 1 cup of boiling water for 15
minutes, 3-5 cups daily; mixes well with other herbal teas." (215-38)

- 1979 Joseph E. Meyer, The Herbalist, pg. 15. "Betula lenta (Sweet Birch):
One teaspoonful of bark or leaves to a cup of boiling water.  Drink 1 or 2
cups a day. Tincture, 1/4 to 1/2 fl. dr." (124-15)

- 1979 Nelson Coon, Using Plants For Healing, pg. 76 [Betula lenta]. "In home
use the dried bark or leaves have been used as an excitant, diaphoretic,
astringent, antiseptic, carminative, and antipyretic.  An infusion may be made
at the rate of 1 teaspoonful to 1 cup of boiling water." (134-76)

- 1988 Hans Fluck, Medicinal Plants, pg.42. (Betula pendula Roth). "Usage:
Internally as a tisane (pour 1 litre [1.75 pt] of boiling water on 1-2
tablespoonfuls of chopped leaves and allow to stand - the addition of 1 gm
(0.04 oz) of bicarbonate of soda increases the efficacy of the tisane) for all
forms of urinary insufficiency, especially for dropsy.  Also used for
rheumatism, gout and infections of the urinary tract." (438-42)

COLLECTING & DRYING:

- 1973 Frantisek Stary & Vaclav Jirasek, Herbs, pg. 86. "B. pendula: The drug
is not cultivated but gathered only in the wild." (38-86)

- 1988 Hans Fluck, Medicinal Plants, pg.42. (Betula pendula Roth). "Part Used:
Young dried leaves. Leaves are collected in early summer, not more than 1-2
months after they have opened.  They are dried in the shade at not greater
than 40oc (104oF). (438-42)

VETERINARY MEDICINE:

- 1984 Juliette de Bairacli Levy, The Complete Herbal Handbook For Farm And
Stable, pg. 46. "A valuable horse tonic is made from the sap, much used by the
Red Indians.  To obtain the sap, holes are bored in the tree in the early
spring, before the appearance of the leaves.  It is preserved for use by
pouring a little oil on the surface of the extracted sap, thus keeping it
fresh for many months.  
USE: Treatment of digestive ailments, diarrhoea, general debility, weak
nerves, rheumatism.  As an internal and external antiseptic.  The leaves
increase flow of urine and expel worms.  A strong brew should be made, using
one handful of the leaves to one cup of water.

DOSE: As a tonic: four tablespoonfuls of the sap mixed into bran.  As a mild
vermifuge: four oz. of the crude sap.  Externally: mix with one part sap to
one part milk, and apply.  NOTE: The small twigs and inner bark can be used in
place of the sap." (402-46)


MATERIAL USES OF BIRCH:

PREPARING THE BARK FOR USE:

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Uses of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 386. "It
was customary to gather as much bark as possible in June or early in July as
the bark is more easily removed at that season.  The gathering of birch birch
and cedar bark was attended with a simple ceremony, as both these trees are
believed to be connected with Winabojo....In old times the procuring of birch
and cedar bark was an event in which all participated.  A number of families
went to the vicinity of these trees and made a camp.  A gathering was held, at
which a venerable man, speaking for the entire company, expressed gratitude to
the spirit of the trees and of the woods, saying they had come to gather a
supply which they needed, and asking for premission to do this together with
protection and strength for their work.  He also asked the protection and good
will of the thunderbirds so that no harm would come from them.  The reason he
asked the protection of the spirit of the woods was that sometimes people were
careless and cut trees thoughtlessly, and the trees fell and hurt them.  The
speaker then offered tobacco to the cardinal points, the sky, and the earth,
murmuring petitions as he did so.  He then put the tobacco in the ground at
the foot of the tree.  Filling a pipe, he offered it as he had offered the
tobacco, again murmuring petitions.  He then lit and smoked the pipe while
tobacco was distributed among the company, who smoked for a time.  They next
day the company divided into small groups and proceeded to cut the trees and
remove the bark.
   It is the rule that all the chopping of a birch tree shall be on one side
so that the tree after felling will rest on the stump.  This prevents the bark
being soiled by falling on the ground. In removing the bark a vertical cut is
made, the bark turned back with the left hand, passed under the trunk of the
tree and removed by the right hand.  The width of the strips depends on the
intended use of the bark.  An average width is about 24 inches.  The uppermost
branches of a tree are observed with special care as the bark on the upper
branches is often clear and smooth, though the trunk of the tree has been
scarred, or has had its bark removed at some previous time.  The tree is
permitted to remain as it falls, and when thoroughly dry is used for fuel.
   Utensils are often made as soon as a tree is cut.  The sheets of bark for
future use are tied in thick packs by means of strips of freshly cut basswood
trees that usually grow among the birches.  One hundred sheets usually
constitute one of these packs.  A pack is carried on a woman's back by a
strap.  This is stored at her home in the village, a larger supply being in a
birch-bark storehouse at her maple sugar camp.  The uses of birch bark are
many and various." 
   Birch bark can be unrolled only by exposing it to the heat of a fire.  When
heated it becomes pliable, and retains any form in which it is placed when
thus softened. (211-387)  

- 1979 Nancy J. Turner, Plants In British Columbia Indian Technology, 195.
"INDIAN USE: The bark, which can be peeled off the tree in large, flexible,
waterproof sheets, was as important to the native peoples of the Interior as
the bark of western red cedar was to the Coastal groups. It could be stripped
off at any time of the year, but was said to peel most easily in late spring
and early summer when the sap was running.  Bark with short horizontal lines
or lenticels was preferred to that with long lenticels because it would not
split and crack when it was being worked on.  Only the bark of the western
white birch was used; that of the closely related water birch (B.
occidentalis), which is reddish-brown in colour, was not of suitable quality
and, being thinner, was more difficult to harvest.
   In harvesting the bark, two horizontal cuts were made around the tree, one
high and one near the ground, and a single vertical cut was made between them. 
The sheet was then peeled off by lifting the edges along the cuts and pulling
horizontally.  When properly done, the harvesting did not kill the tree
because only the outer bark was removed, not the innermost layer next to the
living cambium tissue.  However, often an entire tree would be cut down to
collect bark from the upper trunk." (137-197)

BASKETS:

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Uses of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 388.
"Makuks: These were of various sorts, according to their use.  The most common
makuk was that used for storing maple sugar.  These makuks were sewed with
split roots, like the top of a canoe.  They ranged in size from makuks holding
about 1 pound of sugar to those holding 20 or 30 pounds.  A cover with
slanting sides was sewed over the top.  A similar makuk of medium or rather
large size was used as a bucket, the seams being covered with pitch and a
handle attached.  The makuks used for gathering and storing berries had
straight sides, and the storage makuks were frequently made with the rough
outer surface of the bark on the outside.  A berry gathering makuk had a loop
of fiber attached to one side so it could be hung from a woman's belt as she
worked.  These small makuks for gathering fruit held about a quart, and the
storage makuks or those for carrying the berries frequently held 12 quarts or
more.  The storage makuks had no binding around the top, and were frequently
made with one side higher than the other so it could be lapped over and tied. 
This sort of makuk was used for storing fish, over which maple sugar was
sprinkled.  This preserved the dried berries or fish, and it was easier to get
at the contents in this type of makuk than in the sort used for maple sugar."
(211-389)

- 1973 Carrier Linguistic Committee, Hanuyeh Ghun 'Utni-i, 67. "The Birch tree
is white and is found everywhere.  Its bark looks like it is peeling.  The
inner bark is strong.  That is why they make baskets out of it.  The outer
bark is good for nothing.  The old-timers made large dishes out of the inner
bark.  They used them when they were processing fish.  They would also use
birch dishes when they picked berries.  These were called tl'usts'ai.  They
also made dishes to eat with.  Other things they made were canoes, and
toboggans.  The wood from the birch tree is strong and slippery.  That makes
it good for toboggans.  The old-timers made these things all by hand.  They
took the spruce roots and with the root fibers they sewed these things
together.  Sometimes they peeled the willow bark and sewed it as one sews with
thread." (280-67)

- 1979 Nancy J. Turner, Plants In British Columbia Indian Technology, 197.
"Baskets and canoes were the items most commonly made from birch bark by the
interior peoples.  Some of the Coastal groups, including the Upper Stalo and
Bella Coola, also made them on occasion, but they learned the craft from their
Interior neighbours.  Certain Interior groups, such as the Shuswap, were
famous for their skill in working with birch bark.  Their baskets were widely
traded amongst the peoples of the central and southern Interior." (137-197)

- 1979 Nancy J. Turner, Plants In British Columbia Indian Technology, 197.
"The baskets were constructed by making four diagonal cuts, two from each
edge, toward the middle of a rectangular sheet of bark.  The sheet was then
folded into a box-like shape, with the cuts directed towards the bottom
corners and the edges coming together to form side seams.  In accordance with
the natural tendency of the bark to curl outward when peeled off the tree, the
whitish outer surface of the bark formed the inside of the basket and the
reddish-brown inner surface formed the basket's exterior.  The side seams were
sewn, usually with split cedar or spruce root or willow bark, and a circular
hoop of the same material or of willow, cedar, red-osier dogwood, or some
other flexible wood, was bound or stitched to the top.  Finally the seams were
caulked with pitch, and designs, some of them very intricate, were etched on
the outer surface.  Birch-bark containers were made in a variety of sizes and
could be used for picking berries, storing food, boiling food by the hot rock
method, and even for packing water.  In cooking, green sticks of Saskatoon
berry or some other shrub were laid in the bottom of the basket to prevent the
hot rocks from burning through the birch bark." (137-197)

BLANKET MATERIAL:

- 1975 Dr. Triska, The Hamlyn Encyclopedia of Plants, pg. 78. "Dwarf Birch
(Betula nana L.): Dwarf Birch grows in bogs, moorlands and glacial valleys. 
It is a sub-arctic species which is often found in association with Mountain
Avens (Dryas octopetala) and Dwarf Willows (Salix spp.).  It is rare in
Britain and occurs only in Northumberland and some of the Scottish mountains. 
It is found in northern and Central Europe from the Artic southwards. 
Probably in some mountain areas it is a relic of the Ice Age flora.  In
Lapland the fine roots are used to make blankets." (119-78)

BURIAL PRACTICES:

- 1624 Father Theodat Gabriel Sagard, Le gran voyage du pays des Hurons, situe
en l'Amerique vers mer douche, es dernier confines de la Nouvelle Franch, dite
Canada, Published in translation by the Champlain Soc. XXV 1939 ed. Wrong.
fac. ed. 1968 Greenwood, N.Y. 99. "Burial. "when all have arrived there
[cemetery] each keeps silent, somestanding, others seated, as it pleases them,
while they raise the corpse on high and arrange it in its coffin, made and
prepared expressly for it; for each corpse is put intn a coffin apart.  It is
made of thick bark and is raired on four big wooden pillars, painted a little,
about nine or ten feet high; my guess is that in raising my hand, I could not
touch the top by more than a foot or two.  The corpse being put up, with the
bread, oil, hatchets, and other things that they wish to put there, they close
it."...251-252." (369-38)

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Uses of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 386.
"Heavy birch bark was wrapped around the bodies of the dead." (211-388)

- 1975 Catharine McClellan, My Old People Say, An Ethnograplhic Survey of
Southern Yukon Territory, Part 1, National Museums of Canada, Publications in
Ethnology, No. 6(1), pg. 249. "One Southern Tutchone said that his people used
to put the ashes of the dead into a birchbark container and place it somewhere
up high." (296-249)

CANOE:  

- 1509 Caesariensis Eusebii, 1512 Episcopi Chronicon. in Weise 1884 p. 299. 
Newfoundland. "Seven wild men were brought from that island (which is called
the New Land) to Rouen with their canoe...Their canoe is bark, which a man can
lift on his shoulders with one hand." (369-37)

- 1534 Jacques Cartier, First voyage to Canada, St. Lawrence transl. 23. "They
[the Indians met near Blanc-Sablon] have boats in which they go to sea, that
are made of the bark of the birch, from which they catch many fish." (369-37)
- 1535-6 Jacques Cartier, Second voyage to Canada, Quebec transl. 144. "There
are many birches"..155-58 Hochelaga (Montreal). "There is in this city about
50 houses, each about 50 paces long or more, and 12 or 15 wide, all made of
wood, covered with large pieces of the bark of the said wood, as big as
tables, very well sewn, after their manner." [Could be bark of other trees].
(369-37)

- 1603 Samuel Champlain, Des sauvages, ou voyage de Samuel Champlain de
Brouage fait en la France Nouvelle, l'an mil six cens trois, Champlain-Purchas
Tadoussac 161. "Their canoewes are some eight or nine pases [paces] long, and
a pase, or a pase & a half broad in the middest, and grown sharper & sharper
toward both ends.  They are very subject to overturning, if one knows not how
to guide them; for they are made of the barke of a Birch tree, strengthened
within with little circles of wood well & handsomely framed and are so light,
tha one man will carry one of them easily; and every canowe is able to carry
the weight of a Pipe: when they would pass over any land to goe to some River
where they have business, they carry them with them...198. But with the canoas
of the Savages a man may travell freely and readily into all countries, as
well in the small as in the great Rivers: So that directing himselfe by the
meanes of the said Savages and their canoas, a man may well see all that is to
be seene, good and bad, within the space of a yere or two...Their cabins are
low like their tents, covered with the said barke of a tree...159.  The men
sat on both sides of the house...[each] with his dish made of the barke of a
tree." (369-38)

- 1613 Samuel Champlain, Les voyages de sieur de Champlain Xaintongeois,
Thatcher Island New England coast 1605 transl.74. "After having stayed some
two hours to consider this people, who have their canoes made of birch bark
like the Canadians, Souriquois & Etchemins, we raised anchor...Having gone 7
or 8 leagues we dropped ancher [Boston Harbour]...lots of savages who ran to
see us...their canoes are made all in one piece, very hard to turn, if you are
not very adroit in steering them: & we had never seen any made in this fashion
before...138. HURONS Then they take a sweat and call their friends to take
one, too; for they think it the true cure by which to recover health.  They
cover themselves with 
their robes and some big pieces of bark of trees, and have in their midst good
many stones which have been heated in the fire. While they are in the sweat,
they sing all the time." (369-38)

- 1620 Whitbourne Newfoundland 1579 72. "Cannowes are...made with the rind of
birch trees; which they sowe very artificially and close together, and overly
every stem with turpentine." (369-38)

- 1680 Bacqueville de la Potherie Michilimackinac. "Refuge of all the savages
who trade their peltries...when they choose to work, they make canoes of birch
bark which they sell two at three hundred livres each.  They get a shirt for
two sheets of bark for cabins [Blair 1911 1:282]." (369-39)

- 1749 Peter Kalm, 1748-51 Travels in north America,English Version 1770 2
vols. Quebec 551. "Birch-bark is said to be quite scarce in Canada and birch-
bark canoes daily more expensive.  Birch-bark Canoes.  All the strips and ribs
in them are made of white cedar (Thuja); the space between the latter varying
in breadth between that of a palm and the width of three digits.  The strips
are placed so close to one another that one cannot see the birch-bark between
them.  All seams are held together by spruce roots or ropes made of the same
material split.  In all the seams the birch-bark has been turned in double. 
The seams are made like a tailor's cross-stitch.  In place of pitch they use
melted resin on the outside seams.  If there is a small hole in the birch
bark, resin is melted over it.  The inside of the bark or that nearest the
tree always becomes the outer side of the boat.  The whole canoe consists
ordinarily of six pieces of birch-bark only, of which two are located
underneath and two on either side.  The bark strip directly underneath is
sometimes so long that it covers three fourths of the canoe's length.  I have
not yet seen a boat whose bottom consisted of one piece only.  Birch-bark
canoes are dangerous to navigate, because if the sail is forced down in stormy
weather, it may splinter the bottom of the boat." (369-40)

- 1975 Catharine McClellan, My Old People Say, An Ethnograplhic Survey of
Southern Yukon Territory, Part 1, National Museums of Canada, Publications in
Ethnology, No. 6(1), pg. 249. "Birchbark canoes were evidently of the same
shape and made much the same way as those made of spruce, but were much rarer
in southern Yukon because good birch is so scarce.  Several pieces of bark
were needed to make a single canoe, and the length seldom exceeded 10 feet. 
Although they could be built in a day or two and were light to carry, birch
canoes are said to have broken very easily.  It is probable that the Southern
Tutchone made them more often than did the other two tribes." (296-269)

- 1976 T. Christopher Brayshaw, Catkin Bearing Plants of British Columbia,
B.C. Provincial Museum, No. 18 Occasional Paper Series, pg 144. "White birch
was an important tree during the fur-trading period, when the traders relied
on this species to provide the bark for building their canoes." (164-144)

- 1979 Nancy J. Turner, Plants In British Columbia Indian Technology, 195.
"Canoes were also made from a single piece of bark, folded and sewn onto a
frame of willow or cedar withes.  The seams and cracks were sealed with pitch. 
Some of the canoes were 4.5 m (15 ft) or more in length.  They were strong yet
buoyant and with proper handling were capable of tremendous speeds.  Some of
the canoes made by Athapaskan groups such as the Carrier were so skillfully
constructed that they could be dismantled and folded for portaging." (137-199)

CHARCOAL:

- 1975 Dr. J. Triska, The Hamlyn Encyclopedia of Plants, pg. 276. "Betula
pendula Roth (Silver Birch): From the charcoal of the bark, material for
painters and printers is made." (119-276)

COOKING CONTAINERS:

- 1975 Catharine McClellan, My Old People Say, An Ethnograplhic Survey of
Southern Yukon Territory, Part 1, National Museums of Canada, Publications in
Ethnology, No. 6(1), pg. 209. "The fresh meat of large game is usually boiled
or roasted.  One man said that in aboriginal times people cooked in large
squarish birchbark containers which had four handles, one on each side.  These
were hung on four sticks which had been driven into the ground.  The "pot" was
then filled with snow or water and the meat put in.  Next, hot stones were
dropped into the basket by means of "tongs" made of two separate sticks, the
ends of which had been whittled flat on one side.  "A whole lot" of stones
were needed, since five or six would be in the pot while others were heating
in the fire.  The informant did not mention rinsing the stones off, and I
neglected to ask about it, but this was the rule for the other two tribes and
was probably a Tutchone practice as well.  Some older Tutchone declare that
they still like to stone boil in winter.  They say that they can locate the
proper stones under the snow, "on the hillside."  Peeled sticks are used to
stir the food." (296-209)

- 1975 Catharine McClellan, My Old People Say, An Ethnograplhic Survey of
Southern Yukon Territory, Part 1, National Museums of Canada, Publications in
Ethnology, No. 6(1), pg. 210. "The [bear] grease used to be rendered by
putting fat and water into a large birchbark container.  The mixture was then
stone boiled for a long time and finally allowed to cool.  Later the refined
grease was remelted and poured into clean moose-stomach containers." (296-210)

- 1975 Catharine McClellan, My Old People Say, An Ethnograplhic Survey of
Southern Yukon Territory, Part 1, National Museums of Canada, Publications in
Ethnology, No. 6(1), pg. 281. "The Tagish told of aboriginal wooden cooking
spoons, which had long straight handles very like modern kitchen spoons.  Each
person also had his own ladle-like modern kitchen spoon for everyday use,
perferably made of birch, since willow turns black and spruce and jack pine
taste pitchy.  The Southern Tutchone described these wooden ladles as having
"short" handles." (296-281)

COMPOST:

- 1989 Janice J. Schofield, Discovering Wild Plants, pg. 64. "Besides being an
aesthetic addition to home gardens, birch is an excellent companion plant. 
Use it on the outskirts of your compost pile to encourage fermentation;
compost action is believed to be stimulated by substances secreted by birch
roots.  According to Companion Plants and How to Use Them, soil from the
vicinity of birches helps heal ailing plants and restores fertility to barren
or averacid soils." (444-64)

COSMETICS:

- 1973 Frantisek Stary & Vaclav Jirasek, Herbs, pg. 86. "B. pendula: 'Birch
Juice' is gathered in spring by tapping of the tree trunks and is used as an
additive in perfumery.  Birch oil, also used in perfumery, is recovered from
the young buds in quantities of 3.5 to 8 per cent, mainly in the United
States." (38-86)

- 1977 Schauenberg & Paris, Guide to Medicinal Plants, pg. 199 [Betula
pendula, Roth].  "..in the cosmetic industry as a component of many lotions
and creams.  The fragrance known as 'Russian leather' is produced by treating
skins with a birch pitch." (439-199)

- 1979 Nancy J. Turner, Plants In British Columbia Indian Technology, 199.
"The Shuswap steeped birch leaves in water to make a shampoo, and mixed birch
leaves, children's urine, and alkali clay from the edges of certain lakes to
make soap for washing the skin." (137-199)

- 1983 Tom Brown Jr., Tom Brown's Field Guide To Wilderness Survival, pg. 92.
"The tea [from leaves, bark, or sap] can be used as a wash for de-scenting the
body before hunting or trapping." (270-92)

- 1989 Janice J. Schofield, Discovering Wild Plants, pg. 64. "Birch twig
facial steams are reported to be therapeutic for clogged sinuses; as an added
bonus, the fragrant steam helps clear the complexion of acne.  If you're
troubled by skin eruptions, add birch decoctions to the bath water.  Dried,
finely powdered birch inner bark is a good addition to bath powders for chafed
skin.  Gargel with birch tea to freshen the breath.  In Germany and Austria,
birch leaf extract is a common ingredient in commercial hair preparations; at
home you can prepare birch tea hair rinse for scalp infections and dandruff. 
The Chinese use birch roots and bark decoctions as dye for hair and beards."
(444-64)

COVERINGS FOR DWELLINGS:

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Uses of Plants By the Chippewa Indians, pg. 389.
"Sheets of bark were sewn together with basswood fiber (not twisted) and made
into the "birch-bark rolls" used as covers for dwellings, the sheets of bark
being placed horizontally.  Sticks across the ends of the roll kept it from
tearing.  These rools were used most frequently on the tops of the wigwams, or
lodges with frames of bent poles, but were also used on the conical tipis, and
sometimes on the roof of the lodge in which maple sugar was made, this lodge
having a frame like that of a house." (211-390)

CULTIVATION:

- 1624 Father Theodat Gabriel Sagard, Le gran voyage du pays des Hurons, situe
en l'Amerique vers mer douche, es dernier confines de la Nouvelle Franch, dite
Canada, Published in translation by the Champlain Soc. XXV 1939 ed. Wrong.
fac. ed. 1968 Greenwood, N.Y. 99. "They also sow many native pumpkins and
raise them with great ease by this invention:  The Huron women in season go to
the neighbouring forests to gather a quantity of rotten wood powder around old
stumps; then having prepared a large bark box they make a layer in it of this
powder on which they sow the pumpkin seeds; afterward, they cover it with
another layer of the same dust and again sow seeds, up to two, three, and four
times, as much as they wish in such a way nevertheless that there still
remains four or five good fingers of empty space in the box, in order to leave
room for the shoots of the seeds.  Afterwards they cover the box with a large
piece of bark and put it on two poles suspended in the smoke of the fire,
which heats gradually the powder and then the seeds so much that they sprout
in a very few days; being well grown and ready for planting they take them in
bunches with their powder, separate them, then plant them in the places
prepared, from whence they afterward gather the fruit in season." (369-38)

- 1974 William H. Hylton, The Rodale Herb Book, Rodale Press Book Division,
pg. 367. "Birches improve the soil, restore fertility to barren soil, and
planted near the compost area, encourage fermentation.  Leaves should be added
to the compost." (225-367)

- 1974 William H. Hylton, The Rodale Herb Book, Rodale Press Book Division,
pg. 366. "Various species of birch can be used effectively in the garden
landscape plan.  They will add a distinctive charm in the dormant searon with
their delicate branches and conspicuous barks.  They blend well into a
naturalistic or woodland type of planting, or near a rocky pool where the
autumn gold nf the leaves reflects in the water." (225-366)

- 1985 Eleanor Lawrence, The Illustrated Bonk of Trees & Shrubs, pg. 136.
"Banoe Birch is also used as rootstock for grafting large-leaved birches.  It
is uncommon in England, to be seen only in large parks and gardens." (403-136)

DISHES AND TRAYR:

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Uses of Plants By the Chippewa Indians, pg. 389.
"Dishes and Trays: For temporary and household use the birch-bark dishes were
not always stiffened and bound at the top.  The dishes for common use were
made of birch bark folded and fastened with one or two stitches at each end. 
These were tied in bunches of 10 for packing or storage.  The common size was
about 10 inches long and 5 inches deep, though smaller and larger ones were
frequently made.  The shallow trays are more often seen with better finnish,
the superfluous bark being cut away at the ends, the overlapping edges sewed
with split roots and the top finished with a stiff piece of bark, firmly sewed
in place.  Slippery elm bark was sometimes chewed and applied like gum to the
inside of the seams on birch-bark containers to make them water-tight.  The
largest trays were those used for winnowing wild rice. Somewhat smaller trays
were used for various household purposes, including the carrying of coils of
basswood fiber for making into twine.  An old and rarely seen form of birch-
bark dish was round, about 9 inches in diameter and 3 inches deep.  The bark
was adjusted in folds around the sides and the dish or tray was finished at
the upper edge with two rows of sweet grass." (211-389)

DYEING:

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Uses of Plants By the Chippewa Indians, pg. 370. "RED
DYE: 

  Betula papyrifera Marsh. (White Birch). 
  Cornus stolonifera Michx. (Red-osier Dogwood. Outer and inner bark).
  Quercus species (Oak)
  Ashes from cedar bark
  Hot Water

DIRECTIONS: Boil the barks in the hot water.  Prepare the ashes by burning
about an armful of scraps of cedar bark.  This should make about 2 cups of
ashes, which is the correct quantity for about 2 gallons of dye.  Sift the
ashes through a piece of cheesecloth.  Put them into the dye after it has
boiled a while, then let it boil up again, and then put in the material to be
colored.  Do not let a man or any outsider look into the dye. (211-370) 

- 1931 M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, pg. 104, (B. nana). "Smooth Dwarf Birch,
rarely grows above 3 feet in height. The leaver are said to dye a better
yellow than the common Birch." (141-104)

- 1977 Judy Waldner McGrath, Dyes From Lichens & Plants, pg. 104. "Betula
glandulosa (Ground or Dwarf Birch): This dwarf birch has tiny oval serrated
leaves, dark green in the summer and a beautiful, fiery red-orange in the
fall.  The plant is high in resin and where abundant is used for fires. 
Betula glandulosa is known from Alaska through Greenland and south into most
of the Canadian provinces and the central and northeastern United States.  It
is not usually found in the high Arctic.

            The summer leaves of the birch probably make a clear yellow dye
            like that of the willow leaves.  The Leaves and bark of southern
            species from the birch family are recommended for dyes.  For best
            dye results the following ratios are suggested:  2 lbs. leaves to
            1 lb. wool.  1 lb. branches to 1 lb. wool.

            METHOD 4: Place finely chopped pieces in a pot and cover with
            lukewarm water.  Let stand overnight.  Bring slowly to a boil and
            simmer 2 to 12 hours.  Strain the plants from the dyebath and
            cool.  Add clean, wet, alum-treated fiber and simmer 2 to 12
            hours, depending on desired color.  In the case of heather,
            willow, birch, Labrador tea, rhododendron and some other woody
            plants it is not necessary to use alum-treated fiber.  You may use
            washed untreated fiber instead.


By Method 4 the branches and untreated wool produce a warm tan similar to the
tan color of the seaweed dye shown on Plate XIII.  By Method 4 the branches
with alum-treated wool produce a golden tan like that of Rhacomitrium
lanuginosum moss, Plate XII, or Cetraria nivalis & C. cucullata lichens, Plate
X." (111-104)

- 1978 Hermine Lathrop-smit, Natural Dyes, pg 59. "This recipe gives the
general method for dyeing with tree barks.  200 grams wool, 400 grams tree
bark, 8 litres water.  Break the twigs and soak them overnight. Simmer the
twigs for 3 to 5 hours or longer.  Layer wool with the bark and twigs and
simmer 2 to 5 hours or longer.  Remove the wool, rinse and dry.  The dyestuff
can be used again.  Colour: grey-brown with birch.  For greenish tones when
dyeing with birch, use blue vitriol to mordant.  Colour fastness: good.

FANS:

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Use of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 390.
"These were made in the woods whenever needed, two pieces of bark being sewed
together and slipped into a cleft stick, which served as a handle.  A man
might carry a fan ornamented with feathers, one specimen having the bark cut
off squarely and a row of stiff feathers forming the upper portion of the fan. 
Plate 55, a, shows an owl-feather fan with handle of birch bark.  A woman used
an ornamented fan." (211-390)

FIREWOOD:

- 1743 James Isham, Observations on Hudson's Bay and notes and observations on
a book entitled 'A Voyage to Hudson Bay in the Dobbs Galley 1746-7', 136.
"Their grow's here Large Berch tree, which they call (wursequatick), on the
Root of the branches of the said tree, grow's Large Knops of wood of Different
form's which they style (posogan) which posogan is of great service to the
Natives, they using itt to strike Light to, as we do touch wood, itts very
soft & spunge and Very Light when Dryed., itts substance Resembles Spunge,
some being soft, some hard, according to the time geather'd, and is of a
Yellowish Colour, some of which pieces is as big as a peck, - and this posogan
when once Light is Very Difficult to put out, if not tak'n in time, and if not
put out will Clow and Bur'n tell quite Consum'd to ashes and never Blaze."
(369-39)

- 1954 William M. Harlow, Trees of the Eastern and Central United States and
Canada, pg. 117. "As firewood, it varies with the species; that of yellow and
black birch produces better live coals than that of white and gray." (71-117)

- 1975 Catharine McClellan, My Old People Say, An Ethnograplhic Survey of
Southern Yukon Territory, Part 1, National Museums of Canada, Publications in
Ethnology, No. 6(1), pg. 245. "Inland Tlingit at Atlin insisted that birchbark
torches of some kind were used to light the houses." (296-245)

- 1983 Tom Brown Jr., Tom Brown's Field Guide To Wilderness Survival, pg. 92.
"Birch bark makes a tinder that burns even when soaking wet." (270-92)

- 1985 Eleanor Lawrence, The Illustrated Book of Trees & Shrubs, pg. 136.
"Fresh birchwood burns well for green wood, because of inflammable resins in
the wood." (403-136)

FUNNELS OR CONES:

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Use of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 389.
"Funnels or cones: These varied in size from the tiny cones filled with hard
sugar and hung on a baby's cradle board and the somewhat larger cones
similarly filled for the delectation of children to the large funnels made of
heavy bark and sewed with split roots that were used chiefly for pouring hot
fat into bladders for storage.  Spoons made of bark were also used." (211-388)

INK:

- 1985 Eleanor Lawrence, The Illustrated Book of Trees & Shrubs, pg. 134. "B.
pendula (Silver Birch): Birch soot was formerly used to make carbon black for
printing ink." (403-134)

IMPLEMENTS (General):

- 1640 John Parkinson, Theatrum Botanicum, pg. 34. "Many civill uses the Birch
is put unto, as first to decke up houses and arbours, both for the fresh
greennesse and good sent (scent) it casteth; it serveth to make hoopes to
binde caskes withall; the young branches being fresh are writhed, and serve
for bands unto faggots; of the young twigges are made broomes to sweepe our
houses, as also rods to correct children at schools, or at home, and was an
ensigne born in bundles by the Lictors or Sergeants before the Consulls in the
old Roman times, with which, and with axes borne in the like manner, they
declared the punishment for lesser, and greater offenses, to their people."
(345-34)

- 1551-68 William Turner, The first and second partes of the herbal of William
Turner doctor in phisick, Herbal England. "Birch...Fisherers in Northumberland
England pull off the uttermost bark and put it in the clyft of a sticke and
set in fyre and hold it at the water side and make fish come thether, which if
they se they stryke with theyr leysters or sammon speres.  The same is good to
make hoopes of and twigges for baskettes, it is so bowings." [Rhodes 1922:89]

- 1609 Marc Lescarbot, Nova Francia, a description of Acadia 1606, 301. "As
for the trees of the forests, the most common in Port Royal be...birch (very
good for joiner's work)...247." (369-38)

- 1624 Father Theodat Gabriel Sagard, Le gran voyage du pays des Hurons, ritue
en l'Amerique vers mer douche, es dernier confines de la Nouvelle Franch, dite
Canada, Published in translation by the Bhamplain Soc. XXV 1939 ed. Wrong.
fac. ed. 1968 Greenwood, N.Y. 99. "Tnrches made of little horn-shaped rolls of
birch bark were used...122-25.  At each end of the hourses there is a porch,
and these porches serve them principally for holding their vats and tuns of
bark, in which they store the corn, after it is very dry and shelled...As for
the fish of which they make provision for winter, after it is smoked they
store it in bark vats called Acha...For fear of fire, to which they are
subject, they often put whatever they have that is most precious into vats and
bury them in deep holes dug in their cabins and then cover them with the same
earth; this gives protection not only from fire but also from the hands of
thieves for they have no other chest nor closet in all their household but
these little casks...102. The women made the baskets, both of reeds and
birchbark, to hold the beans, corn, peas, meat, fish and other foods, and the
bark bowls used for drinking and eating"...57-60.  While on a journey with the
Hurons the shelter was made of two pieces of birchbark laid against four small
poles stuck into the ground...Sagamite was served in bowls of birchbark that
each man carried with him, together with a large spoon..."The bowls could
hardly have a pleasant smell, for when they were under necessity of making
water in their canoe they usually used the bowl for that purpose; but on land
they stoop down in some place apart with decency and modesty that were
anything but savage."...28. (369-38)

- 1639 LeJeune  1610-1791 Travel and explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries
in New France, vol. 17; 29. Granaries or chests of corn in use among the
Hurons...both elm and birchbark were used for such utensils, as well as for
many other household purposes. [Remains of birchbark boxes or storage
receptacles have been found on Huron and other villages sites, according to an
explanatory note by Waugh 1916]." (369-39)

- 1643 Lalement 1610-1791 Travel and explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries
in New France, vol. 26; 113. The French who dwelt far from settled areas
around Quebec were often forced to rely upon Indian implements and utensils
since difficulty of obtaining an adequate supply in remote places was
sometimes great.  Bark containers were in frequent and widespread use at
Tadoussac. (369-39)

- 1691 Christien LeClercq, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, book 2; 96. Besides
the canoe and snowshoe, industries which were developed by such peoples as the
Abenaki, Huron and Micmac, an export trade in curios, ornamental canoes and
such trinkets sprang up in Acadia at that time. (359-39)
- 1698 Father Louis Hennepin, A new discovery of a vast country in America,
Fort Frontenac 580. "Our Spanish wine failing us, we made more of wild Grapes,
which were very good; we put it into a little Barrel, in which our Wine was
kept that we brought with us, and some bottles. A wooden-Mortar and an Alter-
Towel was our Press.  The fat [vat] was a Bucket of Bark.  Our candle was
chips of the Bark of the Birch-Tree, which lasted a small while." (369-39)

- 1799 Isaac Weld, Travels through North America, pg. 17. "It is for their
very curious bark-work that the sisters of this convent [the Ursulines at
Trois-Rivieres] are particularly distinguished.  The bark of the birch tree is
what they use, and with it they make pocket-books, work-baskets, dressing-
boxes, &c.&c. which they embroider with eld hair, died of the most brilliant
colours.  They also make models of the Indian canoes, and various war-like
implements used by the Indians.  Nearly all the birch bark canoes in use on
the St. Lawrence and Utawa Rivers, and on the nearer lakes, are manufactured
at Three Rivers, and in the neighbourhood, by Indians." (131-Birch)

- 1807 George Heriot, Travels through the Canadas, pg. 283. "Wandering
nations, such as the Algonquins, who remain but for a short time in one
situation, are satisfied with making their huts extremely low, and with
placing them in a confused manner.  They generally carry with them large rools
of the bark of the birch-tree, and form the frames of the cabins of wattles or
twigs stuck into the earth in a circular figure, and united near their upper
extremities.  Upon the outside of this frame the bark is unrolled, and thus
affords shelter from rain and from the influence of the sun." (131-Birch)

- 1824 Bishop George Mountain, Visit to the Gaspe' Coast, pg. 12. "If you want
any extra light [the Indians] make a candle in a moment with a twisted piece
of birch bark, & if you desire to have it fixed it is set in a split stick
planted in the ground; but it requires frequent snuffing.  So if you are short
at any time of a cup for drinking, or a vessal for bailing the canoe, the want
is supplied in half a moment by a kind of bowl or scuttle of bark which if
held properly, so as to keep it tight, in the hand, retains the water even
without being stitched." (131-Birch)

- 1829 Sir George Head, Forest Scenes and Incidents, pg. 283. "Not only are
the canoes in which the Indians trust themselves on lakes sufficiently
boisterous, some miles from the shore, made of it, but also all sorts of small
cups and dishes.  Besides, it burns like pitch; splits into threads which
serve for twine; and the filmy part, near the outside, may be written upon in
pencil, making no bad substitute for paper." (131-Birch)

- 1853 Samuel Strickland, Twenty-Seven Years in Canada West, pg. 53. "The
squaws have a curious method of forming patterns upon this bark with their
teeth, producing very elegant and elaborate designs.  They double a strip of
bark many times into angles, which they bite at the sharp corners in various
forms.  Upon the piece being unfolded, the pattern appears, which is generally
filled in very ingeniously with beads and coloured porcupine quills.  The
squaws perform this work in the dark quite as well as in the daylight." (131-
Birch)

- 1862 Bernard R. Ross, An Account of the Botanical and Mineral products,
Useful to the Chipewyan Tribes of Indians, Inhabiting the McKenzie River
District. Canadian Naturalist and Geologist 7. 133-137. "The Canoe or Paper
Birch (Betula papyracea)...Its bark is used in the construction of canoes, and
in the manufacture of various utensils for dnmestic use, such as drinking
cups, dishes, and baskets.  It also yields spunk or touchwood of the best
quality.  Of its wood, platters, axe-helves, paddles, snnw-shoe-frames, dof-
sleds and other articles are made, and as it is a strong and durable material,
of close grain, and susceptible of receiving a tolerable polish, the vhite
residents avail themselves of it for the construction of furniture." (305-42)

- 1931 M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, pg. 103, (B. alba). "The wood soft and not
very durable, but being cheap, and the tree being able to thrive in any
situation and soil, growing all over Europe, is used for many humble purposes,
such as bobbins for thread mills, herring-barrel staves, broom handles, and
various fancy articles.  In country districts, the Birch has very many uses,
the lighter twigs being employed for thatching and wattles.  The twigs are
also used in broom making and in the manufacture of cloth.  The tree has also
been one of the sources from which asphyxiating gases have been manufactured,
and its charcoal is much used for gunpowder." (141-103)

- 1931 M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, pg. 104, (B. lenta). "..is an American
variety, with richly-marked wood suitable for the use of cabinet and
pianoforte makers." (141-104)

- 1972 Jeanne Rose, Herbs & Things, pg. 44. "The bark...it was also used as
the skin of some World War II planes.  The wood is hard and reddish-brown and
is made into furniture and plywood." (314-44)

- 1975 Dr. J. Triska, The Hamlyn Encyclopedia of Plants, pg. 276.  "The white
wood is soft and light but durable.  It is used in the manufacture of
furniture, also of tool-handles, and in wood carving. The twigs are used for
thatching and for making brooms." (119-276)

- 1978 V. H. Heywood, Flowering Plants of the World, pg. 60. "Branchlets of
Betula species are used to make the besom brushes used by gardeners." (118-60)

- 1978 Nancy J. Turner & Adam F. Szczawinski, Wild Coffee and Tea Substitutes
of Canada, pg 49. "The wood of the sweet and yellow birches is heavy, hard,
strong, and straight-grained.  It is used in flooring, furniture, plywood,
veneer, railway ties, and in the hardwood distillation industry.  In Canada,
yellow birch far exceeds sweet birch in importance because it is so much more
abundant." (98-49)

- 1979 Nancy J. Turner, Plants In British Columbia Indian Technology, 199.
"BIRCH BARK was also used for wrapping foods for storage, lining graves and
covering corpses, splinting broken limbs, binding implements, and as roofing
for temporary shelters.  The Lillooet placed funnel-shaped circles of birch
bark arond the poles of raised food caches to protect them from climbing
rodents.  The Tahltan made snow goggles from the bark, the Beaver made moose
calls, and the Carrier made toboggans.  The Lillooet, Thompson, Shuswap, and
other groups made birch-bark infant carriers, cradles, and urine conduits but
the watertight qualities of the bark made it hot and uncomfortable for babies
in the summer." (137-199)

- 1979 Nancy J. Turner, Plants In British Columbia Indian Technology, 199.
"BIRCH WOOD, of uniform texture, strong, and close-grained, but not durable,
was employed in a variety of capacities.  The Lillooet carved dishes, cups,
spoons, and digging-stick handles from it.  The Carrier used it to make mauls,
digging sticks, and snowshoe frames, and the Tahltan for snowshoe frames and
ground sticks, bows, and gambling sticks.  Birch-wood snowshoes were said to
be excellent for dry snow but absorbed moisture and became too heavy in wet
snow.  The Beaver sometimes used birch for arrows.  On the Nass River, the
Niska made birch-wood spoons and masks and twisted ropes from the roots for
lashing fishing weirs.  The Haida imported birch wood from the Nass to make
seaweed-chopping blocks, used in the traditional preparation of the edible
Porphyra seaweed.  Some Kootenay people have recently used birch wood for
smoking bacon.  Both western white birch and water birch were used as a
general fuel by the Okanagan, Shuswap, and other Interior groups." (137-199)

- 1984 Marilyn Walker, Harvesting the Northern Wild, pg. 41. "Athapaskans
traditionally have used birch in numerous ways.  The bark was wrapped around
fractures; rolled up into a tube for calling moose...Bark containers were made
in various sizes for storage, gathering or for use as drinking cups.  The wood
was used for a wider range of implements, from tobaggans to snowshoe frames to
spoons, bows and arrows, and canoes." (305-41)

- 1985 Eleanor Lawrence, The Illustrated Book of Trees & Shrubs, pg. 136. "The
bark was used by the American Indians to cover their dwellings, to make water
vessels, and, as its name implies, also to cover their canoes." (403-136)

- 1985 Eleanor Lawrence, The Illustrated Book of Trees & Shrubs, pg. 134. "B.
pendula (Silver Birch): Birch wood is flexible and tough, but not very strong. 
However, it provides useful and decorative veneers for carpentry and
furniture.  Particularly valuable are veneers from the wood of the lower part
of the trunk and of stumps from exposed sites (on rocks, at forest edges)."
(403-134).

- 1989 Janice J. Schofield, Discovering Wild Plants, pg. 64. "On pioneer
cabins, the bark was often used as sheeting under sod." (444-64)

INSECT REPELLANT:

- 1931 M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, pg. 103, (B. alba). "The white epidermis of
the bark is separable into thin layers...It yields oil of Birch Tar..The
production of Birch Tar oil is a Russian industry of considerable importance. 
It is also distilled in Holland and Germany, but these oils are appreciably
different from the Russian oil.  It has the property of keeping away insects
and preventing gnat-bites when smeared on the hands.  It is like-wise employed
in photography." (141-103)

LUMBER:

- 1957 William M. Harlow, Trees of the Eastern and Central United States and
Canada, pg. 118. "Betula lutea Michx.f.: This tree is the most important of
the commercial birches and probably furnishes three-forths of the lumber
marketed under the name 'birch'. (71-118)

MEAT BAG:

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Use of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 390. "This
was commonly made of birch bark covered with soft tanned leather, but was also
made of rawhide.  It was carried on a pack strap and was used for carrying
dried meat or other provisions needed on a journey.  It was customary to open
the bag and allow the flap to become a sort of table, from which the fragments
of food were easily returned to the bag, a custom which illustrates the lack
of wastefulness among these people." (211-390)

MUSIC INSTRUMENT:

- 1977 Brodzky, Danesewich, & Johnson, Stones, bones, and skin: ritual and
shamanic art, pg. 57. "Mouth bow; a piece of white birch is bent to make this
bow.  There is a deep notch carved at each end, so a string of twisted sinew
may be attached from one end of the bow to the other.  The stick is pointed at
one end, with sinew wrapped around the other end.  To play this instrument,
one end of the bow is placed in the mouth, the other end held with the left
hand, and the cord is played either with the pointed end of the stick or with
the finger." (322-57)

PUNISHMENT:

- 1976 Francis H. Elmore, Shrubs and Trees of the Southwest Uplands, 116. "In
pioneer days, slender birch twigs (more technically called birch rods) were
used to "birch" unruly school children.  A reminder of olden times endures in
the expression "spare the rod and spoil the child."  Its long, straight stems
have often furnished emergency fishing rods for school children playing hooky,
necessitating the later use of a "rod" at home or in school." (374-116)

SMOKING MIXTURE:

- 1984 Marilyn Walker, Harvesting the Northern Wild, pg. 41. "The fungus
growth on birch trees was scraped off and used as tinder or as a tobacco
substitute and additive, and could be dropped into boiling water to produce a
tea." (305-41)

SNOW GLASSES:

- 1984 Marilyn Walker, Harvesting the Northern Wild, pg. 41.
"Athapaskans...and cut into a strip and with small holes, to be bound across
the eyes against snow-blindness." (305-41)

STORAGE OF FOOD:

- 1980 People of 'Ksan, Gathering What the Great Nature Provided, Food
Traditions of the Gitksan, pg. 27. "Birch bark is important in food
preservation.  Our experienced woodsmen point out that if the bark is left on
a fallen birch tree, the wood rots; this does not happen with any other
species of tree.  They believe that the rot occurs because birch bark, being
watertight and airtight, "overseals" the fallen tree.  We made good use of
this characteristic of birch, which was the aluminum foil of our grandfathers.
   When our people stored dry-smoked fish they put a layer of birch bark
between each fish "so that if one fish rots the next won't spoil too."  An
excavation beside a very ancient fishing hole (three or four thousand years
old) unearthed neat piles of good-sized birch bark squares, presumably stacked
and ready to use in the food holes, storage boxes and ovens.
   A recent excavation of the base of a totem pole, which had been raised
between 1850 and 1860, uncovered a large birch bark food package which had
contained berries.  Only the seeds remained after 120 years, but we estimate
that the berries would have remained edible for several decades." (133-27)

- 1980 People of 'Ksan, Gathering What the Great Nature Provided, Food
Traditions of the Gitksan, pg. 22. "In ancient times, the Great Nature
provided another excellant food storage place, the earthen pit or food storage
hole known as anyuusim yip.  These pits are found in various shapes and
sizes....excavations of storage holes that have not been used for many, many
years show a cone-shaped or thimble-shaped hole about three feet in diameter
and three or four feet deep....usually lined with birch bark.  All the old-
style storage holes were situated close to a village, just off a trail....We
are not sure what tool was used for these excavations.  Some say that a
sharpened pole was driven into the ground at the centre of the hole-to-be,
then rotated in ever widening and deepening circles until a cone-shaped hole
resulted.  All the old-type holes were carefully disguised to prevent
discovery by two-legged or four-legged thieves.  Perhaps there was special
emphasis on the four-legged variety, for thievery was not common among our
ancestors.  The food was wrapped in birch bark and the bundles were placed in
the hole, which might be lined with birch bark or with boughs of various
types.  Food parcels were packed to within eight or ten inches of the top,
then various coverings were piled on.  One of the best was very dry coniferous
needles..."Pile 'em on top, maybe six inches deep. Mice don't like them
needle..no animal like to stick his nose into them needle.  Them needle has to
be real brown, never green. Us kids used to get sacks of 'em for the anyuusim
yip.  Every precaution was taken to disguise the scent of the food.  Earth was
piled on top of the needles, boughs or bark.  One authority claims that burnt
bark was used:  "No animal like to go near that burning smell."  The holes
were usually opened when the frost was still in the ground, and then
completely emptied of their contents, since clean, dry coverings were hard to
come by under winter conditions." (133-22)

TANNING:

- 1931 M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, pg. 103, (B. alba). "The white epidermis of
the bark is separable into thin layers, which may be employed as a substitute
for oiled paper and applied to various economical uses.  It yields oil of
Birch Tar, and the peculiar, well-known odour of russia leather is due to the
use of this oil in the process of dressing.  It like-wise imparts durability
to leather, and it is owing to its presence that books bound in russia leather
are not liable to become mouldy.  The production of Birch Tar oil is a Russian
industry of considerable importance.  It is also distilled in Holland and
Germany, but these oils are appreciably different from the Russian oil." (141-
103)

- 1985 Eleanor Lawrence, The Illustrated Book of Trees & Shrubs, pg. 134. "B.
pendula (Silver Birch): In some parts of Europe the wood and bark are
distilled to yield birch tar for dressing hides and making 'Russian' leather
for waterproof footwear." (403-134)

TORCHES AND TINDER:

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Use of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 390.
"Various forms of torches were made by twisting birch bark into cylinders,
some of which would last an entire night, and were used by travellers. 
Slender torches, which would last an entire night, and were used by
travellers. Slender torches, which could be stuck on the end of a stick that
was upright in the ground, were used by women when working around the camp.  A
woman kept a supply of scraps of thin birch bark for use in kindling fires."
(211-390)

- 1973 Alan Hall, The Wild Food Trailguide, pg. 61. "It is extremely resinous
and will, when soaking wet, burn with a hot enough flame to dry out and ignite
small twigs." (79-61)

WRITING OR ART MATERIAL:

- 1624 Father Theodat Gabriel Sagard, Le gran voyage du pays des Hurons, situe
en l'Amerique vers mer douche, es dernier confines de la Nouvelle Franch, dite
Canada, Published in translation by the Champlain Soc. XXV 1939 ed. Wrong.
fac. ed. 1968 Greenwood, N.Y. 99. "Each town or village of the Hurons had its
special coat of arms which the travellers erected along the route when they
wished it known that they had passed there.  In one case, the coat of arms of
the town of Quieunonascaran was painted on a piece of birchbark as large as a
sheet of paper.  It consisted of a roughly outlined canoe, drawn in it were as
many black strokes as there were men on the trip. To indicate that Sagard was
with them, the Indians roughly drew a man in the middle above the strokes.  At
the bottom of the piece of bark, they tied with a shred of bark, a piece of
dry wood about half a foot long and three fingers thick.  Then this coat of
arms was hung on the top of a pole struck in the ground so that it leaned over
a little..283-84." (369-38)

- 1703 Baron de. L.A. Lahontan, New Voyages to North America, 1:370. "There
are some little Baskets made of the young birches, that are much esteemed in
France; and Books made of 'em, the leaves of which will be as fine as
Paper...I have frequently made use of 'em for want of Paper, in writing the
journal of my Voyages." (369-39)

- 1857 Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, History of the Indian Tribes in the United
States, vol. 6, p. 631.  "Amongst the Chippewas of Lake Superior there exists
a very ingenious art of dental pictography, or a mode of biting figures on the
soft and fine inner layers of the bark of the betula papyracea, specimens of
which are herewith exhibited.  This pretty art appears to be confined chiefly
to young females.  The designs presented are imitations of flowers, fancy
baskets, and human figures.  There are so many abatements to the amenities of
social life in the forest that it is pleasing to detect the first dawnings of
the imitative and aesthetic arts." (211-392)

- 1862 Bernard R. Ross, An Account of the Botanical and Mineral products,
Useful to the Chipewyan Tribes of Indians, Inhabiting the McKenzie River
District. Canadian Naturalist and Geologist 7. 133-137. "The Canoe or Paper
Birch (Betula papyracea)...Since the advent of missionaries into these wilds,
the natives who are Christianized use the bark for paper on which to engrave
their syllabic literature, as well as for letter-writing." (305-42)

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Use of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 390.
"FIGURES: A variety of figures were cut from birch bark.  (Pls. 52, c; 56.)
Some appear to have been for pleasure, while others represent dream symbols
and totem marks (clan symbols)." (211-390)

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Use of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 390.
"PATTERNS: Every woman who did beadwork had patterns cut from stiff birch bark
which she laid on the material to be decorated.  Mrs. English said that she
remembered when patterns were pricked with a stiff fishbone around the outline
and then cut with sissors.  In this way the pattern was evident to the eye
before the cutting was begun.  With very few exceptions the cut patterns
collected by the writer show no trace of a marking implement, the appearance
being that the patterns are cut without tracing. (Pl.57)" (211-390)

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Use of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 396.
"ETCHING AND SELF-PATTERNS ON BIRCH BARK: Bark taken from birches in the early
spring has the tender "sap-bark" of the previous year next to the outer bark. 
If the bark gathered at this time is put in hot water the "sap-bark" turns
dark brown while the outer layers of bark remain light in color.  This renders
possible a wide variety of decoration in contrasting colors.  Dishes are made
with this dark color as a foundation and the decoration is supplied with a
sharp implement, the lines showing the light color of the under layer of bark
and the contrast remaining after the bark has dried.  The implement used for
this purpose was a pointed stick or the "splint-bone" from the heel of a deer,
preferably a young doe.  The bark is in the right stage for this work at the
season of sugar making, and many sugar makuks are made with the dark surface
of the bark on the outside, etched with simple decorations.  A typical example
is the sugar makuk in Plate 34, which is etched with parallel horizontal lines
between which are vertical, diagonal, or zigzag lines arranged in simple
groupings.  The fresh sugar was often stored in them and used as a gift, the
decoration making the gift mnore attractive.  At the present time this work is
frequently done in a freehand drawing of leaves and flowers, the designs being
without artistic value.
  Another type of decoration made possible by the condition of the bark at
this season may be called "self-patterns" in birch bark.  Sometimes the
pattern appears in the light color on a dark background and sometimes the
colors are reversed, the design being in the light shade.  In a typical
example of this work a rather large, conventional pattern cut from birch bark
or paper is laid on the bark and a line is drawn around it....The design is
etched on the inner surface of the freshly cut bark, cutting through the "sap-
bark," after which, if desired, the work may be laid aside.  When it is to be
finished the bark is moistened with hot water, and on the portion which is to
be in light color the thin tissue of bark is removed in small particles or
shreds with a sharp knife.  Thus if the makuk is to be dark in color with
light-colored leaves the surface within the etching of the leaves is carefully
removed.  If the colors are to be reversed it is necessary to remove all the
surface except that within the etching.  As indicated, if the makuk is to be
filled with fresh sugar it is finished at the camp, but if the article is to
be for some general purpose, the woman does the part of the work which must be
done while the bark is fresh and takes the article with her, to finish at
leisure.  The completion can not, however, be deferred too long or the dark
surface of bark can not be removed with neatness." (211-397)

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Use of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 390.
"TRANSPARENCIES: The most primitive form of Chippewa art is that in which the
only material is a broad leaf or thin piece of birch bark and the only
material is a broad leaf or thin piece of birch bark and the only tools are
human teeth and deft fingers.  The leaf or birch bark is folded and indented
with the teeth, this process being repeated according to the elaborateness of
the design.  The result is a transparency, the surface of the leaf or bark
forming the back-ground and the tooth marks forming the pattern.  The native
word for this is composed of two words, one meaning picture, and the other 'he
bites' or 'gnaws'.  The leaf and bark are not wholly opaque and the tooth
marks do not cut entirely through them, so the finished work shows a heavier
and a lighter density of material which is soft and pleasing to the eye.  The
teeth used in making the impression were the eyeteeth and "side teeth", the
folded material being indented in a variety of ways, ranging from a sharp
prick, like the prick of an awl, to a broad mark produced by slightly twisting
the bark between the teeth....The bark used was the soft, fine inner layers of
the white birch, and it was slightly warmed to render it more pliable.
   The art had two branches, one of which appears to have been an outgrowth of
the other and to have been practiced less extensively.  The principal, and
apparently the first, phase of the art was intended chiefly for pleasure and
had a secondary use in suggesting patterns for woven beadwork.  In this phase
the indentations were of varying sorts, producing an agreeable art object. 
The patterns that appear in such transparencies are geometrical and
conventional, but include life forms and some representations of tipis and
houses.  Such are the "pictures" that were admired, kept, or exchanged among
members of the tribe.  Those intended as suggestions for patterns in woven
beadwork were purposely adapted for their special use as knee bands,
headbands, etc.  The second branch of the art is clearly related to the period
in which the delicacy of the old percetion was passing away.  Thicker bark was
used, the outline of a leaf or flower was sharply indented and the pattern cut
out, after which it was fastened to cloth and outlined in beads." (211-392)


HISTORY & BELIEFS:

HISTORICAL RECORDS:

- 1939 Oliver Perry Medsger, Edible Wild Plants, pg 205. "It is claimed that
in 1861, after the battle of Carricks Ford, the edible bark of Black Birch
probably saved the lives of hundreds of Garnett's Confederate soldiers during
their retreat over the mountains to Monterey, Virgina.  For a number of years
after that, the route the soldiers took could be traced by the peeled birch
trees." (7-205, 204-157)

- 1977 Francesco Bianchini & Francesco Corbetta, Health Plants of the World,
pg. 160. "The Birch (Betula alba)...Pliny (c. AD 23-79) claimed that the books
of Numa Pompilius which were buried with their author in 700 B.C., had been
written on birch wood." (90-160)
- 1989 Janice J. Schofield, Discovering Wild Plants, pg. 64. "Roman soldiers
once carried an ax encased in a birch rod bundle to symbolize the state's
power to flog the unruly with their birch branches, or end their lives with an
ax." (444-64)

SPIRITUAL BELIEFS:

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Use of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 381. "The
birch and the cedar were regarded as "sacred" by the Chippewa.  The two
reasons for this "sacredness" are closely connected.  One is the great
usefulness of these trees to the Chippewa and the other is the great
usefulness of these trees to the Chippewa and the other is their connection
with Winabojo, yet these two reasons are really one, for everything that is a
benefit to the tribe is traced to Winabojo, the mythical character who, it is
said, taught the Chippewa to live in their natural environment and yet, by his
apparently witless actions, gave them an endless supply of humor." (211-381)

- 1977 Brendan Lehane, The Power of Plants, pg. 237. "Christ: The rose of
Jerico, or rose of Mary, first blossomed at Christ's birth.  It closed its
petals at the Crucifixion and reopened them at the Resurrection.  Cedar,
cypress, palm, and olive made up the Cross.  The crown of thorns was of holly
and briar.  The Dwarf Birch was stunted because it formed the scourge of
Christ.  But he blessed the palm for all time because it once bent to offer
its fruits to his mother." (121-237)

- 1977 Brendan Lehane, The Power of Plants, pg. 184. "The central support of
the shaman's tent was a birch tree, reputed protection against witches (121-
184)...Benevolent in many legends, traditionally feared by boys as a means of
punishment, the birch (above) supposedly provided the broomstick on which
witches flew to the sabbat meetings." (121-186)

- 1977 Francesco Bianchini & Francesco Corbetta, Health Plants of the World,
pg. 160. "The Birch (Betula alba) symbolizes good fortune and kindness, and
the return of spring." (90-160)

- 1982 R. Gordon Wasson, Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality, pg 211. "In the
Siberian and Altaic cultures, wherever the birch grows it plays an exalted
role...The tall Siberian birch with its delicate dancing foliage and its
dazzling white bark is a thing of ethereal beauty, and this alone is enough to
give it a favored place in the affections of the Russians.  But beyond the
Urals it enlisted more than the affections of the tribesmen:  it is the nodal
point for their shamanism, for their beliefs about the supernatural.  All or
almost all of the serious writers about these cultures speak of the
conspicuous place of the birch in their practices and thoughts.  Yet not one
of them links that special place with the fly-agaric.  Not one of them
perceives why the birch is the Tree of Life." (208-212)

- 1982 R. Gordon Wasson, Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality, pg 214.
"..among the Buriat northwest of Lake Baikal the inhabitants bow morning and
evening to two birches that they have planted in front of their huts.  We read
that the birch with seven or eight or nine branches is favoured, these
symbolizing the successive gradations in ascending to the ultimate heaven; and
it is held that the tree's roots penetrate to the very depths of the earth. 
As though to symbolize the reach upwards and the reach downwards, an eagel (or
a mythological bird that we conventionally call an eagle) surmounts the tree
and a serpent dwells at its roots.  Again we read that the shaman selects a
stout birch, fells it, and places it in the center of the yurt that he is
going to build for his performance.  He cuts seven or eight or nine notches in
it, representing the seven or eight or nine heavens through which he will
ascend.  Later in the course of his ecstatic performance he climbs this tree
making use of the steps, and passes through the hole in the roof through which
the smoke from the fire finds its way, going on his symbolic journey to the
other world." (208-214)

- 1982 R. Gordon Wasson, Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality, pg 220. "In the
opening chapters of Genesis we are faced with the conflation, clumsily
executed of two recensions of the fable of the Garden of Eden.  The Tree of
Life and the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil are both planted in the
center of Paradise.  They figure as two trees but they stem back to the same
archetype.  They are two names of one tree.  The Fruit of the Tree is the fly-
agaric harboured by the birch.  The Serpent is the very same creature that we
saw in Siberia dwelling in the roots of the Tree." (208-220)

NOMENCLATURE:

- 1931 M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, pg. 103 (B. alba L.). "The name is a very
ancient one, probably derived from the Sanscrit bhurga, 'a tree whose bark is
used for writing upon.' From its uses in boat-building and roofing it is also
connected with the Anglo-Saxon beorgan, 'to protect or shelter.'" (141-103)

- 1979 Nelson Coon, Using Plants For Healing, pg. 76. [Betula lenta]. "It is
said that birch is derived from the ancient Sanskrit bhurga, meaning "that
which is written upon." (134-76)

- 1982 R. Gordon Wasson, Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality, pg 214.
"Certainly the overt vocabulary relating to the birch and the fly-agaric
carried great prestige over millennia throughout the south and east of Asia:
the Tree of Life, the Pillar of the World, the Cosmic Tree, the Axis of the
World, the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil - all these were variations
stemming back to the birch and the fly-agaric of the northern forests." (208-
220)

RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER LIFE-FORMS:

- 1931 M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal, pg. 104, (B. nana). "Smooth Dwarf Birch,
rarely grows above 3 feet in height. The seeds are a principal food of the
ptarmigan in Lapland." (141-104)

- 1951 A. Martin, Herbert Zim & A. Nelson, American Wildlife & Plants A Guide
To Wildlife Food Habits, pg. 305. "The wildlife importance of birches, though
considerable, is confined largely to the North and to northern animals. 
Prominent among the northern users are the sharp-tailed, spruce, and ruffed
grouse (feeding on catkins, buds, and seeds), the redpoll and pine siskin
(seeds), and browsing or wood-eating mammals such as the moose, snowshoe or
varying hares, porcupine, and beaver.  The river birch though common
throughout the Southeast has very little recognized value for any wildlife."
(336-305)

- 1957 William M. Harlow, Trees of the Eastern and Central United States and
Canada, pg. 117. "Birch seeds are eaten by birds; the buds are an important
winter food of grouse and other large birds.  Deer, moose, and rabbits browse
the twigs in winter, and beaver use the inner bark for food when poplars
(aspen) are not available."

- 1957 William M. Harlow, Trees of the Eastern and Central United States and
Canada, pg. 118. "Betula lutea Michx.f.: The seeds of yellow birch and also
sweet birch are probably more important as late winter food for birds than
those of the white and gray birches, because the cones of the latter fall to
pieces within a few weeks after they ripen in the fall whereas those of yellow
and sweet birch disintegrate slowly throughout the winter, meantime releasing
their seeds which come to rest on top of the snow blanket where they are
available.  In late March after a windstorm, numerous seeds have been seen
cast in this way, and the presence of bird tracks indicated the use of these
seeds for food." (71-120)

- 1977 Stephen F. Arno and Ramona P. Hammerly, Northwest Trees, pg. 168. "If
more than a century passes without disturbance such as logging, fire, or a
massive blow down, paper birch will be over-topped and crowded out by the
longer-lived and more shade-tolerant conifers or even by black cottonwood. 
Through the ages, wildfire has served as both the killer and the perpetuator
of paper birch." (259-168)

- 1982 R. Gordon Wasson, Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality, pg 212. "The
fly-agaric [Amanita muscaria] lives in mycorrhizal intimacy with the birch,
expecially the birch; sometimes with the pine, occasionally with the fir. 
Moreover, while Fomes fomentarius grows on several kinds of trees, it is
popularly associated with the birch because the birch is the most common of
its hosts.  Fomes fomentarius is the shelf fungus, often reaching huge size,
that has always supplied the north Eurasian tribesmen with punk or touchwood,
the primary tinder that catches the spark from the fire-drill and bursts into
flame." (208-212)

INSECT AND OTHER PESTS:

- 1957 William M. Harlow, Trees of the Eastern and Central United States and
Canada, pg. 129. "Betula pendula Roth: In some localities, the European form
has not proved satisfactory because of its susceptibility to the attacks of
the bronze birch borer whose larvae riddle the trunk." (71-129)

- 1990 Alan Mitchell, Trees, Canadian Nature Guides, pg. 24. "B. papyrifera:
In New England, NY, ON, into OH, and PN most trees are damaged by the Bronze
Birch Borer and have lost the main stem above 6-8 ft; they grow big, upturned
lower branches." (441-24)

- 1981 Robert Michael Pyle, The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American
Butterflies. 

- Dreamy Duskywing (Erynnis icelus)...Mature caterpillar light green, speckled
with white beneath short, profuse hair; black head may have red, yellow, or
orange patterning. Caterpillar overwinters. Chrysalis dark green or brownish.
(pg. 748)

- White Admiral (Basilarchia arthemis)....Caterpillar mottled off-white,
olive, and greenish-yellow, with enlarged, light hump behind head; has long,
dark bristles.  Chrysalis cream-colored with enlarged wing cases and a darker
projecting mid-back "saddle horn." (pg 635) 

- Faunus Anglewing (Polygonia faunus)...Solitary caterpillar, to 1 1/4", tan
with whitish patches and spines; feeds on birch. (pg. 613) 

- Common Tortoiseshell (Nymphalis vau-album)....Caterpillar pale green,
chartreuse-speckled with branched black spines; feeds communally on birches.
(pg. 619) 

- Tiger Swallowtail (Pterourus glaucus)...Young caterpillar brown and white,
resembling bird droppings; mature caterpiller, to 2", is green, swollen in
front, with big, false, orange and black eyespots and band between 3rd and 4th
segments.  Mottled green or brown sticklike chrysalis, to 1.25", overwinters. 
Great variety of host plants, includes birch...pg. 340. (153-340)

- 1989 Hugh Philip and Ernest Mengersen, Insect Pests of the Prairies,
University of Alberta, pg. 117.  The following insects are listed as being
harmful to Birches.  The description, history, damage and prevention
techniques on each insect is described in detail: (445-49)

            Ambermarked birch leafminer sawflies [Profenusa thomsoni (Konow)]
            (445-57)
            Birch leafminer [Fenusa pusilla (Lepeietier)]  (445-57)
            Bronze birch borer [Agrilus anxius (Gory)] (445-49)
            Forest tent caterpillar [Malacosoma disstria (Hubner)] (445-65)
            Late birch leaf edgeminer [Heterarthrus nemoratus (Fallen)] (445-
57)
            Linden looper [Erannis tiliaria tiliaria (Harris)] (445-68)
            Mourningcloak butterfly [Nymphalis antiopa (Linnaeus)] (445-69)
            Poplar-and-willow borer [Cryptorhynchus lapathi (Linnaeus)] (445-
53)

AGE:

- 1985 Eleanor Lawrence, The Illustrated Book of Trees & Shrubs, pg. 134. "The
genus Betula includes some 120 existing species and about 40 more that are now
extinct. Birches were distributed throughout the northern hemisphere,
particularly in Asia, from the Palaeocene. Even today, birches grow only in
the northern hemisphere." (403-134)






STORIES:

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Use of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 381. 


                                       Legend of Winabojo and the Birch Tree

   There was once an old woman living all alone on the shore of Lake Superior. She had a little girl living with her
whom she called her daughter, though she did not know exactly where the child came from.  They were very poor and
the little girl went into the woods and dug wild potatoes or gathered rose berries for them to eat.  The little girl
grew up to be a woman, but she kept on doing the same work, getting potatoes and berries and picking up fish that
were washed ashore.  One day when doing this she had a strange feeling as though the wind were blowing underneath
her clothing.  She looked around her but saw no signs of anyone. After a while she went home.

   As soon as she entered the house her mother saw that she looked troubled and bewildered.  Her mother asked, "Did
you see anyone? Did anyone speak to you?" The girl replied, "I saw no one and heard no one speak to me."  After a
time the mother noticed that the girl was pregnant and questioned her again but the girl replied as before, that she
had seen no one.  The only thing strange to her was the sensation of the wind blowing about her which she had
described to her mother.  When the time came for her to be delivered there was a sound as of an explosion and the
girl disappeared, leaving absolutely no trace.  The old woman threw herself on the ground and wailed because her
daughter had disappeared.  She searched everywhere but could find no trace of her.  Finally, in looking among the
leaves, she saw a drop of blood on a leaf.  She picked it up carefully and put it beside her pillow.  After a while,
as she lay there, she thought she heard some one shivering and breathing near her head.  She lay still, now knowning
what to do.  She heard the breathing near.  She lay still, not knowing what to do.  She heard the breathing near her
head constantly.   As she lay there wondering what it could be she heard a sound like that of a human being.  She
said, "I guess I am going to be blessed."  As she lay there a voice spoke and said, "Grandmother, get up and build a
fire.  I am freezing."  The old woman arose and looked around, and there beside her lay a little boy.   She took him
up and caressed him.  She got up and made a fire to warm him, and behold the child was Winabojo.  All the spirits
that roam the earth were frightened at the birth of Winabojo, for they knew his power.  Throughout his human life he
was a mysterious being with miraculous powers.  He grew rapidly in strength and soon began to help his grandmother. 
He dug potatoes and brought fish and berries for her.

   One day, when he had grown to be almost a man, he asked his grandmother what was the largest fish in the lake. 
She replied, "Why do you ask?  It is not good for you to know.  There is a large fish that lives over by that ledge
of rock, but it is very powerful and would do great harm to you."  Winabojo asked, "Could the great fish be killed?" 
His grandmother replied, "No; for he lives below the rocks and no one could get down there to kill him."
    
   Winabojo began to think about this and he made up his mind that he would learn to fight so that he could kill the
great fish.  He got some wood and began to make bows and arrows.  Then he asked his grandmother if she knew of any
bird whose feathers he could put on the arrows to make them effective. The old woman replied "No.  The only bird
whose feathers would make the arrows effective is a bird that lives in the sky, at the opening of the clouds.  On
would have to go up there to get the feathers."  Winabojo began to think how he could go up there and get the
feathers that he was determined to have.  At last he said to himself, "There is a high cliff on the edge of the
lake.  I will go up there and stay a while."  

   When he reached the high cliff he wished that he might change into a little rabbit.  So he became a little rabbit
and lived there.  One day he went on a very high part of the cliff and called to a big bird, saying, "Eagle, come
here.  I am a cunning little animal.  I would be a nice plaything for your children."  The bird flew down and saw
the little rabbit playing there.  The rabbit was the cunningest thing he had ever seen.  The big bird was the
thunderbird and he alighted on the top of the high cliff, near the little rabbit.  Finally he took the little rabbit
and flew up, up toward the opening in the sky.

   When the thunderbird came to his nest he called to his children, "I have brought you something very cunning to
play with."  His wife spoke to him very crossly and said, "Why did you bring that rabbit up here?  Have you not
heard that Winabojo is on the earth?  There is no knowing what you have picked up."  But the little rabbit was very
meek and quiet, letting the children play with him as they liked.  The big birds were seldom at home as they went
away to get food for their children.

   All at once, one day, Winabojo began to talk to himself and he said, "These children throw me around as though I
was nothing.  Don't they know I came here to get some of their feathers?"  The next time the old birds went away he
changed into his human form, took a club, killed the little thunderbirds and pulled off their feathers.  He hurried
around and tied the feathers up in bundles for he was sure the old birds would soon be home.  When all was ready he
jumped off.  He was not killed because he was a manido (spirit) and nothing could hurt him.  He was unconscious for
a time after he fell on the earth but he was not hurt.  Soon there was a great roaring in the sky with flashes of
lightning.  The thunderbirds were coming after him.  Winabojo jumped up when he saw the flashes of lightning and
heard the thunder.  The lightning was the flash of the thunderbird's eyes and the roaring was their terrible voices. 
He snatched up the bundles of feathers and ran for his life.  Wherever he went the flashes and the roaring followed
him, but he held on to the feathers.  He had gotten what he wanted and he did not intend to lose them.  The
thunderbirds kept after him and at last he felt that they were tiring him out.  He began to fear that he would be
killed after all.  The thunderbirds came so close that they almost grasped him with their claws.  He was getting
bewildered.  They were almost upon him when he saw an old, fallen birch tree that was hollow.  He crept into the
hollow just in time to save his life.  As he got in the thunderbirds almost had their claws on him.

   The thunderbirds said, "Winabojo, you have chosen the right protection.  You have fled to a king-child."  There
they stopped.  They could not touch him for the birch tree was their own child and he fled to it for protection. 
There he lay while the thunder rolled away and the flashes of the thunderbird's eyes grew less bright.  He was safe.

   When the thunderbirds had gone away Winabojo came out of the hollow birch tree and said, "As long as the world
stands this tree will be a protection and benefit to the human race.  If they want to preserve anything they must
wrap it in birch bark and it will not decay.  The bark of this tree will be useful in many ways, and when people
want to take the bark from the tree they must offer tobacco to express their gratitude."  So Winabojo blessed the
birch tree to the good of the human race.  Then he went home, fixed his arrows with the feathers of the little
thunderbirds and killed the great fish.  
 
   Because of all this a birch tree is never struck by lightning and people can safely stand under its branches
during a storm.  The bark is the last part of the tree to decay, keeping its form after the wood has disintegrated,
as it did in the tree that sheltered Winabojo.

   The little short marks on birch bark were made by Winabojo but the "pictures" on the bark are pictures of little
thunderbirds. It was said that the bark in some localities contains more distinct pictures of the little
thunderbirds than in others." (211-384)

- 1982 R. Gordon Wasson, Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality, pg 214. "Uno
Holmberg in the 'Mythology of All Races' summarizes the Siberian myths about
the birch in his chapter on the Tree of Life.

       The spirit of the birch is a middle-aged woman who sometimes appears from the roots or the trunk
       of the tree in response to the prayers of her devotees.  She emerges to the waist, her eyes are
       grave, she has flowing locks, her bosom is bare, and her breasts are swelling.  She offers milk to
       the Youth who approaches her.  Her drinks and his strength grows a hundred-fold. This myth, which
       is repeated in myriad variations, clearly refers to the fly-agaric." (208-214)

- 1928 Frances Densmore, Use of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, pg. 395. "The
following story is related concerning the custom of making birch-bark
transparencies:
                        There was once a man who lived with his parents.  At sugar-making time he noticed that they were
       getting old and the work was hard for them, so he bought home a wife to help them.  The family
       were in the sugar camp and he sent his wife to get some birch bark for making dishes as the other
       women did.  She took an ax and was gone all day.  When she came home at night she had a great
       bundle of bark on her back.  This make him glad, for he thought she had been very industrious. 
       She opened her bundle and said, "See what I have been doing all day."  Then she showed him
       quantities of patterns and pictures bitten in birch bark.  Her bundle was full of them.  She had
       been biting patterns all day instead of making dishes.  The man was so ashamed that he hung his
       head and died.  He could not bear to have people know that he had brought home such a good-for-
nothing wife." (211-396)

ILLUSTRATIONS:

- Excellant B/W drawings of B. papyrifera and varieties (164-145,146)
- Excellant b/w drawing of B. pumila var. glandulifera (164-152)
- Excellant b/w drawing of B. neoalaskana (164-139)
- Excellant b/w drawing of B. glandulosa (164-138)
- Excellant b/w drawing of B. occidentalis (164-142)
- Excellant b/w drawing of B. pendula (164-147)
- Excellant b/w drawing of B. pubescens (164-150)
- Excellant Colour draving of B. papyrifera & Bark (403-136)
- Good b/w drawing of Betula lenta leaves and cones (134-76)
- Good cnmparison of b/w birch leaves (269-200)
- Photograph (b/w) of Natives collecting birch sap in NWT (305-viii)
- Excellant B/W drawing of branch of B. papyrifera (305-40)
- Excellant color drawing of B. pendula roth (38-86)
- Good total photo's of B. lutea (71-119)
- Good total photo's of B. lenta (71-121)
- Good total photo's of B. papyrifera (71-124)
- Good total photo's of B. populifolia (71-126)
- Good B/W of B. papyrifera (12-150)
- Excellant Colour Print of B. pendula Roth (119-276)
- Excellant Colour Print of B. nana L. (119-79)
- Best colour print of B. pubescens, total picture (258-plate 12)
- Excellent colour print of B. papyrifera (131-Birch)
- Excellant b/w prints of Betula nana L. (in Alaska) (342-365)
- Excellant b/w prints of Betula glandulosa Michx. (342-365)
- Excellant b/w prints of Betula occidentalis Hook (342-366)
- Excellant b/w prints of B. kenaica Evans (342-366)
- Excellant b/w print of B. papyrifers Marsh subsp. humilis (Regel) Hult (342-367)
- Excellant b/w print of B. papyrifera Marsh var. commutata (Regel) Fern. (342-367)
- Excellant b/w print of B. occidentalis (374-116)
- Excellant colour print of B. pendula (441-25)
- Best b/w print of B. pendula (complete diagram of all parts, labled) [377-85]
- Excellant photo's of B. alleghaniensis Britton (B. lutea Michx. f.) (39-156)
- Excellant photo's of B. lenta L. (39-158)
- Excellant photo's of B. papyrifera Marsh. (39-160)
- Excellant photo's of B. neoalaskana Sarg (39-162)
- Excellant photo's of B. occidentallis Hook. (B. fontinalis Sarg.) [39-164)
- Excellant photo's of B. populifolia Marsh. (39-166)
- Best color prints of B. pendula (102-93)
- Excellant landscape b/w print of Paper birch (259-167)
- Matching Birch leaves in photo (149-38)
- Matching Birch flower clusters in photo's (149-88)





                                                    <<WARNING>>

The information in these articles is primarily for reference and education.  They are not
intended to be a substitute for the advice of a physician.  The instructor does not advocate
self-diagnosis or self-medication; He urges anyone with continuing symptoms, however minor, to
seek medical advice.  The reader should be aware that any plant substance, whether used as food
or medicine, externally or internally, may cause an allergic reaction in some people.







                                   Maurice L.B. Oates Jr., M.A.
                                         (Ya'-ga-hlo'o)
