Confucius was born in the year 550 B.C.,[1] in the land of Lu, in a
small village, situated in the western part of the modern province of
Shantung. His name was K'ung Ch'iu, and his style (corresponding to our
Christian name) was Chung-ni. His countrymen speak of him as K'ung
Fu-tzu, the Master, or philosopher K'ung. This expression was altered
into Confucius by the Jesuit missionaries who first carried his fame to
Europe.
[Footnote 1: According to the great historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien. Other
authorities say, 552 and 551 B.C.]
Since the golden days of the Emperors Yao and Shun, the legendary
founders of the Chinese Empire, nearly two thousand years had passed.
Shun chose as his successor Yü, who had been his chief minister, a man
whose devotion to duty was such that when engaged in draining the
empire of the great flood—a task that took eight years to
accomplish—he never entered his home till the work was done, although
in the course of his labours he had thrice to pass his door. He founded
the Hsia dynasty, which lasted till 1766 B.C. The last emperor of this
line, a vile tyrant, was overthrown by T'ang, who became the first
ruler of the house of Shang, or Yin. This dynasty again degenerated in
course of time and came to an end in Chou, or Chou Hsin (1154-22 B.C.),
a monster of lust, extravagance, and cruelty. The empire was only held
together by the strength and wisdom of the Duke of Chou, or King Wen,
to give him his popular title, one of the greatest men in Chinese
history. He controlled two-thirds of the empire; but, believing that
the people were not yet ready for a change, he refrained from
dethroning the emperor. In his day 'the husbandman paid one in nine;
the pay of the officers was hereditary; men were questioned at barriers
and at markets, but there were no tolls; fishgarths were not preserved;
the children of criminals were sackless. The old and wifeless—the
widower; the old and husbandless—the widow; the old and childless—the
lone one; the young and fatherless—the orphan; these four are the
people most in need below heaven, and they have no one to whom to cry,
so when King Wen reigned his love went out first to them' (Mencius,
Book II, chapter 5). After his death, his son, King Wu, decided that
the nation was ripe for change. He overcame Chou Hsin by force of arms,
and, placing himself on the throne, became the founder of the Chou
dynasty.
In the time of Confucius the Chou dynasty still filled the throne.
But it had long since become effete, and all power had passed into the
hands of the great vassals. The condition of China was much like that
of Germany in the worst days of the Holy Roman Empire. The emperor was
powerless, the various vassal states were independent in all but name,
and often at war one with the other. These states again were
disintegrated, and their rulers impotent against encroaching
feudatories. In Confucius' native state, Lu, the duke was a mere
shadow. The younger branches of his house had usurped all power. Three
in number, they were called the Three Clans. The most important of the
three was the Chi, or Chi-sun clan, whose chiefs Chi Huan and Chi K'ang
are often mentioned by Confucius. But the power of the Chi, too, was
ill-secured. The minister Yang Huo overawed his master, and once even
threw him into prison. Nor was the condition of the other states of the
empire better than that of Lu. Confucius thought it worse.
Into this turbulent world Confucius was born. Though his father was
only a poor military officer, he could trace his descent from the
imperial house of Yin. Confucius married at nineteen, and is known to
have had one son and one daughter. Shortly after his marriage he
entered the service of the state as keeper of the granary. A year later
he was put in charge of the public fields. In 527 B.C. his mother died,
and, in obedience to Chinese custom, he had to retire from public life.
When the years of mourning were over, he did not again take office, but
devoted himself instead to study and teaching. As the years rolled by
his fame grew, and a band of pupils gathered round him. In 517 B.C. the
anarchy in Lu reached such a pitch that Confucius moved to the
neighbouring land of Ch'i. Here he had several interviews with the
reigning duke, but met with little encouragement (xviii. 3). So he soon
returned to his native country, and resumed for fifteen years his work
as student and teacher.
During these fifteen years the power of the duke sank lower and
lower, and the Chi was menaced by his minister Yang Huo. In times so
dark, men that loved quiet sought in the world of thought an escape
from the gloom around them, whilst others that were less resigned
turned over in their minds the causes of the realm's decay. Lao-tzu,
the founder of the mystic Taoist philosophy, taught that in inaction
alone peace can be found; Mo-tzu proclaimed the doctrine of universal
love: that we should love all men as we love self, love the parents of
others as we love our own parents. Upright men were driven or fled from
the world. Confucius often met them in his wanderings, and was reproved
for not doing as they did. But his practical mind told him that
inaction could not help the world, and that to find a remedy for the
nation's ills, their cause must first be learned. This could only be
done by historical study. He therefore devoted himself to the study of
past times, edited in later life the Book of History, and
compiled the work called Spring and Autumn, a history of his
native state from 722 to 481 B.C. To bring again the golden days of Yao
and Shun a return must be made to the principles of Wen and Wu, the
kings that had rebuilt the empire after tyranny and selfishness had
laid it low. Of impracticable ideals and renunciation of the world no
good could come.
At last in 501 B.C. Yang Huo was forced to flee from Lu, and
prospects brightened. A year later Confucius was appointed governor of
a town. So great was his success as governor that before long he was
promoted to be Superintendent of Works, and then to be Chief Criminal
Judge. He won great influence with his master, and did much to lighten
the general misery. He so strengthened the power of the duke that
neighbouring states grew jealous. To sow dissension between duke and
minister the men of Ch'i sent the duke a gift of singing girls. Such
joy they gave him that for three days no court was held. On this
Confucius left the land, 497 B.C.
For the next thirteen years Confucius wandered from land to land,
followed by his disciples, seeking in vain for a ruler that was willing
to employ him, and whom he was willing to serve. At times he was
exposed to danger, at other times to want. But as a rule he was treated
with consideration, although his teachings were ignored. Yet thirteen
years of homeless wandering, of hopes deferred and frustrated, must
have been hard to bear. When he left office Confucius was already
fifty-three years old, and his life so far seemed a failure. The sense
of his wasted powers may well have tempted him now and again to take
office under an unworthy ruler; but knowing that no good could come of
it he refrained, and probably he never seriously thought of doing so.
In 483 B.C., when Confucius was sixty-six years old, through the
influence of his disciple Jan Yu, who was in the service of the Chi,
the Master was invited to return to his native land. Here he remained
till his death in 479 B.C. He had many interviews with the reigning
duke and the head of the Chi clan, but gained no influence over either
of them. So he turned once more to his favourite studies; edited the
Book of Poetry—perhaps the most interesting collection of ancient
songs extant—and wrote Spring and Autumn. His closing years
were darkened by the loss of those dearest to him. First his son died,
then Yen Yüan, the disciple whom he loved best. At his death the Master
was overcome by grief, and he left none behind him that loved learning.
Lastly Tzu-lu, the frank and bold, was killed in battle. A little
later, in his seventy-first year, Confucius himself passed away, 479
B.C.
This book of the Master's Sayings is believed by the Chinese to have
been written by the disciples of Confucius. But there is nothing to
prove this, and some passages in the book point the other way. Book
viii speaks of the death of Tseng-tzu, who did not die till 437 B.C.,
forty-two years after the Master. The chief authority for the text as
it stands to-day is a manuscript found in the house of Confucius in 150
B.C., hidden there, in all likelihood, between the years 213 and 211
B.C., when the reigning emperor was seeking to destroy every copy of
the classics. We find no earlier reference to the book under its
present name. But Mencius (372-289 B.C.) quotes seven passages from it,
in language all but identical with the present text, as the words of
Confucius. No man ever talked the language of these sayings. Such pith
and smoothness is only reached by a long process of rounding and
polishing. We shall probably come no nearer to the truth than Legge's
conclusion that the book was put together by the pupils of the
disciples of Confucius, from the words and notebooks of their masters,
about the year 400 B.C.
LEONARD A. LYALL.
AMALFI,
January, 1909
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