QUESTION CLXXIX
OF THE DIVISION OF LIFE INTO THE ACTIVE AND THE CONTEMPLATIVE
I. May Life be fittingly divided into the Active and the Contemplative? S. Augustine, De Consensu Evangelistarum, I., iv. 8 " Tractatus, cxxiv. 5, in Joannem II. Is this division of Life into the Active and the Contemplative a sufficient one? S. Augustine, Of the Trinity, I., viii. 17
I
May Life be fittingly divided into the Active and the Contemplative?
S. Gregory the Great says[291]: "There are two kinds of lives in which Almighty God instructs us by His Sacred Word--namely, the active and the contemplative."
Those things are properly said to live which move or work from within themselves. But what especially accords with the innermost nature of a thing is that which is proper to it and towards which it is especially inclined; consequently every living thing shows that it is living by those very acts which are especially befitting it and towards which it is especially inclined. Thus the life of plants is said to consist in their growing and in their producing seed; the life of animals in their feeling and moving; while that of man consists in his understanding and in his acting according to reason.
Hence among men themselves each man's life appears to be that in which he takes special pleasure, that with which he is particularly occupied, that, in fine, in which each one wishes to live with a friend, as is said in the Ethics of Aristotle.[292]
Since, then, some men are especially occupied with the contemplation of the truth while others are especially-occupied with external things, man's life may be conveniently divided into the active and the contemplative.
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Some, however, repudiate this division, thus:
1. The soul is by its essence the principle of life; thus the Philosopher says[293]: "For living things, to live is to be." But the same soul with its faculties is the principle both of action and of contemplation. Hence it would seem that life cannot be suitably divided into the active and the contemplative.
But the peculiar nature of every individual thing--that which makes it actually be--is the principle of its own proper action; consequently to live is said to be the very being of living things, and this because living things--by the very fact that they exist through such a nature--act in such a way.
2. Again, when one thing precedes another it is unfitting to divide the former by differences which find place in the latter. But action and contemplation, like speculation and practice, are distinctions in the intellect, as is laid down by the Philosopher.[294] But we live before we understand; for life is primarily in living things by their vegetative soul, as also the Philosopher says.[295] Therefore life is not fittingly divided according to contemplation and action.
But we do not say that life universally considered is divided into the active and the contemplative, but that man's life is so divided. For man derives his species from his intellect, hence the same divisions hold good for human life as hold good for the intellect.
3. Lastly, the word "life" implies motion, as is clear from Denis the Areopagite.[296] But contemplation more especially consists in repose, according to the words: When I go into my house I shall repose myself with her (Wisdom).[297]
But while contemplation implies a certain repose from external occupations, it is still a certain motion of the intellect in the sense that every operation is a motion; in this sense the Philosopher says that to feel and to understand are certain motions in the sense that motion is said to be the act of a perfect thing.[298] It is in this sense, too, that Denis[299] assigns three movements to the soul in contemplation: the direct, the circular, and the oblique.[300]
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S. Augustine: Two virtues are set before the human soul, the one active, the other contemplative; the former shows the path, the latter shows the goal; in the one we toil that so the heart may be purified for the Vision of God, in the other we repose and we see God; the one is spent in the practice of the precepts of this temporal life, the other is occupied with the teachings of the life that is eternal. Hence it is that the one is a life of toil and the other a life of rest; for the former is engaged in purging away its sins, the latter already stands in the light of the purified. Hence, too, during this mortal life the former is occupied with the works of a good life, whereas the latter rather stands in faith, and, in the case of some few, sees through a mirror in a dark manner, and enjoys in part a certain glimpse of the Unchangeable Truth (De Consensu Evangelistarum, I., iv. 8).
"The Lord is the portion of my inheritance and of my cup; it is Thou that wilt restore my inheritance to me. The lines are fallen unto me in goodly places; for my inheritance is goodly to me."[301]
S. Augustine: There is another life, the life of immortality, and in it there are no ills; there we shall see face to face what we now see through a glass and in a dark manner even when we have made great advance in our study of the Truth. The Church, then, knows of two kinds of life Divinely set before Her and commended to Her; in the one we walk by faith, in the other by sight; the one is the pilgrimage of time, the other is the mansion of eternity; the one is a life of toil, the other of repose; in the one we are on the way, in the other in Our Father's Home; the one is spent in the toil of action, the other in the reward of contemplation; the one turneth away from evil and doth good, the other hath no evil from which to turn away, but rather a Great Good Which it enjoys; the one is in conflict with the foe, the other reigns--conscious that there is no foe; the one is strong in adversity, the other knows of no adversity; the one bridles the lusts of the flesh, the other is given up to the joys of the Spirit; the one is anxious to overcome, the other is tranquil in the peace of victory; the one is helped in temptations, the other, without temptation, rejoices in its Helper; the one succours the needy, the other dwells where none are needy; the one condones the sins of others that thereby its own sins may be condoned, the other suffers naught that it can pardon nor does ought that calls for pardon; the one is afflicted in sufferings lest it should be uplifted in good things, the other is steeped in such fulness of grace as to be free from all evil that so, without temptation to pride, it may cling to the Supreme Good; the one distinguishes between good and evil, the other sees naught save what is good; the one therefore is good--yet still in miseries, the other is better--and in Blessedness (Tractatus, cxxiv. 5, in Joannem).
"Jesu nostra Redemptio Amor et Desiderium! Deus Creator omnium, Homo in fine temporum!"
II
Is this division of Life into the Active and the Contemplative a sufficient one?
These two kinds of life are signified by the two wives of Jacob--namely, the active life by Lia, the contemplative by Rachel. They are also signified by those two women who afforded hospitality to the Lord: the contemplative, namely, by Mary, the active by Martha, as S. Gregory says.[302] But if there were more than two kinds of life, these significations would not be fitting.
As we have said above, the division in question concerns human life regarded as intellectual. And the intellect itself is divided into the contemplative and the active, for the aim of intellectual knowledge is either the actual knowledge of the truth--and this belongs to the contemplative intellect, or it is some external action--and this concerns the practical or active intellect. Hence life is quite sufficiently divided into the active and the contemplative.
But some argue that this division is not a sufficient one, thus:
1. The Philosopher[303] says that there are three specially excellent kinds of life: the pleasurable, the civil--which seems to be identified with the active--and the contemplative.
But the pleasurable life makes its end consist in the pleasures of that body which we have in common with the brute creation. Hence, as the Philosopher says in the same place, this is a bestial life. Consequently it is not comprised in our division of life into the active and the contemplative.
2. Again, S. Augustine[304] speaks of three different kinds of life: the life of leisure, which is referred to the contemplative; the busy life, which is referred to the active life; and he adds a third composed of these two.
But things which hold a middle course are compounded of the extremes, and hence are virtually contained in them, as the tepid in the hot and the cold, the pallid in the white and the black. And similarly, under the active and the contemplative lives is comprised that kind of life which is compounded of them both. But just as in every mixture one of the simple elements predominates, so in this mixed kind of life now the contemplative, now the active predominates.
3. Lastly, men's lives are diversified according to their various occupations. But there are more than two classes of human occupations.
But all classes of human occupations are, if they are concerned with the necessities of this present life, and in accordance with right reason, comprised under the active life which, by properly regulated acts, takes heed for the needs of the present life. But if these actions minister to our concupiscences, then they fall under the voluptuous life which is not comprised in the active life. But human occupations which are directed to the consideration of the truth are comprised under the contemplative life.
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S. Augustine: Your life is hid with Christ in God. When Christ shall appear, Who is your life, then you also shall appear with Him in glory;[305] but until that shall come to pass we see now through a glass in a dark manner--that is, in images as it were--but then face to face.[306] This, indeed, is the contemplation that is promised to us, the goal of all our actions, the eternal perfection of all our joys. For we are the sons of God, and it hath not yet appeared what we shall be; we know that when He shall appear we shall be like Him, for we shall see Him as He is.[307] And as He said to His servant Moses: I am Who am ... thus shalt thou say to the children of Israel: He Who is hath sent me to you,[308] even that shall we contemplate when we live in eternity. Thus, too, He says: This is eternal life, that they may know Thee, the only True God, and Jesus Christ Whom Thou hast sent.[309] And this shall be when the Lord shall come and bring to light the hidden things of darkness,[310] when the gloom of our mortal corruption shall have passed away. Then will be our "morning," that "morning" of which the Psalmist says: In the morning I will stand before Thee and I will see.[311] ... Then, too, will come to pass that which is written: Thou shall fill me with joy with Thy countenance.[312] Beyond that joy we shall seek for nothing, for there is naught further to be sought. The Father will be shown to us, and that will suffice for us. Well did Philip understand this when he said to the Lord: Show us the Father, and it is enough for us![313] ... Such contemplation, indeed, is the reward of faith, and for this reward's sake are our hearts purified by faith, as it is written: Purifying their hearts by faith[314] (De Trinitate, I., viii. 17).
"Remember, O Lord, Thy bowels of compassion; and Thy mercies that are from the beginning of the world. The sins of my youth and my ignorances do not remember. According to Thy mercy remember Thou me; for Thy goodness' sake, O Lord. The Lord is sweet and righteous; therefore He will give a law to sinners in the way. He will guide the mild in judgment; He will teach the meek His ways. All the ways of the Lord are mercy and truth to them that seek after His covenant and His testimonies. For Thy Name's sake, O Lord, Thou wilt pardon my sin; for it is great."[315]
FOOTNOTES:
[291] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[292] IX., xii. 21.
[293] De Anima, II., iv. 4.
[294] De Anima, III., x. 2.
[295] Ibid., II., iv. 2.
[296] Of the Divine Names, vi.
[297] Wisd. viii. 16.
[298] De Anima, III., vii. 1.
[299] Of the Divine Names, IV., i. 7.
[300] For a commentary on this passage of S. Denis, see Qu. CLXXX., Art. 6, pp. 203-210.
[301] Ps. xv. 5-6.
[302] Moralia in Job, vi. 18; and Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[303] Ethics, I., v. 21.
[304] Of the City of God, xix. 2 and 19.
[305] Col. iii. 3-4.
[306] 1 Cor. xiii. 12.
[307] 1 John iii. 2.
[308] Exod. iii. 14.
[309] S. John xvii. 3.
[310] 1 Cor. iv. 5.
[311] Ps. v. 5.
[312] Ps. xv. 11.
[313] S. John xiv. 8.
[314] Acts xv. 9.
[315] Ps. xxiv. 6-11.
QUESTION CLXXX
OF THE CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE
I. Is the Contemplative Life wholly confined to the Intellect, or does the Will enter into it? S. Thomas, On the Beatific Vision, I., xii. 7 ad 3m II. Do the Moral Virtues pertain to the Contemplative Life? S. Augustine, Of the City of God, xix. 19 III. Does the Contemplative Life comprise many Acts? S. Augustine, Of the Perfection of Human Righteousness, viii. 18 " Ep., cxxx. ad probam IV. Does the Contemplative Life consist solely in the Contemplation of God, or in the Consideration of other Truths as well? S. Augustine, Sermon, CLXIX., xiv. 17 " Ep., cxxx. ad probam V. Can the Contemplative Life attain, according to the State of this Present Life, to the Contemplation of the Divine Essence? S. Augustine, Of the Sermon on the Mount, II., ix. 35 VI. Is the Act of Contemplation rightly distinguished according to the three kinds of Motion--Circular, Direct, and Oblique? VII. Has Contemplation its Joys? VIII. Is the Contemplative Life lasting? S. Augustine, Sermon, cclix., On Low Sunday
I
Is the Contemplative Life wholly confined to the Intellect, or does the Will enter into it?
S. Gregory the Great says[316]: "The contemplative life means keeping of charity towards God and our neighbour, and fixing all our desires on our Creator." But desire and love belong to the affective or appetitive powers; consequently the contemplative life is not confined to the intellect.
* * * * *
When men's thoughts are principally directed towards the contemplation of the truth, their life is said to be "contemplative." But to "intend" or direct is an act of the will, since "intention" or direction is concerned with the end in view, and the end is the proper object of the will. Hence contemplation, having regard to the actual essence of it, is an act of the intellect; but if we consider that which moves us to the exercise of such an act, then contemplation is an act of the will; for it is the will which moves all the other faculties, including the intellect, to the exercise of their appropriate acts.
But the appetitive faculty--the will, that is--moves us to consider some point either sensibly or intellectually, that is, sometimes out of love for the thing itself--for Where thy treasure is there is thy heart also,--and sometimes out of love of that very knowledge which follows from its consideration. For this reason S. Gregory[317] makes the contemplative life consist in the love of God, since from love of God a man yearns to look upon His beauty. And since we are delighted when we obtain what we love, the contemplative life consequently results in delight, and this resides in the affective powers, from which, too, love took its rise.
* * * * *
Some, however, urge that the contemplative life lies wholly in the intellect, thus:
1. The Philosopher says[318]: "The end of contemplation is truth." But truth belongs wholly to the intellect.
But from the very fact that truth is the goal of contemplation it derives its character of a desirable and lovable and pleasing good, and in this sense it comes under the appetitive powers.
2. Again, S. Gregory says[319]: "Rachel, whose name is interpreted 'the Beginning seen,' signifies the contemplative life." But the vision of a principle, or beginning, belongs to the intellect.
But it is love of God which excites in us desire of the vision of the First Principle of all--viz., God Himself--and hence S. Gregory says[320]: "The contemplative life, trampling underfoot all cares, ardently yearns to look upon the face of the Creator."
3. S. Gregory says[321]: "It belongs to the contemplative life to rest from all exterior action." But the affective or appetitive powers tend towards external action. Hence it would seem that the contemplative life does not come under them.
But the appetitive powers not only move the bodily members to the performance of external acts, but the intellect, too, is moved by them to the exercise of contemplation.
"Hear, you that are far off, what I have done, and you that are near, know My strength. The sinners in Sion are afraid, trembling hath seized upon the hypocrites. Which of you can dwell with devouring fire? which of you shall dwell with everlasting burnings? He that walketh in justices, and speaketh truth, that casteth away avarice by oppression, and shaketh his hands from all bribes, that stoppeth his ears lest he hear blood, and shutteth his eyes that he may see no evil. He shall dwell on high, the fortifications of rocks shall be his highness: bread is given him, his waters are sure. His eyes shall see the King in His beauty, they shall see the land far off."[322]
* * * * *
S. Thomas: We do not enjoy all the things that we have; and this is either because they do not afford us delight, or because they are not the ultimate goal of our desires, and so are incapable of satisfying our yearnings or affording us repose. But these three things the Blessed have in God: for they see Him, and seeing Him they hold Him ever present to them, for they have it in their power always to see Him; and holding Him, they enjoy Him, satisfying their yearnings with That Which is The Ultimate End (Summa Theologica, I., xii. 7, ad 3m).
"As the hart panteth after the fountains of water: so my soul panteth after Thee, O God. My soul hath thirsted after the strong living God; when shall I come and appear before the face of God? My tears have been my bread day and night, whilst it is said to me daily: Where is thy God? These things I remembered, and poured out my soul in me; for I shall go over into the place of the wonderful tabernacle, even to the house of God. With the voice of joy and praise; the noise of one feasting. Why art thou sad, O my soul? and why dost thou trouble me? Hope in God, for I will still give praise to Him: the salvation of my countenance, and my God."[323]
II
Do the Moral Virtues pertain to the Contemplative Life?
The moral virtues are directed towards external actions, and S. Gregory says[324]: "It belongs to the contemplative life to abstain from all external action." Hence the moral virtues do not pertain to the contemplative life.
A thing may pertain to the contemplative life either essentially or by way of disposition towards it. Essentially, then, the moral virtues do not pertain to the contemplative life; for the goal of the contemplative life is the consideration of truth. "Knowledge," says the Philosopher, "which pertains to the consideration of truth, has little to do with the moral virtues."[325] Hence he also says[326] that moral virtues pertain to active, not to contemplative happiness.
But dispositively the moral virtues do belong to the contemplative life. For actual contemplation, in which the contemplative life essentially consists, is impeded both by the vehemence of the passions which distract the soul from occupation with the things of the intellect, and divert it to the things of sense, and also by external disturbances. The moral virtues, however, keep down the vehemence of the passions, and check the disturbance that might arise from external occupations.
Consequently the moral virtues do pertain to the contemplative life, but by way of disposition thereto.
* * * * *
But some maintain that the moral virtues do pertain to the contemplative life, thus:
1. S. Gregory says[327]: "The contemplative life means keeping charity towards God and our neighbour with our whole soul." But all the moral virtues--acts of which fall under precept--are reduced to love of God and of our neighbour; for Love is the fulfilling of the Law.[328] Consequently it would seem that the moral virtues do pertain to the contemplative life.
But, as we have already said, the contemplative life is motived by the affective faculties, and consequently love of God and of our neighbour are required for the contemplative life. Impelling causes, however, do not enter into the essence of a thing, but prepare for it and perfect it. Hence it does not follow that the moral virtues essentially pertain to the contemplative life.
2. Again; the contemplative life is especially directed towards the contemplation of God, as S. Gregory says: "The soul, trampling all cares underfoot, ardently yearns to see its Creator's face." But no one can attain to this without that cleanness of heart which the moral virtues procure: Blessed are the clean of heart, for they shall see God,[329] and again: Follow peace with all men with holiness, without which no man shall see God.[330]
But holiness--that is, cleanness of heart--is produced by those virtues which have to do with those passions which hinder the purity of the reason. And peace is produced by justice--the moral virtue which is concerned with our works: The work of justice shall be peace[331] inasmuch, that is, as a man, by refraining from injuring others, removes occasions of strife and disturbance.
3. Lastly, S. Gregory says[332]: "The contemplative life is something beautiful in the soul," and it is for this reason that it is said to be typified by Rachel, for She was well-favoured and of a beautiful countenance.[333] But the beauty of the soul, as S. Ambrose remarks, depends upon the moral virtues and especially on that of temperance.[334]
But beauty consists in a certain splendour combined with a becoming harmony. Both of these points are radically to be referred to the reason, for to it belongs both the light which manifests beauty, and the establishment of due proportion in others. Consequently in the contemplative life--which consists in the act of the reason--beauty is necessarily and essentially to be found; thus of the contemplation of Wisdom it is said: And I became a lover of her beauty.[335] But in the moral virtues beauty is only found by a certain participation--in proportion, namely, as they share in the harmony of reason; and this is especially the case with the virtue of temperance whose function it is to repress those desires which particularly obscure the light of reason. Hence it is, too, that the virtue of chastity especially renders a man fit for contemplation, for venereal pleasures are precisely those which, as S. Augustine points out, most drag down the mind to the things of sense.[336]
* * * * *
S. Augustine: While it is true that any one of these three kinds of life--the leisurely, the busy, and the life commingled of them both--may be embraced by anybody without prejudice to his faith, and may be the means of leading him to his eternal reward, it is yet important that a man should take note of what it is that he holds to through love of the truth, and should reflect on the nature of the work to which he devotes himself at the demand of charity. For no man should be so addicted to leisure as for its sake to neglect his neighbour's profit; neither should any man be so devoted to the active life as to forget the thought of God. For in our leisured life we are not to find delight in mere idle repose, but the seeking and finding of the truth must be our aim; each must strive to advance in that, to hold fast what he finds, and yet not to grudge it to his neighbour. Similarly, in the life of action: we must not love honour in this life, nor power; for all things are vain under the sun. But we must love the toil itself which comes to us together with such honour or power if it be rightly and profitably used--as tending, that is, to the salvation under God of those under us.... Love of truth, then, seeks for a holy leisure; the calls of charity compel us to undertake the labours of justice. If no one lays on us this burden, then must we devote our leisure to the search after and the study of the truth; but if such burden be imposed upon us, we must shoulder it at the call of charity; yet withal we must not wholly abandon the delights of the truth, lest while the latter's sweetness is withdrawn from us, the burden we have taken up overwhelm us (Of the City of God, xix. 19).
"O expectation of Israel, the Saviour thereof in time of trouble: why wilt Thou be as a stranger in the land, and as a wayfaring man turning in to lodge? Why wilt Thou be as a wandering man, as a mighty man that cannot save? but Thou, O Lord, art among us, and Thy Name is called upon us, forsake us not."[337]
III
Does the Contemplative Life comprise many Acts?
By "life" is here meant any work to which a man principally devotes himself. Hence if there were many acts or works in the contemplative life, it would not be one life, but several.
It must be understood that we are speaking of the contemplative life as it concerns man. And between men and Angels there is, as S. Denis says,[338] this difference--that whereas an Angel knows the truth by one simple act of intelligence, man, on the contrary, only arrives at a knowledge of the simple truth by arguing from many premises. Hence the contemplative life has only a single act in which it finds its final perfection--namely, the contemplation of the truth--and from this one act it derives its oneness. But at the same time it has many acts by means of which it arrives at this final act. Of these various acts, some are concerned with the establishment of principles from which the mind proceeds to the contemplation of truth; others, again, are concerned with deducing from these principles that truth the knowledge of which is sought. But the ultimate act, the complement of the foregoing, is the contemplation of truth.
Some, however, maintain that many acts pertain to the contemplative life, thus:
1. Richard of S. Victor[339] distinguishes between contemplation, meditation, and thought. But these all seem to belong to the contemplative life.
But thought, according to Richard of S. Victor, seems to signify the consideration of many things from which a man intends to gather some single truth. Consequently, under the term thought may be comprised perceptions by the senses, whereby we know certain effects--imaginations, too, as well as investigation of different phenomena by the reason; in a word, all those things which conduce to a knowledge of the truth we are in search of. At the same time, according to S. Augustine,[340] every operation of the intellect may be termed thought. Meditation, again, seems to refer to the process of reasoning from principles which have to do with the truth we desire to contemplate. And contemplation, according to S. Bernard,[341] means the same thing, although, according to the Philosopher,[342] every operation of the intellect may be termed "consideration." But contemplation is concerned with the simple dwelling upon the truth itself. Hence Richard of S. Victor says[343]: "Contemplation is the soul's clear, free, and attentive dwelling upon the truth to be perceived; meditation is the outlook of the soul occupied in searching for the truth; thought is the soul's glance, ever prone to distraction."
2. Further, the Apostle says: But we all, beholding the glory of the Lord with open face, are transformed into the same image from glory to glory.[344] But this refers to the contemplative life; therefore, besides the three things already mentioned--namely, contemplation, meditation and thought,--speculation, too, enters into the contemplative life.
But speculation, as S. Augustine's Gloss has it,[345] "is derived from speculum, a 'mirror,' not from specula, a 'watch-tower.'" To see a thing in a mirror, however, is to see a cause by an effect in which its likeness is shown; thus speculation seems reducible to meditation.
3. Again, S. Bernard says[346]: "The first and chiefest contemplation is the marvelling at God's Majesty." But to "marvel" is, according to S. John Damascene,[347] a species of fear. Consequently it seems that many acts belong to contemplation.
But wonderment is a species of fear arising from our learning something which it is beyond our powers to understand. Hence wonderment is an act subsequent to the contemplation of sublime truth, whereas contemplation reaches its goal in the affective powers.
4. Lastly, prayer, reading, and meditation seem to belong to the contemplative life. Devout hearing, too, belongs to it, for it is said of Mary, who is the type of the contemplative life, that sitting at the Lord's feet, she heard His word.[348]
Man, however, arrives at the knowledge of truth in two ways: first of all, by receiving things from others; as regards, then, the things a man receives from God: prayer is necessary, according to the words: I called upon God, and the spirit of Wisdom came upon me.[349] And as for the things he receives from men: hearing is necessary if he receive them from one who speaks, reading is necessary if it be question of what is handed down in Holy Scripture. And secondly, a man arrives at the knowledge of truth by his own personal study, and for this is required meditation.
"Uni trinoque Domino Sit sempiterna gloria! Qui vitam sine termino Nobis donet in Patria!"
* * * * *
S. Augustine: As long, then, as we are absent from the Lord, we walk by faith and not by sight,[350] whence it is said: The just man shall live in his faith.[351] And this is our justice as long as we are on our pilgrimage--namely, that here now by the uprightness and perfection with which we walk we strive after that perfection and fulness of justice where, in all the glory of its beauty, will be full and perfect charity. Here we chastise our body and bring it into subjection; here we give alms by conferring benefits and forgiving offences against ourselves; and we do this with joy and from the heart, and are ever instant in prayer; and all this we do in the light of that sound doctrine by which is built up right faith, solid hope, and pure charity. This, then, is our present justice whereby we run hungering and thirsting after the perfection and fulness of justice, so that hereafter we may be filled therewith (De Perfectione justitiæ Hominis, viii. 18).
* * * * *
S. Augustine: You know, then, I think, not only how you ought to pray, but what you ought to pray for; and this not because I teach you, but because He teaches you Who has deigned to teach us all. The Life of Beatitude is what we have to seek; this we have to ask for from the Lord God. And what Beatitude means is, with many, a source of much dispute. But why should we appeal to the many and their many opinions? For pithily and truly it is said in God's Scripture: Happy is that people whose God is the Lord![352] Oh, that we may be counted amongst that people! Oh, that we may be enabled to contemplate Him, and may come one day to live with Him unendingly! The end of the commandment is charity from a pure heart and a good conscience, and an unfeigned faith.[353] And among these three, hope stands for a good conscience. Faith, therefore, with hope and charity, leads to God the man who prays--that is, the man who believes, who hopes, and who desires, and who in the Lord's Prayer meditates what he should ask from the Lord (Ep. cxxx. ad probam).
"For my heart hath been inflamed, and my reins have been changed: and I am brought to nothing, and I knew not. I am become as a beast before Thee; and I am always with Thee. Thou hast held me by my right hand; and by Thy will Thou hast conducted me; and with glory Thou hast received me. For what have I in Heaven? and besides Thee what do I desire upon earth? For Thee my flesh and my heart hath fainted away; Thou art the God of my heart; and the God that is my portion for ever. For behold they that go far from Thee shall perish; Thou hast destroyed all them that are disloyal to Thee. But it is good for me to adhere to my God, to put my hope in the Lord God: that I may declare all Thy praises, in the gates of the daughter of Sion."[354]
IV
Does the Contemplative Life consist solely in the Contemplation of God, or in the Consideration of other Truths as well?
S. Gregory says[355]: "In contemplation it is the Principle--namely, God--which is sought."
A thing may come under the contemplative life in two ways: either primarily, or secondarily--that is, dispositively. Now primarily the contemplation of Divine Truth belongs to the contemplative life, since such contemplation is the goal of all human life. Hence S. Augustine says[356]: "The contemplation of God is promised to us as the goal of all our acts and the eternal consummation of all our joys." And this will be perfect in the future life when we shall see God face to face--when, consequently, it will render us perfectly blessed. But in our present state the contemplation of Divine Truth belongs to us only imperfectly--namely, through a glass and in a dark manner; it causes in us now a certain commencement of beatitude, which begins here, to be continued in the future. Hence even the Philosopher[357] makes the ultimate happiness of man consist in the contemplation of the highest intelligible truths.
But since we are led to a contemplation of God by the consideration of His Divine works--The invisible things of God ... are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made[358]--it follows also that the contemplation of the Divine works belongs in a secondary sense to the contemplative life--according, namely, as by it we are led to the knowledge of God. For this reason S. Augustine says[359]: "In the study of created things we must not exercise a mere idle and passing curiosity, but must make them a stepping-stone to things that are immortal and that abide for ever."
Thus from what we have said it is clear that four things belong, and that in a certain sequence, to the contemplative life: firstly, the moral virtues; secondly, other acts apart from that of contemplation; thirdly, the contemplation of the Divine works; and fourthly--and this is the crown of them all--the actual contemplation of the Divine Truth.
Some, however, say that the contemplative life is not merely confined to the contemplation of God but is extended to the consideration of any truth whatsoever, thus:
1. In Ps. cxxxviii. 14 we read: Wonderful are Thy works! My soul knoweth right well! But the knowledge of the works of God is derived from a certain contemplation of the truth. Whence it would seem that it belongs to the contemplative life to contemplate not only the Divine Truth, but also any other truth we please.
But David sought the knowledge of God's works that he might thereby be led to God Himself, as he says elsewhere: I meditated on all Thy works, I mused upon the works of Thy hands; I stretched forth my hands to Thee.[360]
2. Again, S. Bernard says[361]: "The first point in contemplation is to marvel at God's majesty; the second, at His judgments; the third, at His benefits; the fourth, at His promises." But of these only the first comes under the Divine Truth--the rest are effects of it.
But from the consideration of the Divine judgments a man is led to the contemplation of the Divine justice; and from a consideration of the Divine benefits and promises a man is led to a knowledge of the Divine mercy and goodness, as it were by effects either already shown or to be shown.
3. Once more, Richard of S. Victor[362] distinguishes six kinds of contemplation; the first is according to the imagination simply, when, namely, we consider corporeal things; the second is in the imagination directed by the reason, as when we consider the harmony and arrangement of the things of the senses; the third is in the reason, but based on the imagination, as when by the consideration of visible things we are uplifted to the invisible; the fourth is in the reason working on the things of the reason, as when the soul occupies itself with invisible things unknown to the imagination; the fifth is above the reason, but not beyond its grasp, when, for instance, we know by Divine Revelation things which cannot be comprehended by the human reason; and the sixth is above the reason and beyond its grasp, as when by Divine illumination we know things which are apparently repugnant to human reason--for example, the things we are told concerning the mystery of the Holy Trinity.
And only the last named of these seems to come under Divine Truth; consequently contemplation of the truth is not limited to Divine Truth, but extends also to those truths which we consider in created things.
But by these six are signified the steps by which we ascend through created things to the contemplation of God. For in the first we have the perception of the things of sense; in the second, the progress from the things of sense to the things of the intellect; in the third judgment upon the things of sense according to intellectual principles; in the fourth, the simple consideration of intellectual truths at which we have arrived by means of the things of sense; in the fifth, the contemplation of intellectual truths to which we could not attain by the things of sense, but which can be grasped by reason; in the sixth, the contemplation of intellectual truths such as the reason can neither find nor grasp--truths, namely, which belong to the sublime contemplation of the Divine Truth, in which contemplation is finally perfected.
4. Lastly, in the contemplative life the contemplation of truth is sought as being man's perfection. But any truth whatsoever is a perfection of the human intellect. Consequently the contemplative life consists in the contemplation of any kind of truth whatsoever.
But the ultimate perfection of the human intellect is the Divine Truth; other truths perfect the intellect by way of preparation for the Divine Truth.
* * * * *
S. Augustine: Martha, Martha, thou hast chosen a good part, but Mary hath chosen the better. Yours is good--for it is good to busy oneself with waiting on the Saints--but hers is better. What you have chosen will pass away at length. You minister to the hungry, you minister to the thirsty, you make the beds for them that would sleep, you find house-room for them that need it--but all these things will pass away! For there will come a time when none will hunger, when none will thirst, when none will sleep. And then thy care will be taken from thee. But Mary hath chosen the better part, which shall never be taken from her! It shall not be taken away, for she chose to live the life of contemplation, she chose to live by the Word. What kind of life will that be that flows from the Word without spoken word? Here on earth she drew life from the Word, but through the medium of the spoken word. Then will be life, from the Word indeed, but with no spoken word. For the Word Himself is life. We shall be like Him, for we shall see Him as He is[363] (Sermon, CLXIX., xiv. 17).
* * * * *
S. Augustine: One thing I have asked of the Lord, this will I seek after: that I may dwell in the house of the Lord all the days of my life![364]
Whosoever asks for This One Thing and seeks after It prays with sure and certain confidence; nor need he fear lest, when he shall have obtained It, he shall find It disagreeable to him, for without It naught that he prays for as he ought, and obtains, is of any avail. For this is the one, true, and only Blessed Life--to contemplate the delights of the Lord for eternity, in immortality and incorruptibility of body as well as soul. For the sake of This One Thing are all other things to be sought after, and only thus our petitions for them are rendered not unbecoming. Whosoever hath this One Thing will have all that he wishes for, nor indeed will he be able to wish there for anything which is unfitting. For there is the Fountain of Life, for which we must now thirst in prayer as long as we live by hope--as long, too, as we see not What we hope for. For we dwell 'neath the shadow of His wings before Whom is all our desire, that so we may be inebriated with the plenty of His house, and may drink of the torrent of His pleasure: for with Him is the Fountain of Life, and in His light we shall see light.[365] Then shall our desire be sated with all good things, then will there be naught for us to seek for with groanings, but only What we shall cling to with joy. Yet none the less, since this is the peace that surpasseth all understanding, even when praying for it we know not what we should pray for as we ought[366] (Ep. cxxx. ad probam).
"He shall cast death down headlong for ever: and the Lord God shall wipe away tears from every face, and the reproach of His people He shall take away from off the whole earth: for the Lord hath spoken it. And they shall say in that day: Lo, this is our God, we have waited for Him, and He will save us: this is the Lord, we have patiently waited for Him, we shall rejoice and be joyful in His salvation."[367]
V
Can the Contemplative Life attain, according to the State of this Present Life, to the Contemplation of the Divine Essence?
S. Gregory says[368]: "As long as we live in this mortal flesh none of us can make such progress in the virtue of contemplation as to fix his mind's gaze on that Infinite Light."
S. Augustine also says[369]: "No one who looks on God lives with that life with which we mortals live in the bodily senses; but unless he be in some sort dead to this life, whether as having wholly departed from the body, or as rapt away from the bodily senses, he is not uplifted to that vision."
A man, then, can be "in this life" in two ways: he can be in it actually--that is, as actually using his bodily senses--and when he is thus "in the body" no contemplation such as belongs to this present life can attain to the vision of the Essence of God; or a man may be "in this life" potentially, and not actually; that is, his soul may be joined to his body as its informing principle, but in such fashion that it neither makes use of the bodily senses nor even of the imagination, and this is what takes place when a man is rapt in ecstasy: in this sense contemplation such as belongs to this life can attain to the vision of the Divine Essence.
Consequently the highest degree of contemplation which is compatible with the present life is that which S. Paul had when he was rapt in ecstasy and stood midway between the state of this present life and the next.
Some, however, say that the contemplative life can, even according to our present state of life, attain to the vision of the Divine Essence, thus:
1. Jacob said: I have seen God face to face, and my soul hath been saved.[370] But the vision of the face of God is the vision of the Divine Essence. Whence it would seem that a man may by contemplation actually reach, even during this present life, to the vision of the Essence of God.
But S. Denis says[371]: "If anyone saw God and understood what he saw, then it was not God he saw, but something belonging to Him." And similarly S. Gregory says[372]: "Almighty God is never seen in His Glory, but the soul gazes at something derived from It, and thus refreshed, makes advance, and so ultimately arrives at the glory of vision." Hence when Jacob said, I saw God face to face, we are not to understand that he saw the Essence of God, but that he saw some appearance--that is, some imaginary appearance--in which God spoke to him; or, as the Gloss of S. Gregory[373] has it, "Since we know people by the face, Jacob called knowledge of God His face."
2. Further, S. Gregory says[374]: "Contemplative men turn back within upon themselves in that they search into spiritual things, and do not carry with them the shadows of things corporeal; or if perchance they touch them, they drive them away with discreet hands. But when they would look upon the Infinite Light, they put aside all images which limit It, and in striving to arrive at a height superior to themselves, they become conquerors of their nature." But a man is only withheld from the vision of the Divine Essence, which is Infinite Light, by the necessity he is under of turning to corporeal images. From this it would seem that contemplation can, even in this present life, arrive at the sight of the Infinite Essential Light.
But human contemplation according to this present state cannot exist without recourse to the imagination, for it is in accordance with man's nature that he should see intelligible forms through the medium of pictures in the imagination, as also the Philosopher teaches.[375] Yet intellectual knowledge does not consist in such images, rather does the intellect contemplate in them the purity of intelligible truth; and this is not merely the case in natural knowledge, but also in those things which we know by revelation. For S. Denis says: "The Divine Light manifests to us the Angelic hierarchies by means of symbolical figures by force of which we are restored to the simple ray," that is, to the simple knowledge of intelligible truth. It is thus that we ought to understand S. Gregory's words when he says: "In contemplation men do not carry with them the shadows of things corporeal," for their contemplation does not abide in these things but rather in the consideration of intelligible truth.
3. Lastly, S. Gregory says[376]: "To the soul that looks upon its Creator all created things are but narrow. Consequently the man of God--namely, the Blessed Benedict--who saw in a tower a fiery globe and the Angels mounting up to Heaven, was doubtless only able to see these things by the light of God." But the Blessed Benedict was then still in this life. Consequently contemplation, even in this present life, can attain to the vision of the Essence of God.
But we are not to understand from S. Gregory's words that the Blessed Benedict saw the Essence of God in that vision; S. Gregory wishes to show that since "to him who looks upon his Creator all created things are but as nothing," it follows that certain things can easily be seen by the illumination afforded by the Divine Light. Hence he adds: "For, however little of the Creator's Light he sees, all created things become of small account."
Veni Sancte Spiritus Et emitte coelitus Lucis Tuæ radium!
O Lux Beatissima Reple cordis intima Tuorum fidelium!
S. Augustine: And thus, the remaining burden of this mortal life being laid aside at death, man's happiness will, in God's own time, be perfected from every point of view--that happiness which is begun in this life, and to the attainment and securing of which at some future time our every effort must now tend (Of the Sermon on the Mount, II., ix. 35).
"The old error is passed away; Thou wilt keep peace: peace, because we have hoped in Thee. You have hoped in the Lord for evermore, in the Lord God mighty for ever. And in the way of Thy judgments, O Lord, we have patiently waited for Thee: Thy Name, and Thy remembrance are the desire of the soul. My soul hath desired Thee in the night: yea, and with my spirit within me in the morning early I will watch to Thee."[377]
VI
Is the Act of Contemplation Rightly Distinguished According to the Three Kinds of Motion--Circular, Direct, and Oblique?
S. Denis the Areopagite[378] does so distinguish the acts of contemplation.
The operation of the intellect in which contemplation essentially consists is termed "motion" in the sense that motion is the act of a perfect thing, according to the Philosopher.[379] And since we arrive at a knowledge of intelligible things through the medium of the things of sense, and the operations of the senses do not take place without motion, it follows that the operations also of the intellect are correctly described as a species of motion, and are differentiated according to the analogy of divers motions. But the more perfect and the chiefest of bodily motions are local motions, as is proved by the Philosopher.[380] Consequently the chief intellectual motions are described according to the analogy of these latter.
Now, there are three species of local motion: one is circular, according as a thing is moved uniformly about the same centre; another is direct, according as a thing proceeds from one point to another; and a third is oblique, compounded as it were from the two foregoing.
Hence in intelligible operations, that which simply has uniformity is attributed to circular motion; that intellectual motion by which a man proceeds from one thing to another is attributed to direct motion; while that intellectual operation which has a certain uniformity combined with progress towards different points, is attributed to oblique motion.
All, however, do not agree with this division, thus:
1. Contemplation means a state of repose, as is said in Wisdom[381]: When I go into my house I shall repose myself with Her. And motion is opposed to repose. Consequently the operations of the contemplative life cannot be designated according to these different species of motion.
But whereas external bodily movements are opposed to that repose of contemplation which is understood to be rest from external occupations, the motion of intellectual operations belongs precisely to the repose of contemplation.
2. Again, the action of the contemplative life pertains to the intellect wherein man is at one with the Angels. But S. Denis does not apply these motions to the Angels in the same way as he does to the soul; for he says that the circular motion of the Angels "corresponds to the illumination of the beautiful and the good." But of the circular motion of the soul he gives several definitions, of which the first is "the return of the soul upon itself as opposed to external things"; the second is "a certain wrapping together of the powers of the soul whereby it is freed from error and from external occupation"; and the third is "the union of the soul with things superior to it." Similarly, he speaks in different terms of the direct motion of the soul as compared with that of the Angels. For he says that the direct motion of an Angel is "according as he proceeds to the care of the things subject to him"; while the direct motion of the soul is made to consist in two things: first of all "that it proceeds to those things which are around it"; secondly, that "from external things it is uplifted to simple contemplation." And lastly, he explains the oblique motion differently in each case. For he makes the oblique motion of the Angels consist in this that, "while providing for those that have less than themselves, they remain in the same attitude towards God"; but the oblique motion of the soul he explains as meaning that "the soul is illumined by Divine knowledge rationally and diffusely."
Consequently it does not appear that the operations of contemplation are fittingly distinguished according to the aforesaid species of motion.
But while man's intellect is generally the same with that of the Angels, the intellectual powers of the latter are far higher than in man. It was therefore necessary to assign the aforesaid motions to human souls and to the Angels in different fashion in proportion as their intellectual powers are not uniform. For the Angelic intellect has uniform knowledge in two respects: firstly, because the Angels do not acquire intelligible truth from the variety of compound things; and secondly, because they do not understand intelligible truth discursively, but by simple intuition. Whereas the intellect of the human soul, on the contrary, acquires intelligible truth from the things of sense, and understands it by the discursive action of the reason.
Hence S. Denis assigns to the Angels circular motion in that they uniformly and unceasingly, without beginning or end, gaze upon God; just as circular motion, which has neither beginning nor end, is uniformly maintained round the same central point. But in the case of the human soul, its twofold lack of uniformity must be removed before it can attain to the above-mentioned uniformity. For there must first be removed that lack of uniformity which arises from the diversity of external things: that is, the soul must quit external things. And this S. Denis expresses first of all in his definition of the circular motion of the soul when he speaks of "the return of the soul upon itself as opposed to external things." And there must be removed in the second place that second lack of uniformity which arises from the discursive action of the reason. And this takes place when all the operations of the soul are reduced to the simple contemplation of intelligible truth. This forms the second part of S. Denis's definition of this circular motion--namely, when he speaks of the necessity of "a certain wrapping together of the powers of the soul," with the result that, when discursive action thus ceases, the soul's gaze is fixed on the contemplation of the one simple truth. And in this operation of the soul there is no room for error, just as there is no room for error in our understanding of first principles which we know by simple intuition.
Then, when these first two steps have been taken, S. Denis puts in the third place that uniformity, like to that of the Angels, by which the soul, laying aside all else, persists in the simple contemplation of God. And this he expresses when he says: "Then, as now made uniform, it, as a whole"--that is, as conformed (to God)--"is, with all its powers unified, led by the hand to the Beautiful and the Good."
But the direct motion in the Angels cannot be understood in the sense that, by considering, they proceed from one point to another; but solely according to the order of their providential care for others--according, namely, as the superior Angels illumine the inferior through those who stand between. And this is what S. Denis means when he says that the direct motion of an Angel is "according as he proceeds to the care of the things subject to him, taking in his course all things that are direct" following--that is, those things which are disposed in direct order. But to the human soul S. Denis assigns direct motion in the sense that it proceeds from the exterior things of sense to the knowledge of intelligible things.
And he assigns oblique motion to the Angels--a motion, that is, compounded of the direct and the circular--inasmuch as an Angel, according to his contemplation of God, provides for those inferior to him. To the human soul, on the contrary, he assigns this same oblique motion, similarly compounded of the direct and the circular motions, inasmuch as in its reasonings it makes use of the Divine illuminations.
3. Lastly, Richard of S. Victor[382] gives many other and different kinds of motion. For, following the analogy of the birds of the air, he says of these latter that "some at one time ascend on high, at another swoop down to earth, and they do this again and again; others turn now to the right, now to the left, and this repeatedly; others go in advance, others fall behind; some sail round and round in circles, now narrower and now wider; while others again remain almost immovably suspended in one place." From all which it would seem that there are not merely three movements in contemplation.
But all these diversities of motion which are expressed by, up and down, to right and left, backwards and forwards, and in varying circles, are reducible either to direct or to oblique motion, for they all signify the discursive action of the reason. For if this discursive action be from the genus to the species or from the whole to the part, it will be, as Richard of S. Victor himself explains, motion upwards and downwards. If, again, it means argumentation from one thing to its opposite, it will come under motion to right and left. Or if it be deduction from cause to effect, then it will be motion backwards and forwards. And finally, if it mean arguing from the accidents which surround a thing, whether nearly or remotely, it will be circuitous motion. But the discursive action of the reason arguing from the things of sense to intelligible things according to the orderly progress of the natural reason, belongs to direct motion. When, however, it arises from Divine illuminations, it comes under oblique motion, as we have already said (in the reply to the second argument). Lastly, only the immobility which he mentions will come under circular motion.
Whence it appears that S. Denis has quite sufficiently, and with exceeding subtlety, described the movements of contemplation.
"For behold my witness is in Heaven, and He that knoweth my conscience is on high. For behold short years pass away, and I am walking in a path by which I shall not return."[383]
VII
Has Contemplation its Joys?
In Wisdom viii. 16 we read: Her conversation hath no bitterness, nor Her company any tediousness, but joy and gladness. And S. Gregory says[384]: "The contemplative life means a truly lovable sweetness."
There are two sources of pleasure in contemplation; for, firstly, there is the very act of contemplating, and everyone finds a certain pleasure in the performance of acts which are appropriate to his nature or to his habits. And the contemplation of truth is natural to man as a rational animal; hence it is that "all men naturally desire to know," and consequently find a pleasure in the knowledge of truth. And this pleasure is enhanced according as a man has habits of wisdom and knowledge which enable him to indulge in contemplation without difficulty.
Secondly, contemplation is pleasurable owing to the object which we contemplate, as when a man looks at something which he loves. And this holds good of even bodily vision, for not only is the mere exercise of the visual faculties pleasurable, but the seeing people whom we love is pleasurable.
Since, then, the contemplative life especially consists in the contemplation of God, to which contemplation we are moved by charity, it follows that the contemplative life is not merely pleasurable by reason of the simple act of contemplating, but also by reason of Divine Love Itself. And in both these respects the delights of contemplation exceed all other human delights. For on the one hand spiritual delights are superior to carnal delights; and on the other hand, the love of Divine charity wherewith we love God exceeds all other love; whence it is said in the Psalm: Taste and see that the Lord is sweet.[385]
Some maintain, however, that contemplation is not pleasurable, thus:
1. Pleasure belongs to the appetitive powers, whereas contemplation is mainly in the intellect.
But while the contemplative life mainly consists in the intellect, it derives its principle from the affective powers, since a man is moved to contemplation by love of God. And since the end corresponds to the principle, it follows that the goal and term of the contemplative life is in the affective powers, in the sense, namely, that a man finds a pleasure in the sight of a thing which he loves, and this very pleasure stirs up in him a yet greater love. Hence S. Gregory says[386]: "When a man sees one whom he loves his love is yet more enkindled." And in this lies the full perfection of the contemplative life: that the Divine Truth should not only be seen but loved.
2. Again, strife and contention hinder delight. But in contemplation there is strife and contention, for S. Gregory says[387]: "The soul, when it strives after the contemplation of God, finds itself engaged in a species of combat; at one time it seems to prevail, for by understanding and by feeling it tastes somewhat of the Infinite Light; at other times it is overwhelmed, for when it has tasted it faints."
It is true indeed that contest and strife arising from the opposition presented by external things prevent us from finding pleasure in those same things. For no man finds a pleasure in the things against which he fights. But he does find a pleasure, other things being equal, in the actual attainment of a thing for which he has striven; thus S. Augustine says[388]: "The greater the danger in the battle, the greater the joy in the triumph." And in contemplation the strife and the combat do not arise from any opposition on the part of the truth which we contemplate, but from our deficient understanding and from the corruptible nature of our bodies which ever draw us down to things beneath us: The corruptible body is a load upon the soul, and the earthly habitation presseth down the mind that museth upon many things.[389] Hence it is that when a man attains to the contemplation of truth he loves it still more ardently; but at the same time he more than ever hates his own defects and the sluggishness of his corruptible body, so that with the Apostle he cries out: Unhappy man that I am! Who shall deliver me from the body of this death?[390] Hence, too, S. Gregory says: "When God is known by our desires and our understanding, He causes all pleasures of the flesh to wither up within us."[391]
3. But again, delight follows upon a perfect work.[392] But contemplation on this earth is imperfect, according to the words of the Apostle: We see now through a glass in a dark manner.[393] Hence it would seem that the contemplative life does not afford delight.
It is indeed true that the contemplation of God during this life is imperfect compared with our contemplation of Him in our eternal home; and in the same way it is true that the delights of contemplation here on earth are imperfect compared with the delights of contemplation in that home, of which latter joys the Psalmist says: Thou shalt make them drink of the torrent of Thy pleasure.[394] Yet, none the less, the contemplation of Divine things here on earth is, although imperfect, far more perfect than any other subject of contemplation howsoever perfect it may be, and this by reason of the excellence of what we contemplate. Whence the Philosopher says[395]: "It may indeed be the case that with regard to such noble existences and Divine substances we have to be content with insignificant theories, yet even though we but barely touch upon them, none the less so ennobling is such knowledge that it affords us greater delight than any other which is accessible to us." Hence, too, S. Gregory says: "The contemplative life has its most desirable sweetness which uplifts the soul above itself, opens the way to heavenly things, and makes spiritual things plain to the eyes of the soul."
4. Lastly, bodily injuries are a hindrance to delight. But contemplation is productive of bodily injuries, for we read in Genesis[396] that Jacob, after saying I have seen God face to face, ... halted on his foot ... because He touched the sinew of his thigh and it shrank. Whence it would seem that the contemplative life is not pleasurable.
But after that contemplation Jacob halted on one foot because, as S. Gregory says, "it must needs be that as the love of this world grows weaker, so a man grows stronger in his love of God," and consequently, "when once we have known the sweetness of God, one of our feet remains sound while the other halts; for a man who halts with one foot leans only on the one that is sound."[397]
"Tu esto nostrum gaudium Qui es futurus Præmium. Sit nostra in Te gloria Per cuncta semper sæcula!"
* * * * *
S. Gregory: Between the delights of the body and those of the heart there is ever this difference that the delights of the body are wont, when we have them not, to beget a keen yearning for them; but when we have them and eat our fill, they straightway beget disgust for them, for we are sated therewith. Spiritual joys, on the contrary, when we have them not are a weariness, but when we have them we desire them still more, and the more we feed upon them the more we hunger after them. In the case of the former, the yearning for them was a pleasure, trial of them brought disgust. In the case of the latter, in desire we held them cheap, trial of them proved a source of pleasure. For spiritual joys increase the soul's desire of them even while they sate us, for the more their savour is perceived, the more we know what it is we ought eagerly to love. Whence it comes to pass that when we have them not we cannot love them, for their savour is unknown to us. For how can a man love what he is ignorant of? Wherefore the Psalmist admonishes us, saying: O taste and see that the Lord is sweet![398] As though he would say to us in plain terms: You know not His sweetness if ye have never tasted it; touch, then, the Food of Life with the palate of your soul that so, making proof of Its sweetness, ye may be able to love It.
These joys man lost when he sinned in Paradise; he went out when he closed his mouth to the Food of Eternal Sweetness. Whence we too, who are born amidst the toils of this pilgrimage, come without relish to this Food; we know not what we ought to desire, and the sickness of our disgust grows the more the further our souls keep away from feeding upon that Sweetness; and less and less does our soul desire those interior joys the longer it has grown accustomed to do without them. We sicken, then, by reason of our very disgust, and we are wearied by the long-drawn sickness of our hunger (Hom. XXXVI., On the Gospels).
VIII
Is the Contemplative Life lasting?
The Lord said Mary hath chosen the best part which shall not be taken away from her[399] because, as S. Gregory says: "Contemplation begins here below that it may be perfected in our heavenly home."
A thing may be termed "lasting" in two ways: from its very nature, or as far as we are concerned. As far as its nature is concerned, the contemplative life is lasting in two ways: for first of all it is concerned with incorruptible and unchangeable things, and in the second place there is nothing which is its contrary: for, as Aristotle says[400]: "To the pleasure which is derived from thought there is no contrary."
And also as far as we are concerned the contemplative life is lasting; and this both because it comes under the action of the incorruptible portion of our soul--namely, our intellect--and so can last after this life; and also because in the work of the contemplative life there is no bodily toil, and we can consequently apply ourselves more continuously to such work, as also the Philosopher remarks.[401]
Some, however, argue that the contemplative life is not lasting, thus:
1. The contemplative life essentially concerns the intellect. But all the intellectual perfections of this life will be made void, as we read: Whether prophecies shall be made void, or tongues shall cease, or knowledge shall be destroyed.[402]
But the fashion of contemplation here and in our Father's home is not the same; and the contemplative life is said "to last" by reason of charity, which is both its principle and its end; wherefore S. Gregory says: "The contemplative life begins here below that it may be perfected in our heavenly home, for the fire of love which begins to burn here below, when it sees Him Whom it loves, burns yet more strongly with love of Him."
2. Again, men but taste the sweetness of contemplation here, snatching at it, as it were, and in passing: whence S. Augustine says: "Thou introducest me to a most unwonted affection within me, to an unspeakable sweetness; yet I fall back again as though dragged down by a grievous weight!"[403] And S. Gregory, expounding those words of Job, When a spirit passed before me, says: "The mind does not long remain steadfastly occupied with the sweetness of intimate contemplation, for it is recalled to itself, stricken back by the immensity of that Light." The contemplative life, then, is not lasting.
It is true indeed that no action can remain long at the pitch of its intensity. And the goal of contemplation is to attain to the uniformity of Divine contemplation, as Denis the Areopagite says.[404] Hence, although in this sense contemplation cannot last long, yet it can last long as regards its other acts.
3. Lastly, what is not natural to a man cannot be lasting. "But the contemplative life," as the Philosopher says, "is beyond man."[405]
But the Philosopher says that the contemplative life is "beyond man" in the sense that it belongs to us according to what is Divine in us--namely, our intellect; for our intellect is incorruptible and impassible in itself, and consequently its action can be more lasting.
* * * * *
S. Augustine: This day sets before us the great mystery of our eternal beatitude. For that life which this day signifies will not pass away as to-day is to pass away. Wherefore, brethren, we exhort and beseech you by the Name of our Lord Jesus Christ by Whom our sins are forgiven, by Him Who willed that His Blood should be our ransom, by Him Who has deigned that we who are not deserving to be called His slaves should yet be called His brethren--we beseech you that your entire aim, that which gives you your very name of "Christian," and by reason of which you bear His Name upon your foreheads and in your hearts, may be directed solely to that life which we are to share with the Angels; that life where is to be unending repose, everlasting joy, unfailing happiness, rest without disturbance, joy without sadness, no death. What that life is none can know save those who have made trial of it; and none can make trial of it save those who have faith (Sermon, CCLIX., On Low Sunday).
"And thou shalt say in that day: I will give thanks to Thee, O Lord, for Thou wast angry with me: Thy wrath is turned away, and Thou hast comforted me. Behold, God is my Saviour. I will deal confidently, and will not fear: because the Lord is my strength, and my praise, and He is become my salvation. You shall draw waters with joy out of the Saviour's fountains: And you shall say in that day: Praise ye the Lord, and call upon His Name: make His works known among the people: remember that His Name is high. Sing ye to the Lord, for He hath done great things: shew this forth in all the earth. Rejoice, and praise, O thou habitation of Sion: for great is He that is in the midst of thee, the holy One of Israel."[406]
FOOTNOTES:
[316] Moralia in Job, vi. 18.
[317] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[318] Metaphysics, ii. 3.
[319] Moralia in Job, vi. 18; and Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[320] On Ezechiel, loc. cit.
[321] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[322] Isa. xxxiii. 13-17.
[323] Ps. xli. 1-6.
[324] Moralia in Job, vi. 18.
[325] Ethics, II., iv. 3.
[326] Ibid., X., viii. 1.
[327] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[328] Rom. xiii. 10.
[329] S. Matt. v. 8.
[330] Heb. xii. 14.
[331] Isa. xxxii. 17.
[332] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[333] Gen. xxix. 17.
[334] De Officiis, i. 43, 45, 46.
[335] Wisd. viii. 2.
[336] Soliloquies, i. 10.
[337] Jer. xiv. 8, 9.
[338] Of the Divine Names, vii. 2.
[339] On Contemplation, i. 3 and 4.
[340] De Trinitate, xiv. 7.
[341] De Consideratione, ii. 2.
[342] De Anima, II., i. 2.
[343] Loc. cit., i. 4.
[344] 2 Cor. iii. 18.
[345] De Trinitate, xv. 8.
[346] De Consideratione, v. 14.
[347] De Fide Orthodoxa, ii. 15.
[348] S. Luke x. 39.
[349] Wisd. vii. 7.
[350] 2 Cor. v. 6-7.
[351] Hab. ii. 4.
[352] Ps. cxliii. 15.
[353] 1 Tim. i. 5.
[354] Ps. lxxii. 21-28.
[355] Moralia in Job, vi. 28.
[356] On the Trinity, i. 8.
[357] Ethics, X., vii. 2.
[358] Rom. i. 20.
[359] De Vera Religione, xxix.
[360] Ps. cxlii. 5, 6.
[361] De Consideratione, v. 14.
[362] Of Contemplation, i. 6.
[363] 1 John iii. 2.
[364] Ps. xxvi. 4.
[365] Ps. xxxv. 9, 10.
[366] Phil. iv. 7; Rom. viii. 26.
[367] Isa. xxv. 8, 9.
[368] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[369] De Genesi ad Litt., xii. 27.
[370] Gen. xxxii. 30.
[371] Epistola I., to Caius the Monk.
[372] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[373] The Glossa Ordinaria, taken from S. Gregory's Moralia in Job, xxiv. 5.
[374] Moralia, vi. 27.
[375] De Anima, III., vii. 3.
[376] Dialogues, ii. 35.
[377] Isa. xxvi. 3, 4, 8, 9.
[378] Of the Divine Names, IV., i. 7.
[379] De Anima, III., vii. 1 and 2.
[380] Physica, VIII., vii. 2.
[381] viii. 16.
[382] Of Contemplation, i. 5.
[383] Job xvi. 20, 23.
[384] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[385] Ps. xxxiii. 9.
[386] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[387] Ibid.
[388] Conf., viii. 3.
[389] Wisd. ix. 15.
[390] Rom. vii. 24.
[391] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[392] Ethics, X., iv. 6.
[393] 1 Cor. xiii, 12.
[394] Ps. xxxv. 9.
[395] De Partibus Animalium, i. 5.
[396] xxxii. 30-32.
[397] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[398] Ps. xxxiii. 9.
[399] S. Luke x. 42.
[400] Topics, I., xiii. 5.
[401] Ethics, X., vii. 2.
[402] 1 Cor. xiii. 8.
[403] Conf., x. 40.
[404] Of the Divine Names, IV., i. 7; and Of the Heavenly Hierarchy, iii.
[405] Ethics, X., vii. 8.
[406] Isa. xii. 1-6.
QUESTION CLXXXI
OF THE ACTIVE LIFE
I. Do all Acts of the Moral Virtues come under the Active Life? II. Does Prudence pertain to the Active Life? III. Does Teaching belong to the Active or to the Contemplative Life? IV. Does the Active Life continue after this Life?
I
Do all Acts of the Moral Virtues come under the Active Life?
S. Isidore says[407]: "In the active life all the vices are first of all to be removed by the practice of good works, so that in the contemplative life a man may, with now purified mental gaze, pass to the contemplation of the Divine Light." But all the vices can only be removed by the acts of the moral virtues. Consequently the acts of the moral virtues belong to the active life.
As we have said already,[408] the active and the contemplative lives are distinguished by the different occupations of men who are aiming at different ends, one being the consideration of Truth--the goal of the contemplative life; the other external works with which the active life is occupied. But it is clear that the moral virtues are not especially concerned with the contemplation of truth but with action; thus the Philosopher says[409]: "For virtue, knowledge is of little or no avail." It is therefore manifest that the moral virtues essentially belong to the active life; and in accordance with this the Philosopher[410] refers the moral virtues to active happiness.
Some, however, maintain that all the acts of the moral virtues do not belong to the active life, thus:
1. The active life seems to consist solely in those things which have to do with our neighbour; for S. Gregory says[411]: "The active life means breaking bread to the hungry;" and at the close, after enumerating many things which have to do with our neighbour, he adds: "And to provide for each according as they have need." But not by all the acts of the moral virtues are we brought into contact with others, but only by justice and its divisions. Consequently all the acts of the moral virtues do not belong to the active life.
But the chief of the moral virtues is justice, and by it a man is brought into contact with his neighbour, as the Philosopher proves.[412] We describe, then, the active life by those things by means of which we are brought into contact with our neighbour; yet we do not thereby mean that the active life consists solely in these things, but chiefly in them.
2. Again, S. Gregory says[413]: "By Lia, who was blear-eyed but fruitful, is signified the active life which sees less clearly, since occupied with works; but when, now by word, now by example, it arouses its neighbour to imitation, it brings forth many children in good works." But all this seems rather to come under charity, by which we love our neighbour, than under the moral virtues. Consequently the acts of the moral virtues seem not to belong to the active life.
But a man can, by acts of all the moral virtues, lead his neighbour to good works by his example; and this S. Gregory here attributes to the active life.
3. Lastly, the moral virtues dispose us to the contemplative life. But disposition to a thing and the perfect attainment of that thing come under the same head. Consequently the moral virtues do not belong to the active life.
But just as a virtue which is directed towards the end of another virtue passes over, in some sort, into the species of that latter virtue, so also when a man uses those things which belong to the active life precisely as disposing him to contemplation, then those things which he so uses are comprised under the contemplative life. But for those who devote themselves to the works of the moral virtues as being good in themselves and not as dispositive towards the contemplative life, the moral virtues belong to the active life. Although at the same time it might be said that the active life is a disposition to the contemplative life.
"O death, how bitter is the remembrance of thee to a man that hath peace in his possessions, to a man that is at rest, and whose ways are prosperous in all things, and that is yet able to take meat! O death, thy sentence is welcome to the man that is in need, and to him whose strength faileth, who is in a decrepit age, and that is in care about all things, and to the distrustful that loseth patience! Fear not the sentence of death. Remember what things have been before thee, and what shall come after thee: this sentence is from the Lord upon all flesh. And what shall come upon thee by the good pleasure of the Most High whether ten, or a hundred, or a thousand years."[414]
II
Does Prudence pertain to the Active Life?
The Philosopher says[415] that prudence pertains to active happiness, and to this pertain the moral virtues.
As we have said above, when one thing is directed towards the attainment of another thing as its end, it--and this especially holds good in morals--is, so to speak, drawn into the species of that towards which it is thus directed, thus: "He who commits adultery in order to steal" says the Philosopher,[416] "is rather a thief than an adulterer." Now it is clear that that knowledge which is prudence is directed to the acts of the moral virtues as its end, for prudence is "the right mode of procedure in our actions;"[417] hence, too, the ends of the moral virtues are the principles of prudence, as the Philosopher also says in the same work.[418] In the same way, then, as we said above that in the case of a man who directs them to the repose of contemplation, the moral virtues pertain to the contemplative life, so also the knowledge which is prudence, and which is by its very nature directed to the operations of the moral virtues, directly pertains to the active life--that is, of course, on the supposition that prudence is understood in the strict sense in which the Philosopher speaks of it.
If, however, prudence be understood in a broad sense--namely, as embracing all kinds of human knowledge--then prudence pertains, at least in certain of its aspects, to the contemplative life; thus Cicero says[419]: "The man who can see a truth the most clearly and quickly, and explain the reason of it, is rightly regarded as most prudent and most wise."
But some maintain that prudence does not pertain to the active life, thus:
1. Just as the contemplative life pertains to the cognoscitive powers, so does the active life pertain to the appetitive powers. But prudence does not pertain to the appetitive powers but rather to the cognoscitive. Consequently it does not pertain to the active life.
But moral acts derive their character from the end towards which they are directed; consequently to the contemplative life belongs that kind of knowledge which makes its end consist in the very knowledge of truth. But the knowledge which is prudence, and which is rather directed to the acts of the appetitive powers, pertains to the active life.
2. Again, S. Gregory says[420] "The active life, occupied as it is with works, sees less clearly," and hence is typified by Lia, who was blear-eyed. But prudence demands clear vision, so that a man may judge what is to be done. Whence it would seem that prudence does not pertain to the active life.
But occupation with external things only makes a man see less clearly those intelligible truths which are not connected with the things of sense; the external occupations of the active life, however, make a man see more clearly in his judgment on a course of action--and this is a question of prudence--for he has experience, and his mind is attentive: "When you are attentive," says Sallust,[421] "then mental acumen avails."
3. Lastly, prudence comes midway betwixt the moral and the intellectual virtues. But just as the moral virtues pertain to the active life, so do the intellectual virtues pertain to the contemplative. Hence it would seem that prudence belongs neither to the active nor to the contemplative life, but, as S. Augustine says, to a kind of life which is betwixt and between.[422]
But prudence is said to come betwixt the intellectual and the moral virtues in the sense that, whereas it has the same subject as the intellectual virtues, it yet coincides as regards its object with the moral virtues. And that third species of life comes betwixt and between the active and the contemplative life as regards the things with which it is concerned, for at one time it is occupied with the contemplation of truth, at another time with external matters.
"For what shall I do when God shall rise to judge? and when He shall examine, what shall I answer Him? For I have always feared God as waves swelling over me, and His weight I was not able to bear."[423]
III
Does Teaching Belong to the Active or to the Contemplative Life?
S. Gregory says[424]: "The active life means breaking bread to the hungry; teaching words of wisdom to them that know them not."
The act of teaching has a twofold object: for teaching is by speaking, and speaking is the audible sign of an interior mental concept. One object, therefore, of our teaching is the matter to be taught, the object, that is, of our interior concepts; and in this sense teaching sometimes belongs to the active, sometimes to the contemplative life. It belongs to the active life if a man forms interiorly some concept of a truth with a view to thus directing his external acts; but it belongs to the contemplative life if a man interiorly conceives some intelligible truth and delights in the thought of it and the love of it. Whence S. Augustine says[425]: "Let them choose for themselves the better part--that, namely, of the contemplative life; let them devote themselves to the Word of God; let them yearn for the sweetness of teaching; let them occupy themselves with the knowledge that leads to salvation"--where he clearly says that teaching belongs to the contemplative life.
The second object of teaching arises from the fact that teaching is given through the medium of audible speech and thus the hearer himself is the object of the teaching; and from this point of view all teaching belongs to the active life to which pertain all external actions.
Some, however, regard teaching as rather belonging to the contemplative than to the active life, thus:
1. S. Gregory says[426]: "Perfect men declare to their brethren those good things of Heaven which they themselves have been able to contemplate at least 'through a glass,' and they thus kindle in their hearts the love of that hidden beauty." Yet what is this but teaching? To teach, therefore, is an act of the contemplative life.
But S. Gregory expressly speaks here of teaching from the point of view of the matter that is presented--that is, of teaching as it is concerned with the consideration of and love of the truth.
2. Again, acts and habits seem to belong to the same kind of life. But to teach is an act of wisdom, for the Philosopher says: "The proof that a man knows is that he is able to teach."[427] Since, then, wisdom--that is, knowledge--pertains to the contemplative life, it would seem that teaching also must pertain to the contemplative life.
But habits and acts agree in their object, and consequently the argument just given is based upon the material of the interior concept. For the capacity for teaching is possessed by a wise or learned man just in proportion as he can express in outward words the concepts of his mind and so be able to bring home a truth to someone else.
3. Lastly, prayer is an act of the contemplative life just in the same way as is contemplation itself. But prayer, even when one man prays for another, belongs to the contemplative life. Hence it would seem that when one man brings to the knowledge of another some truth upon which he has meditated, such an act pertains to the contemplative life.
But he who prays for another in no way acts upon him for whom he prays; his acts are directed towards God alone, the Intelligible Truth. But he who teaches another does act upon him by some external action. Hence there is no parallel between the two cases.
IV
Does the Active Life continue after this Life?
S. Gregory says[428]: "The active life passes away with this present world; the contemplative life begins here so as to be perfected in our heavenly home."
As already said, the active life makes its end consist in external actions, and these, if they are directed towards the repose of contemplation, already belong to the contemplative life. But in the future life of the blessed all occupation with external things will cease; or if there are any external acts they will be directed towards that end which is contemplation. Hence S. Augustine says, at the close of his Of the City of God: "There we shall be at rest from toil, we shall gaze, we shall love, we shall praise." And he had just previously said: "There will God be seen unendingly, be loved without wearying, be praised without fatigue; this duty, this disposition of soul, this act, will be the lot of all."[429]
Some, however, maintain that the active life will be continued after this life, thus:
1. To the active life belong the acts of the moral virtues. But the moral virtues remain after death, as S. Augustine says.[430]
But the acts of the moral virtues which are concerned with the means to the end will not remain after death, but only those which have to do with the end itself. Yet it is precisely these latter which go to form the repose of contemplation to which S. Augustine alludes in the above-quoted passage where he speaks of being "at rest from toil"; and this "rest" is not to be understood of freedom from merely external disturbances, but also from the internal conflict of the passions.
2. Again, to teach others pertains to the active life. But in the next life--where we shall be as the Angels--there can be teaching; for we see it in the case of the Angels of whom one illumines, clarifies, and perfects another, all of which refer to their reception of knowledge, as is clear from Denis the Areopagite.[431] Hence it seems that the active life is to be continued after this life.
But the contemplative life especially consists in the contemplation of God; and as regards this no Angel teaches another, for it is said of the Angels of the little ones[432]--Angels who are of an inferior choir--that they always see the face of the Father. And similarly in the future life: there no man will teach another about God, for we shall all see Him as He is.[433] And this agrees with the words of Jeremias[434]: And they shall teach no more every man his neighbour ... saying: Know the Lord; for all shall know Me from the least of them even to the greatest.
But when it is question of dispensing the mysteries of God, then one Angel can teach another by clarifying, illumining, and perfecting. And in this sense the Angels do in some sort share in the active life as long as this world lasts, for they are occupied with ministering to the inferior creation. This is what was signified by Jacob's vision of the Angels ascending the ladder--whereby was meant the contemplative life--and descending the ladder--whereby was meant the active life. At the same time, as S. Gregory says[435]: "Not that they so went out from the Divine Vision as to be deprived of the joys of contemplation." And thus in their case the active life is not distinguished from the contemplative as it is in us who find the works of the active life an impediment to the contemplative life. Moreover, we are not promised a likeness to the Angels in their work of administering to the inferior creation, for this does not belong to us according to our nature, as is the case with the Angels, but according to our vision of God.
3. Lastly, the more durable a thing is the more capable it seems of lasting after this life. But the active life is more durable than the contemplative, for S. Gregory says[436]: "We can remain steadfast in the active life, but in nowise can we maintain the mind's fixed gaze in the contemplative life." Consequently the active life is much more capable of continuing after death than is the contemplative life.
But in our present state the durability of the active life as compared with the contemplative life does not arise from any feature of either of these kinds of life considered in themselves, but from a defect on our part; for we are dragged down from the heights of contemplation by the body's burden. And thus S. Gregory goes on to say that, "thrust back by its very weakness from those vast heights, the soul relapses into itself."
"O bless our God, ye Gentiles: and make the voice of His praise to be heard. Who hath set my soul to live: and hath not suffered my feet to be moved. For Thou, O God, hast proved us; Thou hast tried us by fire, as silver is tried. Thou hast brought us into a net, Thou hast laid afflictions on our back; Thou hast set men over our heads. We have passed through fire and water, and Thou hast brought us out into a refreshment."[437]
FOOTNOTES:
[407] Of the Supreme Good, III., xv.
[408] Qu. CLXXIX. 1.
[409] Ethics, II., iv. 3.
[410] Ibid., X., viii. 1.
[411] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[412] Ethics, V., i. 15.
[413] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[414] Ecclus. xli. 1-6.
[415] Ethics., X., viii. 2.
[416] Ibid., V., ii. 4.
[417] Ethics, VI., v. 4.
[418] Ibid., X., viii. 2.
[419] De Officiis, I., v.
[420] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[421] Conjuratio Catilinæ, li.
[422] Of the City of God, xix. 2, 3, and 19.
[423] Job xxxi. 14, 23.
[424] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[425] On the Words of the Lord, Sermon civ., alias xxvii. 1.
[426] Hom. V., On Ezechiel.
[427] Metaphysics, I., i. 9.
[428] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[429] xxii. 30.
[430] On the Trinity, xiv. 9.
[431] Of the Heavenly Hierarchy, vii.
[432] S. Matt. xviii. 10.
[433] 1 John iii. 2.
[434] xxxi. 34.
[435] Moralia in Job, ii. 2.
[436] Hom. V., On Ezechiel.
[437] Ps. lxv. 8-12.
QUESTION CLXXXII
OF THE COMPARISON BETWEEN THE ACTIVE AND THE CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE
I. Is the Active Life preferable to the Contemplative? Cardinal Cajetan, On Preparation for the Contemplative Life S. Augustine, Confessions, X., xliii. 70 " On Psalm xxvi. II. Is the Active Life more Meritorious than the Contemplative? III. Is the Active Life a Hindrance to the Contemplative Life? Cardinal Cajetan, On the True Interior Life S. Augustine, Sermon, CCLVI., v. 6 IV. Does the Active Life precede the Contemplative?
I
Is the Active Life preferable to the Contemplative?
The Lord said: Mary hath chosen the best part, which shall not be taken away from her.[438] And by Mary is signified the contemplative life, which is consequently to be preferred to the active.
There is no reason why one thing should not be in itself more excellent than another while yet this latter is, for certain reasons, preferable to it. Absolutely speaking, then, the contemplative life is better than the active. And the Philosopher[439] alleges eight proofs of this. Firstly, that the contemplative life pertains to that which is best in a man, namely his intellect and its proper objects, i.e. intelligible truths, whereas the active life is concerned with external things. Hence Rachel, who typifies the contemplative life, is interpreted as meaning "the Beginning seen"; while Lia, who was blear-eyed, typifies, according to S. Gregory, the active life.[440]
Secondly, because the contemplative life can be more continuous, even though we cannot maintain our contemplation at its highest pitch; thus Mary, who is typical of the contemplative life, is depicted as sitting ever at the Lord's feet.
Thirdly, because the delights of the contemplative life surpass those of the active life; whence S. Augustine says[441]: "Martha was troubled, but Mary feasted."
Fourthly, because in the contemplative life a man is more independent, since for this kind of life he needs less; whence we read: Martha, Martha, thou art careful, and art troubled about many things.[442]
Fifthly, because the contemplative life is loved rather for its own sake, whereas the active life is directed towards an end other than itself; whence it is said in Ps. xxvi. 4: One thing I have asked of the Lord, this will I seek after, that I may dwell in the house of the Lord all the days of my life.
Sixthly, because the contemplative life consists in a certain stillness and repose, as is said in Ps. xlv. 11: Be still, and see that I am God.
Seventhly, because the contemplative life is occupied with Divine things whereas the active life is occupied with human things; whence S. Augustine says[443]: "In the beginning was the Word: see What Mary heard! The Word was made Flesh; see to What Martha ministered!"
Eighthly, because the contemplative life pertains to that which is more peculiar to man--namely, his intellect--whereas in the works of the active life our inferior powers--those, namely, which we share with the brute creation--have a part; whence, in Ps. xxxv. 7, after saying: Beasts and men Thou wilt preserve, O Lord, the Psalmist adds what belongs to men alone: In Thy light we shall see light.
And the Lord Himself gives a ninth reason when He says: Mary hath chosen the best part which shall not be taken away from her,[444] words which S. Augustine thus expounds: "Not that thou, Martha, hast chosen badly, but that Mary hath chosen better; and see in what sense she hath chosen better: because it shall not be taken away from her; for from thee shall one day be taken away the burden of necessity; but eternal is the sweetness of truth."[445]
But in a certain sense, and in certain cases, the active life is to be chosen in preference to the contemplative, and this by reason of the needs of this present life; as also the Philosopher says: "To practise philosophy is better than to become rich; but to become rich is better for one who suffers need."[446]
Some, however, think that the active life is preferable to the contemplative, thus:
1. "The lot which falls to the better people seems to be the more honourable and better," as the Philosopher says.[447] But the active life is the lot of those who are in the higher position--of prelates, for instance, who are placed in honourable and powerful positions; thus S. Augustine says[448]: "In the life of action we must not love the honour which belongs to this life, nor its power." Whence it would seem that the active life is preferable to the contemplative.
But it is not the active life only which belongs to prelates, they must needs excel in the contemplative life; whence S. Gregory says in his Pastoral Rule[449]: "Let the superior be foremost in action, but before all let him be uplifted in contemplation."
2. Again, in all acts and habits the control belongs to the more important: the soldier, for instance--as being higher placed--directs the saddle-maker. But it is the active life which directs and controls the contemplative, as is clear from the words addressed to Moses: Go down and charge the people, lest they should have a mind to pass the limits to see the Lord.[450] The active life is therefore more important than the contemplative.
But the contemplative life consists in a certain liberty of spirit; for S. Gregory says[451]: "The contemplative life means passing over to a certain liberty of spirit since in it a man thinks not of temporal but of eternal things." Similarly Boëthius says[452]: "The human soul must needs be free when occupied with the thought of the Divine Mind; not so when distracted with the things of the body." From all this it is clear that the active life does not directly guide the contemplative, but by preparing the way for it it does direct certain works pertaining to the contemplative life, and in this sense the active life is rather the servant than the master of the contemplative. And this S. Gregory expresses when he says: "The active life is termed a service, the contemplative life freedom."[453]
3. Lastly, no one should be withdrawn from what is greater in order to apply himself to what is less; thus the Apostle says: Be zealous for the better gifts.[454] But some are withdrawn from the contemplative state of life and are made to busy themselves with the affairs of the active life; this is the case, for instance, with those who are placed in positions of authority. Whence it seems that the active life is of more importance than the contemplative.
But though a man may happen to be called away from contemplation to the works of the active life owing to the needs of the present life, yet he is not thereby compelled completely to relinquish his contemplation. Hence S. Augustine says:[455] "The love of truth asks for a holy leisure; the demands of charity undertake honest toil--that, namely, of the active life. And if no one imposes this latter burden on us, then we must devote ourselves to the study and contemplation of the truth; if, however, such a burden is imposed upon us, then must we undertake it because of the demands of charity. Yet not even then are we altogether to resign the joys flowing from the contemplation of truth, lest the sweetness of such contemplation be withdrawn from us and the burden we have assumed crush us."
Whence it appears that when a man is called from the contemplative to the active life it is not so much that something is withdrawn from him, but that an additional burden is imposed upon him.
"As we have heard, so have we seen, in the city of the Lord of Hosts, in the city of our God: God hath founded it for ever. We have received Thy mercy, O God, in the midst of Thy temple. For this is God, our God unto eternity, and for ever and ever: He shall rule us for evermore."[456]
Cajetan: Those whose duty it is to instruct others in spiritual progress should note that they are bound to take great pains to exercise them in the active life before they urge them to ascend the heights of contemplation. For they must learn to subdue their passions by acquiring habits of meekness, patience, generosity, humility, and tranquillity of soul, before they ascend to the contemplative life. Through lack of this, many, not so much walking in the way of God as leaping along it, find themselves--after they have spent the greater portion of their life in contemplation--devoid of virtue, impatient, irascible, and proud, if one but so much as touch them on this point! Such people have neither the active nor the contemplative life, nor even a mixture of the two; they have built upon sand! And would that such cases were rare! (on 2. 182. 1 2.).
* * * * *
S. Augustine: Terrified by my sins and my weight of misery I was disturbed within my soul and meditated flight into solitude. But Thou didst forbid it and didst strengthen me and say: Christ died for all, that they also who live may not now live to themselves, but unto Him Who died for them and rose again.[457] Behold, O Lord, I cast my care upon Thee so that I may live, and I will meditate on the wondrous things of Thy law. Thou knowest my lack of skill and my weakness; teach me and heal me! He--Thine Only-Begotten Son--in Whom lie hid all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge, He redeemed me with His blood. Let not the proud calumniate me! When I think of my Ransom then I eat and I drink, and I pray, and in my poverty I yearn to be filled with Him, to be among those who eat and are filled and they praise the Lord who seek Him (Conf., X., xliii. 70).
* * * * *
S. Augustine: He hath hid me in His tabernacle in the day of evils.[458]
Wherefore without any arrogance have I sought for That One Thing, neither doth my soul reproach me, saying: Why do you seek after It? From whom do you seek It? Do you, a sinner, wickedly dare to ask something of God? Do you, weak man, of unclean heart, dare to hope that you will one day attain to the contemplation of God? I dare! Not indeed of myself, but because of His pleasure in me; not out of presumptuous trust in myself, but from confidence in His promise. For will He Who gave such a pledge to the pilgrim desert him when he comes to Him? For He hath hid me in His tabernacle in the day of evils (Enarr. in Ps. xxvi.).
II
Is the Active Life more Meritorious than the Contemplative?
S. Gregory says[459]: "Great are the merits of the active life, but they are surpassed by those of the contemplative life."
The source of merit is charity. Charity, however, consists in the love of God and of our neighbour; and to love God is, in itself, more meritorious than to love our neighbour. Consequently that which more directly pertains to the love of God is more meritorious in its nature than something that directly pertains to the love of our neighbour for God's sake. The contemplative life, however, directly and immediately pertains to the love of God, as S. Augustine says[460]: "The love of truth asks for a holy leisure; that is the contemplative life," and this truth is the Divine Truth on Which the contemplative life is centred. The active life, on the other hand, is more immediately concerned with the love of our neighbour, it is busy about much serving.[461] Hence of its very nature the contemplative life is more meritorious than the active, as is well expressed by S. Gregory[462] when he says: "The contemplative life is more meritorious than the active, for the latter toils in the wear and tear of present work by which it must needs help its neighbour; whereas the former, by a certain inward savour, already has a foretaste of the repose to come"--that is, in the contemplation of God.
It may, however, chance that one man derives greater merit from the works of the active life than another does from his contemplative life; as, for example, when, from the superabundance of the Divine love, in order to fulfil God's will, and for His greater glory, a man is content to be separated for a space from the sweetness of Divine contemplation, as the Apostle says: I wished myself to be an anathema from Christ for my brethren.[463] On these words S. Chrysostom[464] comments thus: "The love of Christ had so completely taken possession of his heart that he could even despise that which he desired beyond all things--namely, to be with Christ--and that because it was pleasing to Christ."
Yet some maintain that the active life is more meritorious than the contemplative, thus:
1. A thing is said to be meritorious because of the reward. But reward is due to work, as S. Paul says: And every man shall receive his own reward according to his own labour.[465] Labour, however, belongs to the active life, repose to the contemplative, as S. Gregory says[466]: "Everyone who is converted to God must needs first labour in toil; he must take Lia--that is, that so he may arrive at 'the vision of the Beginning'--that is, the embraces of Rachel." Whence it seems as though the active life was more meritorious than the contemplative.
But while external toil makes for an increase of accidental reward, the increase of merit as regards essential reward consists mainly in charity, one proof of which is external toil undertaken for Christ's sake; but a much greater proof of this is given when a man puts aside all that pertains to this life and delights in giving himself up solely to Divine contemplation.
2. Again, contemplative life is in some sort the commencement of future bliss; and consequently the words of S. John: So will I have him to remain till I come, S. Augustine comments as follows: "This might be more fully expressed thus: May perfect actions, modelled on the example of My Passion, follow Me; but may contemplation begun here on earth remain till I come, to be perfected when I come"[467]; and similarly S. Gregory says[468]: "The contemplative life begins here below to be perfected in our heavenly home." But in that future life we shall not merit, but shall receive the reward of our merits. Consequently the contemplative life seems to have less of the ratio of merit than has the active life; but it has more of the ratio of reward.
But in the state of future bliss a man has arrived at his perfection and consequently there is no room left for merit; but if there were room left his merits would be more efficacious owing to the pre-eminence of his charity. The contemplation of this present life, however, has some accompanying imperfection, and consequently there is room for improvement; hence such contemplation does not destroy the idea of meriting but makes increase of merit in proportion as Divine charity is more and more exercised.
3. Lastly, S. Gregory says[469]: "No sacrifice is more acceptable to God than zeal for souls." But zeal for souls means that a man gives himself up to the works of the active life. Whence it seems that the contemplative life is not more meritorious than the active.
But a sacrifice is spiritually offered to God when anything is presented to Him; and of all man's good things God specially accepts that of the human soul when offered to Him in sacrifice. But a man ought to offer to God first of all his own soul, according to the words of Ecclesiasticus[470]: Have pity on thine own soul, pleasing God; secondly, the souls of others, according to the words: And he that heareth let him say: Come.[471] But the more closely a man knits his own soul, or his neighbour's soul, to God, the more acceptable to God is his sacrifice; consequently it is more pleasing to God that a man should give his soul, and the souls of others, to contemplation than to action. When, then, S. Gregory says: "No sacrifice is more acceptable to God than zeal for souls," he does not mean that the merit of the active life is greater than that of the contemplative, but that it is more meritorious that a man should offer to God his own soul and the soul of others than that he should offer any other external gift whatsoever.
"But thou, our God, art gracious and true, patient, and ordering all things in mercy. For if we sin, we are Thine, knowing Thy greatness: and if we sin not, we know that we are counted with Thee. For to know Thee is perfect justice: and to know Thy justice, and Thy power, is the root of immortality."[472]
III
Is the Active Life a Hindrance to the Contemplative Life?
S. Gregory says[473]: "They who would hold the citadel of contemplation must first needs exercise themselves on the battle-field of toil."
We may consider the active life from two points of view. For we may first of all consider the actual occupation with, and practice of, external works; and from this point of view it is clear that the active life is a hindrance to the contemplative, for it is impossible for a man to be simultaneously occupied with external works, and yet at leisure for Divine contemplation.
But we may also consider the active life from the standpoint of the harmony and order which it introduces into the interior passions of the soul; and from this point of view the active life is an assistance to contemplation since this latter is hindered by the disturbance arising from the passions. Thus S. Gregory says[474]: "They who would hold the citadel of contemplation must first needs exercise themselves on the battle-field of toil; they must learn, forsooth, whether they still do harm to their neighbours, whether they bear with equanimity the harm their neighbours may do them; whether, when temporal good things are set before them, their minds are overwhelmed with joy; whether when such things are withdrawn they are over much grieved. And lastly, they must ask themselves whether, when they withdraw within upon themselves and search into the things of the spirit, they do not carry with them the shadows of things corporeal, or whether, if perchance they have touched upon them, they discreetly repel them."
Thus, then, the exercises of the active life are conducive to contemplation, for they still those interior passions whence arise those imaginations which serve as a hindrance to contemplation.
Some, however, maintain that the active life is a hindrance to the contemplative, thus:
1. A certain stillness of mind is needful for contemplation, as the Psalmist says: Be still and see that I am God.[475] But the active life implies anxiety: Martha, Martha, thou art careful, and art troubled about many things.[476]
2. Again, a certain clearness of vision is called for in the contemplative life. But the active life hinders this clearness of vision, for S. Gregory says[477]: "Lia was blear-eyed and fruitful, for the active life, since occupied with toil, sees less clearly."
3. And lastly, things that are contrary hinder one another. But the active and the contemplative life are contrary to one another; for the active life is occupied with many things, whereas the contemplative life dwells upon one object of contemplation; they are, then, in opposite camps.
But all these arguments insist upon the occupation with external affairs which is but one feature in the active life, not upon its other feature--namely, its power to repress the passions.
* * * * *
Cajetan: But the five foolish virgins, having taken their lamps, did not take oil with them. But the wise took oil in their vessels with the lamps.[478]
By this oil is signified testimony to a man's goodness or love of God. For there is this difference between people who perform good works, that the only testimony which some men have to their goodness is without--namely, in the works themselves; within, however, they do not feel that they love God with their whole heart, that they repent of their sins because they are hateful to God, or that they love their neighbour for God's sake. But there are others who so perform good works that both their works that shine before men bear witness without to the good soul within, and also within their own conscience the Holy Spirit Himself testifies to their spirit that they are the sons of God; for such men feel that they love God with their whole heart, that they repent of their sins for God's sake, and that they love their neighbour and themselves for God's sake: in brief, they feel that God is the sole reason why they love, why they hope, fear, rejoice, or are sad: in a word, why they work both within and without: this is to have oil in one's own vessels (On S. Matt. xxv. 3, 4).
S. Augustine: See the life that Mary chose! Yet was she but a type of that life, she as yet possessed it not. For there are two kinds of life: one means delight; the other means a burden. And the burdensome one is toilsome, while the delightsome one is pleasurable. But enter thou within; seek not that delight without, lest ye swell with it and find yourself unable to enter by the narrow gate! See how Mary saw the Lord in the Flesh and heard the Lord by the voice of the Flesh--as ye have heard when the Epistle to the Hebrews has been read--as it were through a veil. (A new and living way which He hath dedicated to us through the veil, that is to say, His Flesh.[479]) But when we shall see Him face to Face there will be no "veil." Mary, then, sat--that is, she rested from toil--and she listened and she praised; but Martha was anxious about much serving. And the Lord said to her: Martha, Martha, thou art careful and art troubled about many things; but one thing is necessary[480] (Sermon, CCLVI., v. 6).
"Bless the Lord, O my soul: and let all that is within me bless His holy Name. Bless the Lord, O my soul, and never forget all He hath done for thee. Who forgiveth all thy iniquities: Who healeth all thy diseases. Who redeemeth thy life from destruction: Who crowneth thee with mercy and compassion. Who satisfieth thy desire with good things: thy youth shall be renewed like the eagle's. The Lord doth mercies, and judgment for all that suffer wrong. He hath made His ways known to Moses: His wills to the children of Israel. The Lord is compassionate and merciful: long suffering and plenteous in mercy. He will not always be angry: nor will He threaten for ever. He hath not dealt with us according to our sins: nor rewarded us according to our iniquities. For according to the height of the Heaven above the earth: He hath strengthened His mercy towards them that fear Him. As far as the east is from the west, so far hath He removed our iniquities from us. As a father hath compassion on his children, so hath the Lord compassion on them that fear Him: for He knoweth our frame. He remembereth that we are dust: man's days are as grass, as the flower of the field so shall he flourish."[481]
IV
Does the Active Life precede the Contemplative?
S. Gregory says[482]: "The active life precedes the contemplative in the order of time, for from good works a man passes to contemplation."
One thing may precede another in two ways: firstly by its very nature; and in this sense the contemplative life precedes the active in that it is occupied with chiefer and better things, and hence it both moves and directs the active life. For, as S. Augustine says,[483] the higher reason, which is destined for contemplation, is compared to the lower reason, which is destined for action, as man is compared to woman--she is to be governed by him.
But secondly, one thing may be prior to another as far as we are concerned, it may, that is, precede it in the way of generation. And in this sense the active life precedes the contemplative, for it conduces to it, as we have already said. In the order of generation disposition to a nature precedes that nature, though that nature is, simply speaking and considered in itself, prior to the disposition to it.
But some maintain that the active life does not precede the contemplative, thus:
1. The contemplative life is directly concerned with the love of God, the active life with the love of our neighbour. But love of God precedes love of our neighbour, for we have to love our neighbour for God's sake.
But the contemplative life is not concerned with merely any kind of love of God, but with the perfect love of Him; the active life, on the contrary, is necessary for any kind of love of our neighbour, for S. Gregory says[484]: "Without the contemplative life men can gain admittance to their heavenly home if they have not neglected the good works they could have done; but they cannot enter without the active life, if they neglect the good works they could do." Whence it appears that the active life precedes the contemplative in the sense that that which is common to everybody precedes in the order of generation that which is peculiar to the perfect.
2. Again, S. Gregory says[485]: "You must know that just as the right procedure is for a man to pass from the active to the contemplative life; so, too, it is often profitable to the soul to return to the active life." Consequently the active life is not absolutely speaking prior to the contemplative.
But while we proceed from the active life to the contemplative by way of generation, we return from the contemplative to the active by way of direction, in order, that is, that our active life may be directed by the contemplative; just in the same way as habits are generated by acts and then, as is said in the Ethics, when the habit is formed we act still more perfectly.[486]
3. Lastly, things which accord with different characters do not seem to be necessarily related. But the active and contemplative life are suited to different characters; thus S. Gregory says[487]: "It often happens that men who could have given themselves to peaceful contemplation of God have been burdened with external occupations and so have made shipwreck; while, on the contrary, men who could have lived well had they been occupied with human concerns, have been slain by the sword of their life of repose." Consequently the active life does not seem to precede the contemplative.
But those who are subject to the influx of their passions because of their natural eagerness in action, are for that very reason more suited for the active life, and this because of the restlessness of their temperament. Hence S. Gregory says[488]: "Some are so restless that if they desist from work they suffer grievously, for the more free they are to think the worse interior tumults they have to endure." Some, on the contrary, have a natural purity of soul and a reposefulness which renders them fit for the contemplative life; if such men were to be applied wholly to the active life they would incur great loss. Hence S. Gregory says[489]: "Some men are of so slothful a disposition that if they undertake any work they succumb at the very outset." But he adds: "Yet often love stirs up even slothful souls to work, and fear exercises a restraining influence on souls which suffer a disturbing influence in their contemplation." Hence even those who are more suited for the active life, may, by the exercise of it, be prepared for the contemplative; and, on the contrary, those who are more suited for the contemplative life may profitably undertake the labours proper to the active life, that so they may be rendered still more fit for contemplation.
"I have cried to Thee, for Thou, O God, hast heard me: O incline Thy ear unto me, and hear my words. Show forth Thy wonderful mercies; Thou Who savest them that trust in Thee. From them that resist Thy right hand keep me, as the apple of Thy eye. Protect me under the shadow of Thy wings."[490]
FOOTNOTES:
[438] S. Luke x. 42.
[439] Ethics, x. 7 and 8.
[440] Moralia in Job, vi. 18.
[441] Of the Words of the Lord, Sermon ciii., alias xxvi. 2.
[442] S. Luke x. 41.
[443] Of the Words of the Lord, Sermon civ., alias xxvii. 2.
[444] S. Luke x. 42.
[445] Sermon ciii., alias xxvi. 4.
[446] Topica, III., ii. 21.
[447] Ibid., III., i. 12.
[448] Of the City of God, xix. 19.
[449] ii. 1.
[450] Exod. xix. 21.
[451] Hom. III., On Ezechiel.
[452] Of Consolation, v. 2.
[453] Hom. III., On Ezechiel.
[454] 1 Cor. xii. 31.
[455] Of the City of God, xix. 19.
[456] Ps. xlvii. 9, 10, 15.
[457] 2 Cor. v. 15.
[458] Ps. xxvi. 5.
[459] Moralia in Job, vi. 18.
[460] Of the City of God, xix. 19.
[461] S. Luke x. 40.
[462] Hom. III., On Ezechiel.
[463] Rom. ix. 3.
[464] Of Compunction, i. 7.
[465] 1 Cor. iii. 8.
[466] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[467] Tractat., 124, On St. John, xxi. 22.
[468] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[469] Hom. XII., On Ezechiel.
[470] xxx. 24.
[471] Apoc. xxii. 17.
[472] Wisd. xv. 1-3.
[473] Moralia in Job, vi. 17.
[474] Ibid.
[475] Ps. xlv. 11.
[476] S. Luke x. 41.
[477] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[478] S. Matt. xxv. 3, 4.
[479] Heb. x. 20.
[480] S. Luke x. 41, 42.
[481] Ps. cii. 1-15.
[482] Hom. III., On Ezechiel.
[483] On the Trinity, xii. 12.
[484] Hom. III., On Ezechiel.
[485] Hom. XIV., On Ezechiel.
[486] ii. 1, 2.
[487] Moralia in Job, vi. 17.
[488] Moralia, vi. 17.
[489] Ibid., vi. 37.
[490] Ps. xvi. 6-9.
QUESTION CLXXXVI
ON THE RELIGIOUS STATE
Are Contemplative Orders superior to Active Orders?
Are Contemplative Orders superior to Active Orders?
The Lord declared that Mary's was the best part, and she is the type of the contemplative life.[491]
Religious Orders differ from one another primarily according to the ends they have in view, but secondarily according to the works they practise. And since one thing cannot be said to be superior to another save by reason of the differences between them, it will follow that the superiority of one Religious Order to another must depend primarily upon their respective ends, secondarily upon the works they practise.
And these two grounds of comparison are not of equal value; for the comparison between them from the point of view of their respective ends is an absolute one, since an end is sought for its own sake; whereas the comparison arising from their respective works is a relative one, since works are not done for their own sake but for the sake of the end to be gained.
Consequently one Religious Order is superior to another if its end is absolutely a superior one, either as being in itself a greater good, or as being of wider scope. On the supposition, however, that the ends of any two Orders are the same, then the superiority of one to the other can be gauged, not by the quantity of works they undertake, but by the proportion these bear to the end in view. Thus it is that we find introduced into the Conferences of the Fathers[492] the opinion of S. Antony, who preferred that discretion by which a man moderates all things to fasts and watchings and similar observances.
The works, then, of the active life are twofold. There is one which springs from the fulness of contemplation: teaching, for example, and preaching. Whence S. Gregory says[493]: "It is said of perfect men that on their return from contemplation: They shall pour forth the memory of Thy sweetness." And this is preferable to simple contemplation. For just as it is a greater thing to shed light than to be full of light, so is it a greater thing to spread abroad the fruits of our contemplation than merely to contemplate. And the second work of the active life is that which wholly consists in external occupation, such as giving alms, receiving guests, etc. And such works are inferior to the works of contemplation, except it be in some case of necessity.
Consequently, then, those Religious Orders are in the highest rank which are devoted to teaching and preaching. And these, too, approach most nearly to the perfection of the Episcopate; just as in other things, too, the ends of those in the first place are, as S. Denis says, close knit to the principles of those in the second place.[494] The second rank is occupied by those Orders which are devoted to contemplation. And the third with those devoted to external works.
And in each of these grades there is a certain superiority according as one Order aims at acts of a higher order than does another, though of the same class. Thus in the works of the active life it is a greater thing to redeem captives than to receive guests; in the contemplative life, too, it is a greater thing to pray than to study. There may also be a certain superiority in this that one is occupied with more of such works than another; or again, that the rules of one are better adapted to the attainment of their end than are those of another.
Some, however, maintain that the contemplative Orders are not superior to the active Orders, thus:
1. In the Canon Law[495] it is said: "Since the greater good is to be preferred to the less, so, too, the common gain is to be preferred to private gain; and in this sense teaching is rightly preferred to silence, anxious care for others to contemplation, and toil to repose." But that Religious Order is the better which is directed to the attainment of the greater good. Hence it seems that Orders which are devoted to an active life are superior to those which aim solely at contemplation.
But this Decretal speaks of the active life as concerned with the salvation of souls.
2. All Religious Orders aim at the perfection of charity. But on those words in the Epistle to the Hebrews,[496] Ye have not yet resisted unto blood, the Gloss has: "There is no more perfect charity in this life than that to which the holy Martyrs attained, for they strove against sin even unto blood." But to strive unto blood belongs to the Military Religious Orders, and they lead an active life. It would seem, then, that these latter are the highest form of Religious Order.
But these Military Orders are more concerned with shedding the blood of their enemies than with shedding their own, which is the feature of the Martyrs. At the same time, there is nothing to preclude these Religious from at times winning the crown of martyrdom and thus attaining to a greater height than other Religious; just as in some cases active works are to be preferred to contemplation.
3. Lastly, the stricter an Order the more perfect it seems to be. But there is nothing to preclude active Orders from being stricter in their observance than some contemplative Orders.
But strictness of observance is not that which is especially commendable in Religious life, as S. Antony has already told us, and as is also said in Isaias[497]: Is this such a fast as I have chosen, for a man to afflict his soul for a day? Strictness of observance is, however, made use of in Religious Orders for the subjection of the flesh; but if such strictness is carried out without discretion there is danger lest it should come to naught, as S. Antony says. Hence one Religious Order is not superior to another because its observances are stricter, but because its observances are directed to the end of that Order with greater discretion. Thus, for example, abstinence from food and drink, which means hunger and thirst, are more efficacious means for preserving chastity than wearing less clothing, which means cold and nakedness; more efficacious, too, than bodily labour.
FOOTNOTES:
[491] S. Luke x. 42.
[492] Conf., ii. 2.
[493] Hom. V., On Ezechiel.
[494] Of the Divine Names, vii.
[495] Extrav. Of Regulars and of those who pass to the Religious Orders, cap. Licet.
[496] xii. 4.
[497] lviii. 5.
INDEX
Abiding in Christ, 32
Abraham in Limbo, 155
Accidents of the Holy Eucharist, 9
Active Life, the: its meaning, 170, 174, 176, 221, 229; typified in Jacob's Vision, 231; typified by Lia, 174, 222, 225, 234, 242, 246; two features of the Active Life, 221, 241, 247; in what sense it is distinct from the Contemplative Life, 220; how less meritorious than the Contemplative Life, 240-244; not preferable to the Contemplative Life, 233-240; it involves less sacrifice than the Contemplative Life, 244; in what sense it precedes the Contemplative Life, 223, 237, 245, 249-252; how far it is necessary, 186, 221, 239, 245, 250; contrasted with the Contemplative Life, 172, 173; how far it is more stable than the Contemplative Life, 232; its dangers, 136, 147, 186; it is a burden super-imposed upon the Contemplative Life, 238; all are not meant for it, 186, 251, 252; it will not persist after this life, 229-232; the Active Life of the Angels, 231; how far the Active Life is inferior to the Contemplative, 233-240; occasions when it must be embraced, 186, 235, 239; the part which the Moral Virtues play in it, 191, 220-223; it is a preparation for the Contemplative Life, 176, 177, 220, 237, 245; prudence is requisite for it, 186, 223-226; how far the teaching life pertains to the Active Life, 226-229, 230; it will pass away, 177, 191, 229-232; it is the Purgative way, 220; Prelates and the Active Life, 236
Active Religious Orders, they are inferior to the Contemplative, 253-257
Adjure God, in what sense we are said to do so in our prayers, 148
Adoration of the Cross, 37
Adoro Te Devote, the rhythm of St. Thomas in honour of the Holy Eucharist, 112
Albert of Brescia, O.P., 18
Albert the Great, Blessed, 6
Alypius, St. Augustine's friend, 123
Ambrose, St.: on God as the cause of devotion, 57; that the beauty of the soul depends on the Moral Virtues, 184
Andronicus on the meaning of sanctity, 49
Angels, the: how they are differentiated from men, 113, 114, 187, 206; the knowledge of the Angels, 157, 187, 205, 208, 230; the Beatific Vision of the Angels, 231; the intelligence of the Angels, 187, 230; the intercession of the Angels, 165; their conformity to the will of God, 165, 167; the Angelic Hierarchies, 201, 230; the teaching of the Angels 230, 231; the Active Life of the Angels, 231; we shall be like to the Angels, how, 230, 231; Angels gird St. Thomas, 6
Anselm of Laudun, 25
Antony, St.: a patron against Hell-fire, 160; on discretion, 154, 157
Areopagite. Cf. s.v. Denis the Areopagite
Aristotle: on the aptitude for virtue, 35; on honour, 39; that the perfection of the moral virtues lies in their mean, 43; on Justice, 55, 221; that "reason asks for the best things," 69; on the need of temporal things, 89; that "each man's life is that which he would wish to share with his friend," 170; that "to live is to be," 170; on action and contemplation as distinctions in the intellectual life, 171; that life is primarily in the vegetative soul, 171; on three kinds of lives, 175; that knowledge has little to do with the moral virtues, 182, 221; that every act of the intellect may be termed "consideration," 188; that the ultimate happiness of man consists in the contemplation of the highest truth, 193; of man's dependence on the imagination, 201; that motion is the act of a perfect thing, 203; on local motion as the chief of bodily motions, 204; that delight follows upon a perfect work, 213; on the nobility of science, 214; that there is no pleasure contrary to that derived from thought, 217; on application to the Contemplative Life, 217; that the Contemplative Life is "beyond man," 218; that prudence pertains to active happiness, 223; that he who commits adultery to steal is more a thief than an adulterer, 223; that prudence is the right mode of procedure in our actions, 224; that the ends of the moral virtues are the principles of prudence, 224; that the proof of the possession of wisdom is the power to teach, 228; eight proofs that the Contemplative Life is superior to the Active, 234, 235; on the better lot, 236; that habits produce perfect acts, 251
Arius, his error regarding the Person of Christ, 161
Athanasius, St., on the chanting of the Psalms, 123
Attention: mental, 225; in prayer, 125-133; three kinds of, 128, 129, 133
Attitudes in prayer, 150, 151
Augustine, St.: St. Thomas's kinship with him in doctrine, 17-19; they are seen in a vision together, 18; the Breviary Hymn to, 26; definition of religion, 28, 29, 30; on Latvia, 30; on Eusebeia, 31; on abiding in Christ, 32; on the desire of God, 32; on prayer for wealth, 33; on sacrifice, 32, 46; of true worship, 40; of idolatry, 46; on the value of external acts in prayer, 46; of virginity, 50; on "God alone," 54, 92, 108, 142, 197, 189, 203, 219; on the will and the understanding, 57; on true grief, 65; prayer defined, 69; why we should pray, 75; on the prayers of the Church, 76; when we pray we are God's beggars, 79, 110; of those who say "He knows already; why then pray?" 80; of the knowledge the dead have of our affairs, 82; on shrinking from death, 83; on avoidance of Hell, 86; of the Beatific Vision, 87, 229; a prayer for continence, 87; and for the knowledge of Holy Scripture, 88; it is lawful to pray for what it is lawful to desire, 89; on prayer for "sufficiency of life," 89; on "seeking first the Kingdom of God," 90; on prayer "without ceasing," 91; of the prayer of desire, 92, 134; his prayer for deliverance from toothache, 92; why temporal favours are sometimes not granted, 94, 95; on prayer for others, 96; that we cannot here distinguish between the predestinate and the reprobate, 97; on the imprecations in Holy Scripture, 100, 101; on prayer for the wicked, 101; on the Lord's Prayer, that it is the most perfect form of prayer, 102; on "our Daily Bread," 103, 109; "hallowed be Thy Name," 104; "Thy kingdom come," 105; "Thy will be done," 105; "forgive us our trespasses," 110, 111; of the Lord's Prayer and the gifts of the Holy Spirit, 106; of the two versions of the Lord's Prayer in St. Matthew and St. Luke, 107; on true righteousness, 111; on exterior religion, 119; on the chanting of the Psalter, 123; on the prayer of the heart, 124; on distractions, 129-131; on prayer at definite times, 134; on the brief prayers of the hermits of old, 134; on "much speaking" in prayer, 135; that God urges us to pray, 138, 139; that prayer is a gift of God, 139; on unheard prayers, 140, 142; on prayers heard in anger, 142, 143; in what sense the prayers of sinners are heard, 143, 144; on the attitudes to be adopted in and of the time and place for prayer, 127, 150, 151; of the knowledge of the Saints in Limbo, 154-156; why the prayers of the Saints are heard, 167; the Contemplative contrasted with the Active Life, 172-174, 186; the three "lives," 175, 185; the "mixed" life, 226; of the final possession and vision of God, 176, 177, 191, 203; on the use of leisure, 186; the claims of the two lives, the Active and the Contemplative, 186, 248; of the Active Life, 236; of the Active Life as opposed to the Contemplative, 238; that every operation of the intellect may be termed "thought," 188; of the derivation of the term "speculation," 189; of our present perfection, 190, 191; on the pleasures of sense, 185; that the contemplation of God is the goal of all our acts, 193; that we must use created things as stepping-stones to the things that abide for ever, 193; on Mary's "better part," 196, 197; on Martha and Mary, 234, 235, 248; that in contemplation we do not see God Himself, 199; the greater the danger in the battle, the greater the joy in the triumph, 212; on the transitory nature of our present contemplation, 218; on the beauty of the teaching life, 227; how the moral virtues remain after death, 230; of the repose of Contemplation, 230, 241; of his desire for solitude, yet he feels that he must work for others, 239; he dare hope for the Contemplative Life, 240; of the higher reason, 249
Basil, St.: on distractions, 127, 128; on unheard prayers, 141
Beatific Vision, the, 87, 153, 172, 176, 177, 180, 181, 193, 198-203, 217
Beatitude, in what it consists, 172, 176, 177, 181, 191, 198, 218, 219, 229
Beatitude, a prayer for, 192
Beauty, definition of, 185
Benedict, St., the vision of, 202
Bernard, St.: on the meaning of contemplation, 188, 189; of the steps in contemplation, 194
Bestial Life, the, 175
Birds, the movements of, 209
Blood of Christ, the, 163
Boëthius, on the liberty needful for contemplation, 237
Cajetan, O.P., Cardinal, 19, 20; on the meaning of Religion, 50; on the meaning of devotion, 53, 54; on its causes, 60; on devotion as opposed to gloom, 64; of the "devout female sex," 62; of the need of meditation, 61; of prayer as the cause of union with God, 71; of prayer as a real cause, 74; on three points to be considered in prayer, 78; on prayer as a sacrifice, 79; of the divisions of the Lord's Prayer, 107, 108; how those in Limbo can hear prayers, 118; on vocal prayer, 121, 123; on the tone to be employed in saying Mass, 122; the function of ecclesiastical chant, 122, 124; on attention in recitation of Divine Office, 128; on attention to the words of Consecration, 149, 150; of the need of the moral virtues in the Contemplative Life, 239; the Parable of the Ten Virgins, 247; on the real object of prayer, 129
Canticle of Canticles, the, 14
Cassian, the Conferences of: on St. Antony and discretion, 254, 257; on different kinds of prayer, 148
Cassiodorus on Ps. xxxviii. 13, 68
Cato on respect for parents, 30
Ceremonial, the value of, 35
Chant of the Church, the Public, 122, 123
Charity as the principle of religion, 56. Cf. s.v. Theological virtues
"Christ, pray for us," why we do not say, 160, 161
Christ, the Name of, on the foreheads of Christians, 219
Chrysostom, St.: the Opus Imperfectum in Matthæum falsely attributed to him, 24; on prayer as a conversation with God, 74; on prayer for others, 95; in public, 121; on prayer for sinners, 143; on prayer through Jesus Christ, 145; on the zeal of S. Paul, 242
Church customs, 158, 163
Church, the prayers of the, 81
Cicero, on religion, 27; on prudence and intellectual quickness, 224
Circular movement of the soul, 172, 203-210
Cleanness, 47, 184
Colere, 31
Collect for Friday in September Ember Week, 147; for Trinity Sunday, 147, 148
Compline, St. Thomas's devotion at, 14
Communion of Saints, 158, 164
Conformity to the will of God, 86
Consecration, the Prayer of the, 147, 149, 150
Contemplation and the Contemplative Life: the meaning of contemplation, 188, 189, 196, 201, 202, 211, 230, 234, 235, 237; it is something beautiful in the soul, 184; not purely an affair of the intellect, 179-182, 189; its relation to the affective powers, 211; the place which reason occupies in contemplation, 195, 210, 211, 225, 226, 249; the place occupied by the imagination, 195; in what sense contemplation involves many acts, 187-192; how far contemplation may be described according to the three species of motion--circular, direct, and oblique, 172, 203-210; contemplation is natural to man, 210; it is pleasurable, 211; it is primarily concerned with God, 180, 241, 250; it does not, in this present life, fall on the Divine Essence as such, 199-203; its ultimate goal, 180, 184, 187, 193, 194, 196, 198, 203, 229; its ultimate goal in this life, 212, 220; how it is distinguished from meditation and thought, 188; and from speculation, 189; four integral parts of contemplation, 193, 194; four phases in it, 194; six steps in it, 195, 196; the contemplation of this present life, 193, 213, 214; not on earth as in Heaven, 176, 177, 217, 243; it is "beyond man," 218; a busy life does not exclude it, 238; it is lawful to desire it, 240; contemplation and ecstasy, 200; four subjects of contemplation, 194; the repose of contemplation, in what it consists, 204, 205, 234, 235, 246
The Contemplative Life: its meaning, 184, 186, 237, 250; how it is distinguished from the Active Life, 169, 173, 220, 234, 235; it is superior to the Active Life, 233-240; it is more meritorious than it, 240-244; its great merit, 242; it is prepared for in the Active Life, 239, 245-249; the Active Life precedes it, 249-252; the Contemplative Life directs the Active, 251; the relation of the Contemplative Life to the Theological virtues, 192; and to the Moral virtues, 182-186, 221, 222, 239; it demands temperance, 184, 185; and chastity, which it in turn fosters, 184, 185; it calls for the subjection of the passions, 184, 185; it results in the subjugation of the passions, 213; it involves a certain liberty of spirit, 234, 237; it is often distasteful, 215, 216; it means the sacrifice of our own soul, 244; its joys, 177, 197, 210-216, 234, 248; its combats, 212, 213; it is imperfect here on earth, 243; it is not incompatible with Prelacy, 236; its relation to the office of teaching, 236-239; it is not meant for all, 235, 236, 239, 241, 251, 252; reading is sometimes necessary for it, 190; how far it refrains from all external actions, 182; it is typified by Rachel, 174, 180, 184, 234, 242; also by Mary of Bethany, 174, 190, 197, 234, 235, 248; it is foreshown in Jacob's Vision, 231
Contemplative Religious Orders: in what sense they are the best, 253-257
Contemplatives, 32
Continence, a prayer for, 87
Conversation, sins of, 110
Correction, fraternal, 97
Created things must serve as stepping-stones, 193
Cross, Adoration of the, 37
Cultus, 31
Cyprian, St., on Our Father, not My Father, 96
Damascene, St. John: on Wonderment, 189; definitions of prayer, 69, 71, 85, 142, 148
Dead, Prayers for the, 167, 168
Death, fear of, 83
Decii, the, 52
Defects, the thought of our, causes devotion, 63, 64
Delights, earthly, as opposed to heavenly, 215, 216
Denis the Areopagite, 24; on sanctity, 49; on ecstasy, 55; on beginning all with prayer, 70; on being co-workers with God, 154; of the knowledge of the Angels, 157; of the harmony in Divine things, 158; that life implies motion, 171; on the three movements of the soul, 172, 203-210; of the difference between the Angelic and the human intellect, 186; that the goal of contemplation is to attain to the uniformity of the Divine contemplation, 218; that in contemplation here on earth we do not see the Divine Essence, 200; on the illumination of the Angels, 230; of the Divine harmony, 255
Desires, their function and necessity, 77, 91, 105
Devotion: defined, 51, 53, 55, 57, 64; is a special act, 51; is due to an act of the will, 53, 57; is an act of the virtue of Religion, 57; is the principal act of the virtue of Religion, 54; involves sacrifice of the heart, 64; it gives a certain measure to human acts, 52; it means promptitude, 53, 55, 56, 57; two causes of it, 57, 62, 63; caused by meditation, 57; especially by meditation on the Sacred Passion, 59, 63; on the goodness of God, 58, 60; on our own defects, 58, 60; obstacles to it, 62; how far it may be hindered by learning, 60; it is productive of sorrow, 62-64; but is not therefore to be confounded with gloominess, 64, 65; it produces joy, 62, 63; devotion to the Saints, 57; the devotion of women, 59, 62; the "devout female sex," 62
Direct movement of the soul, the, 172, 210-213
Discretion, St. Antony on, 254, 257
Distractions, 127. Cf. s.v. Prayer, distractions in
Divine Office, attention in the recitation of, 128
Dulia, 39
Ecstasy, 4; Denis the Areopagite on, 55; that of St. Paul, 199, 200
Ejaculatory prayers, 134, 135
Enemies, prayer for, 99; love of our, 99
Eternity: the "repose" of, 86, 87, 92; the "silence" of, 87
Etymologies, those of St. Thomas and St. Isidore, 24
Eucharist, the Holy: the Accidents of, 9; St. Thomas's reception of It as Viaticum, 15; the "Chief" of the Sacraments, 103; our "Daily Bread," 103, 109; the rhythm, Adoro Te Devote, 112
Eusebeia, 31
Example, the force of, 222
Exterior religion, 45
External actions, 182, 183
Extraordinary ways of God, the, 3
Faber, Father, 2
Faith, 191, 192
Faith and Vision, 87
Fasting, 63
Fear, 189; the gift of fear, 34; fear of death, 23; of Hell, 36
Female sex, the "devout," 62
"Forgive us our trespasses," 110, 111
Fossa Nuova, 14
Frederic, the Emperor, 8
Friendship, 56
Gifts of God, 92; of the Holy Spirit, 105, 106
Gloom, not a characteristic of the Saints, 64, 65
Gloss, the, on Holy Scripture, 24, 25
God: God alone, 92, 247; in what sense we "adjure" Him in our prayers, 148; by prayer we become His beggars, 79, 110; He is not changed by our prayers, 86, 107; does not need our external acts of religion, 43, 46; His foreknowledge involves no compulsion, 72; His goodness is a reason for prayer, 107, 149; His Holiness is a reason for prayer, 147; the harmony of Divine things, 158, 159; He knows beforehand what we seek, 80, 161; He knows the heart, 157; the majesty of God, 189; the Patience of God, 130; we do not pray to Him alone, 80-84; He does not always hear our prayers, 142, 143; why He wishes us to pray, 74, 86, 107, 138; He does not profit by our service, 43; on seeking after God, 54, 134, 179, 180, 183, 192; He is the First Principle, 180; the Ultimate End, 182; ultimate union with Him, 109, 191; union with Him, 69, 208; we can hope for it, 240; hindrances to it, 103, 104; the Vision of God, 153, 155, 163, 172, 177, 180, 181. Cf. s.v. Beatific Vision; the Antecedent Will of God, 163
Greeks, On the Errors of the, St. Thomas's treatise on, 14
Gregory the Great, St.: on Lia as the type of the Active Life, 222, 225, 234, 242, 246; of Martha and Mary as types of the Active and the Contemplative Life respectively, 174; on attention at prayer, 126; on the intercession of the Angels, 165; on the conformity of the Angels to God's Will, 167; how the prayers of the Saints avail, 167; that the Contemplative Life is occupied with God alone, 180, 184, 192; that contemplation in this life does not attain to the Divine Essence, 199, 200; that contemplation excludes all images, 201; of St. Benedict's vision, 202; on the true sweetness of contemplation, 210; contemplation springs from and leads to love of God, 212; on the combats of the Contemplative Life, 212; that knowledge of God brings about the death of all carnal desires, 213; of the joys of the spiritual life, 215, 216; on disgust for spiritual things 215, 216; of the Active Life, 221, 225; on teaching as falling under the Active Life, 226; as due to contemplation, 227; that the Active Life passes away, not so the Contemplative Life, 229; of the Contemplation of the Angels, 231; on the instability of our present contemplation, 232, 243; of the merits of the Contemplative Life, 240, 241; that those who are Superiors can still practise the Contemplative Life, 236; that the Active Life precedes the Contemplative, 224, 245, 249; of zeal for souls, 243, 244; of the necessity of the Active Life, 250; contemplata aliis tradere, 254; that the Blessed in Heaven know our needs, 82; not all are called to the Contemplative Life, 251, 252
Gregory of Nyssa, St., of joys and sorrows, 64
Gregory X., Pope, 14
Guidonis, Bernard, 6
Habits, 35, 251
Harmony of Divine things, 158, 159
Harmony of reason, the, 183
Heaven: there will be no books in, 111; it is our "Fatherland," 166-168, 173
Holiness, 184
Hope, 191, 192
Hugo à St. Caro, 6, 25
Hugh of St. Victor's: on attention at prayer, 126; on intensity, 126
Idolatry, 46
Images, veneration of, 37
Imagination, its function, 195, 201
Imprecations in Holy Scripture, 100
Indulgences, 168
Ingratitude, 94
"Insinuation" in prayer, 141
Intelligence, quickness of, 224
Intellect, the noblest part of man, 79, 80
Intention, 133
"Intercession" as a part of prayer, 146
Intercession of the Saints, 161
Interior Spirit, the true, 247
Interpretive prayer, 163
Isaias, St. Thomas's Commentary on, 10
Isidore of Seville, St.: his etymologies, 24; on religion, 27; on the word sanctus, 48; on prayer, 68
Jacob's Vision, 231
Jeremias prays for the people, though he is in Limbo, 115, 118, 162
Jerome, St.: on the error of Vigilantius, who said the prayers of the Martyrs were not heard, 115, 162; on making "a virtue of necessity," 35; on the term "super-substantial" Bread, 103
John of St. Julian, O.P., 5
John XXII., Pope, 23
Josias, King of Juda, in Limbo, 155
Joy as an effect of devotion, 62
Joys of Contemplation, the, 210-216
Justice, the chief of the Moral Virtues, 37, 55, 221
Knowledge, its relation to the Moral Virtues, 182
Latria, 30, 34, 44
Leo the Great, St., on the Jews, 56
Lia, the type of the Active Life, 222, 225, 234, 242, 246
Liberty of Spirit, 237
Life: definitions of, 169, 170, 171, 187; considered as intellectual, life may be divided into the Active and the Contemplative, 171, 174; cf. s.v. Contemplative Life and Active Life; the Active and Contemplative Life compared, 233-257; the two Lives distinguished, 169-177; their relative order, 249-252; the "mixed" life, 175, 185; the Life of Beatitude, 191; the bestial life, 175; the busy life, 175; the civil life, 175; the leisurely life, 175, 185; the pleasurable life, 175; the life of repose, 172, 173; the life of toil, 172, 173; the voluptuous life, 176
Limbo, 118, 154-156
Litany of the Saints, 158
Living for Eternity, on, 83
Livy on the Decii, 51
Lombard, Peter, 25
Lord's Prayer, the: the seven petitions of, 105-111; the most perfect form of prayer, 105; distractions in saying it, 132; why we say Our Father, and not My Father, 96; this prayer is recited in the name of the whole Church, 145; in what sense we are tied to this restricted form of prayer, 136, 137; the Lord's Prayer as a subject of meditation, 192
Lyons, the Council of, St. Thomas summoned to it, 14
Lyra, Nicolas de, his Gloss, 25
Martyrs: the prayers of the, 162-164; merits of the Martyrs, 256
Marvel, what it is to, 189
Mass, the: to be said distinctly, 122; the Prayers of, 147; the Prayer of the Consecration in the Mass, 149, 150
Maximus Valerius, On Socrates, 84
Meditation, 188, 190; causes devotion, 57; produces sadness as well as joy, 62-65; the need of it, 61; not to be neglected for vocal prayer, 123; fruitful subjects for, 60; meditation on the Sacred Passion, 59; on choosing subtle subjects for meditation, 58, 60, 61
Melancholy, no fruit of devotion, 64, 65
Merit: definition of, 166; source of, 240; merits and rewards, 242; none in Heaven, 166, 243; of the Active and Contemplative Life, 240-244; the merit of prayer, 141; those of the Saints, 163; how we can merit for others, 141
Military Religious Orders, 256
Monica, St., 123
Monte Cassino, 4
Moral Acts, their nature, 225
Moral Virtues, the: Justice is the chief of the moral virtues, 221; requisites for the moral virtues, 41; their place in the Contemplative Life 182-186; their function, 41, 43, 183-185; their part in the Active Life, 220-226; how far they remain after death, 230
Movements of the soul, the three, 172, 203-210
Mysticism, 1-3
Necessity, to make a virtue of, 35, 44
Nestorius's error concerning the Person of Christ, 161
Novelty of St. Thomas's teaching, 6, 7
"Obsecration" as a part of prayer, 147-149
Observance, strictness of, 257
Occultism, 3
Office, attention at the Divine, 128
Origen on sanctity, 47; on not swearing, 148
Passion, Meditation on the Sacred, 59, 63, 128
Perfection, 44
Peter Lombard, 25
Philosophy is better than riches, 236
Postillæ, 24
Prayer to St. Thomas before study, A, 16
Prayer: defined, 68, 69, 76, 78, 85, 102, 1O5, 127, 136, 148; it is an act, 161; not an act of the appetitive powers, 68, 71, 77; it is an act of the virtue of religion, 76-80, 161; after devotion, prayer is the highest act of the virtue of religion, 77; it is a conversation with God, 74; by it we become God's beggars, 110; it is peculiar to the rational creation, 112-114; in what sense the brute creatures pray, 114; prayer is a gift from God, 139; three requisites for prayer, 146; four requisites for prayer, 138; the real meaning of "petition," 78, 79; the prayer of desire, 92, 105; in what sense desire is not prayer, 77, 78; prayer is a real cause, 72, 74, 166 Why we should pray: prayer is reasonable, 71-76, 107, 120, 147; the merit of prayer, 125, 137-143; the effects of prayer, 71, 120, 125, 132, 138; prayer causes union with God, 70, 71 Errors concerning prayer: in general, 72; it is not an adjuring of God, 148; it never wearies God, 79, 80; "much speaking" in prayer, 135; it cannot change God's decrees, 72, 73, 86, 107, 161; it does not "bend" His will, 86; God knows beforehand what we would pray for, 73, 75, 80, 86, 120 Of prayers heard and unheard: the condition necessary if our prayers are to be heard, 89, 96, 141, 144; of prayers heard in anger, 142, 143; in what sense the prayers of sinners are heard, 143-146; the prayers of the poor are speedily heard, 69; how the prayers of the Saints are heard, 162, 168; the prayers of the Martyrs and Apostles, 162, 163; why prayers are not heard, 142; of unheard prayers, 140; why our prayers for others are sometimes not heard, 96; in what sense the prayers of sinners are heard, 143-146 How we should pray: at regular intervals, 134; our attitude in prayer, 150, 151; beginning occupations with prayer, 70; prayer "without ceasing," 91, 137; attention at prayer, 125; three kinds of attention, 120, 133; distractions, 121, 127-133; the length of our prayers, 133-137; hindrances to prayer, 75; the recitation of Psalms, 123; prayer "in spirit and in truth," 126; weariness in prayer, 134 What we should pray for: the impetratory value of prayer, 138, 141; what we should pray for in general, 129, 142; for Beatitude, 85-87; prayer for definite things, 84-88; for "sufficiency of life," 89; against death, 83; for continence, 87; for knowledge of Holy Scripture, 88; for deliverance from toothache, 92, 94; for others, 95, 97, 98, 229; for the wicked, 97; for the good, 98; for our inferiors, 98; for temporal blessings, 89-95; for the predestinate, 167; for our enemies, 99-102; the Saints in Heaven pray for the resurrection of their bodies, 116 To whom we should pray: not to God alone, 80-84; to the Angels, 81; to the Saints, 157-161; to the lesser Saints, 117 Who pray for us, and how: the Angels pray for us, how, 114; in what sense the Son and the Holy Spirit are said to pray, 113, 115; how the Holy Spirit helps our prayers, 85; the Saints pray for us, 115-118; how, 156, 163, 166, 167; how we merit the prayers of the Saints, 162; how our prayers are known to the Saints, 152-157; those in Limbo prayed for those on earth, 118; those in Purgatory cannot pray for us, 117 Divers forms of prayer: vocal prayer, 119-125; ejaculatory prayer, 134, 135; prayer in secret, 121; prayer of the heart, 124; thanksgiving as a part of prayer, 149; postulations as a part of prayer, 146-148 The Lord's Prayer: we say not "my Father," but "our Father," 96; the seven petitions of the Lord's Prayer, 102-111; the Lord's Prayer not said without distractions, 132; in what sense we are tied to the Lord's Prayer as a formula, 136, 137 The Church's prayers: in general, 76, 147, 158; public and private prayers, 119, 121, 122, 135; how the prayer "of many" avails, 98; the prayer of the Consecration at Mass, 149, 150
Prelates and Contemplative Life, 236
Prosper, St., the Book of Sentences Gleaned from St. Augustine, 140
Prudence: its relation to the other Moral Virtues, 224; it is requisite for the Active Life, 223-226
Purity of soul, 252
Purgatory: why the suffrages of the Church do not empty it at once, 167, 168; the souls in Purgatory do not know our needs, 83; neither do they pray for us, 83, 116, 118; Brother Romanus passed sixteen days in Purgatory, 12
Rabanus Maurus: his Gloss, 25; on Prayer, 69
Rachel, a type of the Contemplative Life, 163, 174, 180, 184, 234, 242
Reading necessary for prayer, 190
Reason: its function, 206; the higher and the lower, 249; the speculative and the practical, 68
Religion: the virtue of, 27-50; that it is a virtue, 34; definition of, 27-31, 39, 49; its principle is charity, 56; it is one virtue, 35; and a Moral Virtue, 40; and a special virtue, 37-39; not a Theological Virtue, 39; the via media in, 41; the harmony of, 42; is superior to the other Moral Virtues, 42; is not for God's profit, but for ours, 43; demands external acts, 44; how far it is identified with sanctity, 47-50
Religious Orders, the Active and Contemplative compared, 253-257
Religious people, 31, 50, 61; they are not always Saints, 50
Reposeful characters, 252
Romanus, Brother, appears to St. Thomas, 12
Sacrifice, the real nature of, 38, 46, 244
Saints, the: what it is to be a Saint, 50; they are not gloomy, 64, 65; their knowledge of our needs, 82, 152-157; their prayers for us, 115-118; they feel no grief for us on earth, 155; their wills are perfectly conformed to that of God, 116, 156, 163, 165, 167; the Communion of Saints, 158, 164; we ought to pray to them, 157-161; of devotion to the Saints, 57; to the lesser Saints, 117, 160; they are co-workers with God, 154; in what sense their prayers are always heard, 158, 162-168; their merits, 163, 166; how they pray for us, 163, 167
"Saint of Saints, The," 160
Scripture, prayer for knowledge of Holy, 88
Seneca: on petitions, 74; on idolatry, 46
Sentences, the Book of, 6, 25
Sinners, prayer for: 97; the prayers of sinners, 143-146
Sins of conversation, 110
Socrates on prayer, 84
Solicitude, how far it is forbidden, 90
Sorrow, as an effect of devotion, 62, 64
Speculation, 189
Spirit, the Holy, how He helps us to pray, 85
"Spirit and truth," prayer in, 126, 127
Spiritualism, 3
Stability implied in the notion of sanctity, 49
Strabo, Walafrid, his Gloss, 24
Strictness of life not an end in itself, 257
"Sufficiency of life," prayer for, 89
Suffrages for the Dead, 167, 168
Summa Theologica: the broad divisions of, 19, 20; the method employed in, 21, 22; the Tertia Pars, 13
Superiors and Contemplation, 238
Supererogation, works of, 44
Superstition, 42
Supersubstantial Bread, 103
Supplications as a part of prayer, 146
Swearing, Origen on, 148
Teaching: in what it consists, 227, 228; due to Contemplation, 227; how far it belongs to the Active Life, 226-229; the beauty of the teaching life, 227; how the Angels teach, 231
Temperance: a necessity for the Contemplative Life, 184, 185; how far it is identical with sanctity, 50
Temporal things: the part they play in our life, 89; they are "stepping-stones" to Heaven, 91; how far they may be asked for, 89-95
Thanksgivings as part of prayer, 147
Theological Virtues, the, 39-41, 191, 192
Theosebeia, 31
Thomas Aquinas, St.: born at Rocca Secca, 4; his early occupation with Divine things, 5; goes to Monte Cassino, 4; to Naples University, 5; receives the habit of the Friars Preachers, 5; is sent to Santa Sabina, 5; is imprisoned, and studies the Bible, the Sentences, and the Philosophy of Aristotle, 6; is created Bachelor in Theology, 6; the novelty of his teaching, 7, 8; created Master in Theology, 7; says he would prefer to possess St. Chrysostom's Commentaries on the Gospel according to St. Matthew to the possession of the city of Paris, 10; hears from Our Lord's lips, Bene scripsisti de Me, Thoma, 10; his three petitions, 8; his prayer before study, 8-11; is visited by St. Peter and St. Paul, who explain to him a passage of Isaias, 11; Brother Romanus appears to him, 12; his approaching end is revealed to him, 12, 13; the Crucifix speaks to him, 13; he ceases to write, 14; his emotion on hearing the words, Ne projicias nos, sung, 14; is summoned to the Council of Lyons, 14; his faith in the Holy Eucharist, 9, 15; his dying words, 15; his rhythm, Adoro Te Devote, 112; the method of his teaching, 19; his teaching is regarded as miraculous, 23; his use of the works of the Fathers, 16, 18, 23; his teaching and that of St. Augustine, 16-18; his self-effacement, 23
Tocco, William of, biographer of St. Thomas, 5 note, 6, 8, 9, 11, 15
Toothache: St. Thomas's deliverance from it, 93; St. Augustine's deliverance from it, 93
Trinity, the Holy: how to pray to, 81; the Collect for Trinity Sunday, 147
Union with God, 3, 197, 198. Cf. s.v. God
Valgornera, Theologia Mystica, 1
Via media in religion, 41
Vigilantius's errors regarding prayer, 117, 162
Virginity, 50
Virgins, the five wise and the five foolish, 247
Virtue: definition of, 34; its praiseworthy character, 43; it lies in the will, 43
Walafrid Strabo, his Gloss, 24
Will: the object of the, 57; its functions, 52, 70; the part it plays in the Contemplative Life, 179-181
Women, the natural devotion of, 59
Worship: in what it consists, 41
Zeal for souls, 243, 244
INDEX OF TEXTS QUOTED OR EXPLAINED
Genesis. xxix. 17; 184 xxxii. 30-32; 200, 214
Exodus. iii. 6; 117 iii. 14; 176 xiii. 6; 117 xix. 21; 136, 237 xx. 1-17; 42 xxxv. 20, 21; 52
1 Kings. i. 18; 120 xv. 19; 73
2 Kings. vii. 18; 150
3 Kings. xviii. 42; 150
4 Kings. xxii. 50; 155
2 Paralipomenon. xxix. 31; 52
Job. v. 1; 80, 157 xiv. 21; 152 xvi. 20-23; 210 xxxi. 14; 226 xxxi. 23; 236
Psalms. v. 5; 177 vi. 7; 151 vi. 11; 99 x. 17; 69 xv. 2; 43 xv. 5; 32 xv. 5, 6; 172 xv. 9; 120 xv. 11; 177 xvi. 6-9; 252 xxiv. 6-11; 177 xxvi. 4; 70, 136, 197 xxvi. 5; 240 xxvi. 8; 120 xxxii. 20, 21; 137 xxxiii. 9; 211, 216 xxxiv. 13; 97, 137 xxxv. 7; 235 xxxvi. 23-25; 146 xxxvii. 10; 91 xxxviii. 4; 57 xxxviii. 13; 68, 143 xxxix. 13; 120 xli. 3; 63 xli. 1-6; 182 xlv. 11; 235, 246 xlvii. 9; 13 xlvii. 9, 10, 15; 238 xlix. 13; 46 l. 19; 64 liv. 1-7; 150 liv. 23; 95 lvii. 11; 100 lviii. 7; 43 lxv. 8-12; 232 lxvi.; 84 lxx. 17, 18; 76 lxx. 20; 14 lxxii. 21-28; 192 lxxii. 28; 58 lxxv. 4, 5; 129 lxxvi. 1; 32 lxxvi. 4; 62 lxxix. 4; 85 lxxxiii. 3; 44 lxxxiii. 12; 81 lxxxv. 1-5; 125 xciv. 3; 46 xcvi. 7; 113 cii. 1-15; 249 ciii. 33, 34; 80 cxviii. 35; 85 cxviii. 145; 124 cxx. 1, 2; 58 cxx. 4; 80 cxxxviii. 14; 194 cxl. 2; 76 cxli. 1; 119 cxlii. 4-7; 132 cxlii. 5, 6; 194 cxliii. 15; 191 cxliv. 13; 104 cxlv. 1; 130 cxlvi. 9; 114
Proverbs. xxviii. 8; 144 xxx. 8; 89
Ecclesiastes. vii. 14; 97
Wisdom. vii. 7; 190 viii. 2; 185 viii. 16; 171, 204, 210 ix. 15; 132, 213 xv. 1-3; 244
Ecclesiasticus. xxviii. 2; 146 xxx. 24; 244 xxxvi. 1-3; 102 xxxvi. 16-19; 114 xli. 1-6; 223 xliii. 33; 41
Isaias. xii. 1-6; 219 xxv. 8, 9; 198 xxvi. 3,4,8,9; 201 xxxii. 17; 184 xxxiii. 13-17; 181 xlvi. 10; 104 lviii. 5; 256 lxiii. 15, 16; 88, 154 lxiv. 8, 9; 71 lxv. 24; 70
Jeremias. vii. 16; 97 xiv. 8,9; 186 xv. 1; 96, 164 xxxi. 34; 231
Lamentations. iii. 19; 63
Daniel. ix. 14; 160 ix. 18, 19; 147 x. 12, 13; 165
Osee. xiv. 3; 120
Habacuc. ii. 4; 190
Malachi. i. 6; 36 iii. 14; 72
2 Maccabees xv. 14; 115, 162
St. Matthew. v. 8; 184 v. 44; 99 vi. 6; 121 vi. 7; 135 vi. 8; 80 vi. 9; 136 vi. 9-13; 84 vi. 25; 90 vi. 32; 73 vi. 33; 90 vii. 7; 78 xviii. 10; 157, 231 xxii. 30; 165 xxv. 3, 4; 247
St. Luke. i. 49; 104 i. 74, 75; 47 vi. 12; 135 vi. 13; 139 ix. 55; 57 x. 39; 190 x. 40; 241 x. 41; 234, 248 x. 42; 216, 233, 248, 253 x. 43; 235 xi. 2-4; 84, 106 xv. 13-16; 61 xviii. 1; 71, 133, 137 xxii. 43; 135
St. John. iv. 24; 45, 85, 126 v. 16; 95 ix. 31; 144 xi. 3; 146 xiv. 8; 177 xiv. 16; 113 xvi. 23; 96 xvii. 1-5; 111, 177 xvii. 24; 98 xix. 1-5; 56 xxi. 22; 243
Acts. vii. 59; 151 xv. 9; 177 xx. 36; 151
Romans. i. 20; 45, 193 vii. 24; 213 viii. 26; 85, 113, 198 viii. 31; 32 viii. 38, 39; 48 ix. 3; 241 xiii. 10; 183 xv. 4; 99 xv. 30; 98, 158
1 Corinthians. i. 11; 98 iii. 8; 242 iv. 5; 177 vi. 9, 10; 104 ix. 16; 44 x. 31; 134 xii. 31; 237 xiii. 8; 217 xiii. 12; 176, 213 xiv. 14; 126 xiv. 15; 82
2 Corinthians. iii. 18; 189 iv. 18; 90 v. 6; 131 v. 6, 7; 190 v. 15; 239 x. 31; 38 xii. 7-9; 139
Galatians. iv. 14; 32 v. 13; 30
Ephesians. i. 4; 76 iv. 5, 6; 35
Philippians. iii. 20; 65 iv. 7; 198
Colossians. iii. 3, 4; 176
1 Thessalonians. v. 17; 91, 133, 137
1 Timothy. i. 5; 191 ii. 1; 146, 147 ii. 4; 86
2 Timothy. iii. 5; 144
Hebrews. iii., iv., v.; 92 vii. 25; 115 x. 20; 248 xii. 4; 256 xii. 14; 48, 184
St. James. i. 6; 141 i. 27; 28 iv. 3; 85 v. 16; 95
1 St. John. iii. 2; 176, 197, 231 iv. 19; 107 v. 16; 97
Apocalypse. vi. 10; 100, 164 vi. 11; 164 viii. 4; 81 xv. 1; 164 xxii. 17; 244
THE END
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