[HN Gopher] Fluorescence in Olive Oil
___________________________________________________________________
Fluorescence in Olive Oil
Author : jjoe
Score : 120 points
Date : 2023-04-15 10:29 UTC (12 hours ago)
(HTM) web link (aapt.scitation.org)
(TXT) w3m dump (aapt.scitation.org)
| Mistletoe wrote:
| https://academic.oup.com/jaoac/article/83/6/1435/5656401#198...
|
| > Fluorescence spectra of some common vegetable oils, including
| olive oil, olive residue oil, refined olive oil, corn oil,
| soybean oil, sunflower oil, and cotton oil, were examined in
| their natural state, with a wavelength of 360 nm used as
| excitation radiation. All oils studied, except extra virgin olive
| oil, exhibited a strong fluorescence band at 430-450 nm. Extra
| virgin olive oil gave a different by interesting fluorescence
| spectrum, composed of 3 bands: one low intensity doublet at 440
| and 455 nm, one strong at 525 nm, and one of medium intensity at
| 681 nm. The band at 681 nm was identified as the chlorophyll
| band. The band at 525 nm was at least partly derived from vitamin
| E. The low intensity doublet at 440 and 455 nm correlated with
| the absorption intensity at 232 and 270 nm of olive oil. The
| measurements of these fluorescence spectra were quick (about 5
| min) and easy and could possibly be used for authentification of
| virgin olive oil.
|
| From a Halloween website, may provide a clue to the red.
|
| > Chlorophyll is green under regular light, but will fluoresce
| red under a black light. Chlorophyll fluoresces red under UV
| light.
| ChrisMarshallNY wrote:
| Colavita EVOO turns fairly bright orange.
|
| I wonder if this could be a way to test for purity. I know that
| most EVOO is garbage.
| denton-scratch wrote:
| > I know that most EVOO is garbage.
|
| I don't know about "garbage". What do you mean by "garbage"? Do
| you mean not from olives? Not extra-virgin? Or just not very
| nice? Where? Perhaps this is true in the USA? I'm in Europe,
| and I don't know anything about the US olive oil market.
|
| I do believe that a lot of EVOO isn't what it purports to be;
| for example, I believe a lot of purportedly Italian EVOO is cut
| with Spanish oil; but I can't substantiate that belief.
| sbaiddn wrote:
| A lot of Italian olive oil isnt from olives. There was a huge
| scandal a few years ago of local producers adulterating olive
| oil (right around the time the dioxin laced mozzarella
| happened)
|
| Thats why I buy Californian or Greek olive oil. Not that I
| trust Greeks more than any other European, but their very
| good stuff is so good its obviously olive oil.
| robocat wrote:
| Previous HN discussion on NY Times article about
| adulteration: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7128495
| wahnfrieden wrote:
| The biggest issue is people using stale oils from over a year
| ago instead of fresh harvest. Olive oil loses flavor and goes
| bad earlier than it goes completely rancid. Most retail is
| deceptive about harvest date.
| VLM wrote:
| Its bad enough out there that the general public thinks the
| smell of hexane is what olive oil is supposed to smell like.
| Like you open a container of hexane in the chemistry lab and
| people say it smells like cooking oil. Um... not supposed to,
| no.
|
| Kind of like how younger people think tomatoes and
| strawberries are supposed to be flavorless and odorless.
| YeGoblynQueenne wrote:
| What surprised me was finding out that US people think that
| EVOO burns easily and turns bitter when fried. I found out
| when I was watching a youtube video from a foodie
| influencer, I'll see if I can find it.
|
| Anyway, for me that's incomprehensible. I have stir fried
| with EVOO all my life and I have never seen it burn. The
| only exception is when I've accidentally, and stupidly,
| left the pan with only olive oil in it in full heat and
| went off to do something else, at which point it starts
| smoking and smelling bad. I have also never had it turn
| bitter, no matter what I've done with it. I've burned food
| cooked in olive oil, and occasionally the food has turned
| bitter (burned onions and garlic taste bitter for example;
| eugh) but mostly it just tastes burnt.
|
| I've also used olive oil for deep frying and again it has
| never burnt on me, although lately I prefer to use cheaper
| oils, like sunflower oil, also because I find that deep
| frying with olive oil makes food taste too heavy, as if you
| cooked it in lard or fat (and that's not what I'm going for
| when I make chips or falafel, say).
|
| So my conclusion is that people outside the Mediterranean,
| including in the US, just don't normally cook with good
| quality EVOO. I can certainly see lower quality olive oils
| behaving badly at high temperatures.
| mindcrime wrote:
| _The only exception is when I 've accidentally, and
| stupidly, left the pan with only olive oil in it in full
| heat and went off to do something else, at which point it
| starts smoking and smelling bad._
|
| Getting a little off-topic here, but as a former
| firefighter, please allow me to plead with everyone
| reading this to not ever start cooking (on the stove-top
| anyway) and "go off to do something else." Fires start
| (and spread) much more rapidly than most people's naive
| intuitions tell them, and we're also much more vulnerable
| to getting distracted and forgetting about the cooking,
| than most of us want to admit.
|
| Note that cooking (particularly including unattended
| cooking) is generally the leading cause of structure
| fires, at least in the US in recent history.
|
| https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-
| risks/... Cooking was the leading cause
| of reported home fires and home fire injuries in
| 2015-2019 and the second leading cause of home fire
| deaths. Cooking caused 49 percent of reported home fires,
| 20 percent of reported home fire deaths, and 42 percent
| of home fire injuries. Based on
| 2014-2018 annual averages: Two-thirds of
| home cooking fires start with the ignition of food or
| other cooking materials. Clothing is the item
| first ignited in less than 1% of these fires, but
| clothing ignitions caused 8% of the home cooking fire
| deaths. Ranges or cooktops account for three-
| fifths of home cooking fire incidents. Unattended
| equipment is a factor in one-third of reported home
| cooking fires and over half of the associated deaths.
| Frying dominates the cooking fire problem.
| zokier wrote:
| Extra virgin olive oil is definitely on the lower end of
| cooking oil smoke point spectrum, that is not really
| contentious point. Refined olive oils (e.g. extra light)
| tend have higher smoke points, same is true afaik for
| most vegetable oils.
|
| If you have not observed olive oil smoking, then that is
| more reflective of your cooking habits than the oil
| itself.
| YeGoblynQueenne wrote:
| Are you sure about that? Because my cooking habits are
| not anything strange. As I say above, I stir fry and I've
| deep fried, and I do everything else that you can do with
| shortening, with EVOO, and it doesn't burn.
|
| Where does your information about EVOO being "on the
| lower end of cooking oil smoke point spectrum" come from?
|
| And what kind of EVOO are we talking about? There are
| different qualities of EVOO with drastically different
| behaviour, but they're all sold as EVOO.
| zokier wrote:
| Pretty much any list of oil smoking points confirms it,
| here is an example https://www.seriouseats.com/cooking-
| fats-101-whats-a-smoke-p...
|
| Or here is one table from an olive oil producer:
| https://savantes.org/news-and-articles/cooking-and-using-
| oli...
|
| If you disagree then the burden of proof is on you.
| YeGoblynQueenne wrote:
| The two lists you found never say what "Extra virgin
| olive oil" they list, where it came from, and how they
| knew it was not adulterated. They don't say where the
| numbers in their tables originally come from, either
| (they list secondary sources, like food textbooks and
| wikipedia) [1].
|
| Surely you can see that if "EVOO" is commonly adulterated
| with lower-quality olive oils, then the measurements of
| its smoke point are not going to be representative? >> If
| you disagree then the burden of proof is on you.
|
| I'm sorry but why is there a "burden of proof" on anyone
| here? I just remarked that I've never seen olive oil burn
| while cooking. How exactly could I "prove" that?
|
| I hope you are not trying to invite yourself over for
| dinner :|
|
| _______________
|
| [1] What's more, the second source seems really confused
| about the difference between extra-virgin and refined
| olive oils:
|
| _You will note that refining oils tends to increase the
| smoke point as impurities and free fatty acids are
| removed. Hence refined 'extra light' olive oil has a
| higher smoke point than extra virgin olive oil. The table
| shows that high quality extra virgin olive oil has a
| higher smoke point than refined - due to the presence of
| anti-oxidants and low free fatty acid levels. Another
| selling point for high quality extra virgin olive oils._
|
| https://savantes.org/news-and-articles/cooking-and-using-
| oli...
|
| So which one is it? Is it "refined 'extra light' olive
| oil [has] a higher smoke point than extra virgin olive
| oil" or is it "high quality extra virgin olive oil has a
| higher smoke point than refined"?
| denton-scratch wrote:
| Thanks for those links; I didn't realize that clarified
| butter came in with such a high smoke point.
|
| I usually use a mixture of (unclarified) butter and EVOO
| for frying steaks; tonight I shall try just clarified
| butter (with flavourings - thyme and garlic). It makes
| sense; and maybe I'll get a decent pan-sauce this time.
| wahnfrieden wrote:
| Burning it is easy, and a technique sometimes to add
| astringency for balance depending on what exactly you're
| doing. Common mistake is to heat oil on a cold pan though
| - lots of unnecessary burning of flavor/smoke to reach
| sometimes necessary high momentary temperatures
| YeGoblynQueenne wrote:
| There's a good deal of information about this in the
| wikipedia page on olive oil:
|
| https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_oil#Adulteration
|
| Some excerpts from the article (cherry-picked to be relevant
| to the conversation):
|
| >> There have been allegations, particularly in Italy and
| Spain, that regulation can be sometimes lax and corrupt.[75]
| Major shippers are claimed to routinely adulterate olive oil
| so that only about 40% of olive oil sold as "extra virgin" in
| Italy actually meets the specification.[76]
|
| >> On 3 January 2016 Bill Whitaker presented a program on CBS
| News including interviews with Mueller and with Italian
| authorities.[85][86] It was reported that in the previous
| month 5,000 tons of adulterated olive oil had been sold in
| Italy, and that organised crime was heavily involved--the
| term "Agrimafia" was used. The point was made by Mueller that
| the profit margin on adulterated olive oil was three times
| that on the illegal narcotic drug cocaine. He said that over
| 50% of olive oil sold in Italy was adulterated, as was 75-80%
| of that sold in the US. Whitaker reported that three samples
| of "extra virgin olive oil" had been bought in a US
| supermarket and tested; two of the three samples did not meet
| the required standard, and one of them--with a top-selling US
| brand--was exceptionally poor.
|
| >> A Carabinieri investigator interviewed on the program said
| that "olive oil fraud has gone on for the better part of four
| millennia" but today, it's particularly "easy for the bad
| guys to either introduce adulterated olive oils or mix in
| lower quality olive oils with extra-virgin olive oil".[88]
| Weeks later, a report by Forbes stated that "it's reliably
| reported that 80% of the Italian olive oil on the market is
| fraudulent" and that "a massive olive oil scandal is being
| uncovered in Southern Italy (Puglia, Umbria and
| Campania)".[89]
|
| I'm from Greece; you know, the other major oil producing
| country :P We, too, like the Italians and the Spanish, value
| olive oil very highly. I don't know of any adulteration
| scandals for Greek EVOO, but that doesn't mean it doesn't
| happen. It's easy to believe that a producer whose oil turns
| out not very good in a particular year, even if it is
| normally good-quality would feel rather desperate and it's
| easy to see how some would be tempted to do something about
| it. For example, a few years ago in Corfu, there was much
| anger when much of the olive oil produced on the island were
| found to be unfit for human consumption because of very high
| levels of pesticides. That year, the communally organised
| spraying of olive groves from the air was stopped and
| produces had started spraying their olives on their own.
| Apparently many just overdid it, presumably following the
| age-old wisdom that if a little is good, a lot is better.
| Even without that little mishap, olive oil from Corfu is
| normally too acidic, because of the way the olives are
| collected (they are left to fully ripen on the trees and
| collected when they fall off naturally). That means that even
| extra virgin olive oil produced in Corfu may not be the best
| quality. That in turn means it won't be bought at the same
| price as better quality oils by the large bottling
| corporations. So it might well end up sold to the Italians
| and blended with their own oils, of whatever category. In
| that case, the consumer may buy "Italian" and "extra virgin
| olive oil" but even if it is really EVOO, it might still be
| not the best quality; but it will be sold at a high price
| anyway.
|
| I have to confess I can't be sure I haven't inadvertently
| bought second-quality, or even adulterated, EVOO at some
| point in my life. I consume vast quantities of the stuff. I
| only cook my food with it, basically, rarely anything else. I
| am pretty sure I could identify non-EVOO with eyes closed. A
| couple of weeks ago my partner bought some olive oil and when
| I went to cook with it, it looked... different? Kind of too
| thin and too clear. I checked the container and it was
| blended oil that included refined oils. The container was
| exactly the same as the one of the EVOO we normally buy so my
| partner mistook it for our standard. But it was obvious it
| wasn't our standard. There's a clear difference. On the other
| hand, I'm not sure that the people who adulterate EVOO make
| it so easy to tell.
| ChrisMarshallNY wrote:
| I'd have to find the video, but some outfit did a survey of
| all the various "extra-virgin olive oil" brands on US store
| shelves, and found that most (not "some" - _most_ -) were
| crap.
|
| I think the issue was most were more like "pure" olive oil,
| with food coloring.
|
| Many of the pricey ones that come in small, expensive
| bottles, were not actually what any decent European would
| expect from the cheapest canned oil.
| yumraj wrote:
| There's an old study by UC Davis also [0]
|
| [0] https://www.ucdavis.edu/news/imported-olive-oil-
| quality-unre...
| avsteele wrote:
| A recall a number of news items from a few years ago which talked
| about how some olive oil vendors were adulterating their products
| with other oils. If this phenomenon could be better understood
| maybe there would be a rapid, optical/spectroscopic way to
| characterize olive oil purity.
| vixen99 wrote:
| Yes, if only. I continually hear that much olive is not what it
| is supposed to be and it seems that authorities empowered to do
| something about this don't do much to stop it or perhaps
| they're fighting an uphill battle. In general the higher the
| price, the more likely the product is 100% genuine. The logic
| here might be that there's not that much profit in adulterating
| pricey oil selling rather limited quantities.
|
| For a technical delve into olive oil fluorescence:
| https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/27027/InTech-Analysis_of_oli...
| kurthr wrote:
| The simpler, cheaper, and faster you make the test... the more
| quickly it will be defeated by the adulterators. Much like spam
| filters and SEO, leaking anything about how you defend against
| an attack just makes the attackers marginally improve their
| game.
|
| Simple amine/nitrogen tests for protein is how we got poisonous
| melamine in fake milk and wheat gluten killing babies, dogs,
| and cats.
|
| It comes down to Goodhart's law.
| lostlogin wrote:
| I agree that the test becomes the target in many things, but
| how do you suggest applying that to food safety?
|
| If easy tests are out, you go to a very complex test
| immediately?
| kurthr wrote:
| You test at least moderately close to the actual target and
| you punish those who are breaking the rules brutally (it is
| actually food safety!). Instead we allow Olive oil that
| isn't and Fish that aren't because, nobody has died yet?
| Allergies are possible even at very low levels.
|
| My real point wasn't the simplicity or cheapness, but often
| the biproduct of those is that it's a test you already have
| that doesn't measure what you want (nitrogen rather than
| protein). In the case of Olive oil, if what we cared about
| was it's fluoresced color rather than the material in it,
| that would be great.
|
| If what we care about is components, random GC/IR
| spectroscopy (perhaps after centrifuging) to see the actual
| compounds with consequences would be a better choice than
| the cheapest thing they can just add another weird chemical
| to defeat.
| lostlogin wrote:
| Thanks.
|
| A funny version of this is Manuka honey. It's not easy to
| define and it's slowly turned into an NZ versus Australia
| thing. There have been examples where bees that only gave
| Manuka to feed on are making honey that doesn't meet the
| standard, and bees that weren't thought to be feeding on
| Manuka have been making Manuka honey.
|
| I have seen recipes for making non compliant honey into
| compliant honey (to be clear, the input honey is Manuka,
| but the lab test wasn't being being passed). It's about
| blending various types of honey.
|
| It's a bit dumb in my view and needs a better test. As
| you say, it's meeting the test, not the objective of the
| test.
| canadiantim wrote:
| That's not entirely true. The domain within which the
| cheating can occur shrinks by eg checking certain properties,
| tho the problem you're talking about happens when only a few
| properties are checked because then of course only those
| properties need to be gamed/manipulated. It's about how much
| coverage your tests have over the properties of what you're
| testing
| rootusrootus wrote:
| It'd be nice to see some real testing and verification. I've
| resorted to buying only California olive oil because I have
| more trust in the regulation of domestic products than I do in
| the regulation of imports.
|
| It's interesting to note that California Olive Ranch's 100%
| domestic olive oil costs quite a bit more than their 'world
| blend.' I'm guessing that world blend includes imported not-
| really-olive-oil.
| hultner wrote:
| Is the article published free somewhere?
| throwawaaarrgh wrote:
| Fun EVOO facts:
|
| - the label of every bottle of EVOO uses short country codes to
| indicate where the oil came from, which is often multiple
| countries. this doesn't mean it's worse, but there are more ways
| some part of it could have not been great.
|
| - extra virgin olive oil is a juice that will go rancid from
| excessive light, oxygen, or temperature fluctuation. it's
| basically like red wine. once you open the bottle, use it
| quickly, and keep it in a dark dry place. make sure the bottle is
| glass and is darkened.
|
| - high phenolic olive oil is more expensive to produce (and thus
| buy) but contains more polyphenols.
|
| - more olive oils now carry seals of authenticity. find one,
| Google it, see if it looks legit. there are many different
| certifications. Italy was the country with the most EVOO fraud,
| so be more circumspect with oil from there.
|
| - a list of oils sold in America certified as pure:
| https://www.aboutoliveoil.org/79-certified-pure-and-authenti...
|
| - all EVOO is cold pressed and unrefined, by definition. ignore
| any marketing jargon you see on different bottles.
|
| - don't pay a bunch of money for infused oil. buy whatever oil
| you want, put some aromatics in a jar, pour in oil. use it up in
| a month.
| opheliate wrote:
| Be very careful when infusing your own oil. Botulism is a real
| concern, it is often necessary to soak your aromatics in a
| citric acid solution before infusing.
| atoav wrote:
| Oils generally can have funny properties, like dichromatism in
| pumpkin-seed oil (small layers are perceived green, thicker
| layers red)
| HPsquared wrote:
| Similarly, yellow food colouring looks red when concentrated.
| Also water looks blue but deep underwater there's no blue light
| left. Beer's Law
| dylan604 wrote:
| There's a yellow mica pigment that when used in soap making
| it turns a very reddish-orange (almost like rust) until the
| saponification has completed and then returns to yellow. It
| is very disheartening the first time you see it and start to
| think how your batch of soap is going to not be what you
| hoped, and then 24 hours later it looks exactly how you
| hoped.
| kshacker wrote:
| As someone who has used only white soap for decades, so
| quite ignorant, could you provide a name?
| dylan604 wrote:
| Of the mica? There's probably others, but I have direct
| experience with Lemon Cupcake from Mad Micas
|
| https://www.madmicas.com/products/lemon-cupcake-
| mica?_pos=5&...
| HPsquared wrote:
| I wonder if that has something to do with the pH.
| dylan604 wrote:
| That would be my guess as well. After thinking about this
| further, I do remember as a kid using the kits for dying
| eggs for easter (somewhat belated topic) that required
| vinegar instead of water. The yellow dye would also
| appear orange until it dried as yellow. So, yeah, I'm
| leaning towards the pH as to the cause, but we still
| don't know the reason. I'm going to deliberately _NOT_ go
| down that rabbit hole...*
|
| "An acid-base indicator is an organic compound that
| changes color with a change in pH. Methyl orange is a
| very common acid-base indicator, red in solutions that
| have pH values less than 3.2 and yellow in solutions with
| pH greater than 4.4. Indicators change color because the
| chromophoric system is changed by an acid base reaction
| (see below)." https://chem.libretexts.org/Ancillary_Mater
| ials/Laboratory_E...
|
| * I swear I tried really hard. Luckily, the hole wasn't
| too deep
| stared wrote:
| Quinine is another fluorescent substance - it glows blue in UV
| light. I used to carry a UV diode into malls to test if tonics
| contained quinine.
| lostlogin wrote:
| What did you find?
|
| I believe most use a synthetic version. I've only had the
| natural one a few times and it was quite different, but the
| drink wasn't as sweetened so that might have been the
| difference.
| cialowicz wrote:
| Curious, was this a hobby or did you work for the government
| tonic inspection bureau?
| hinkley wrote:
| All gin drinkers are members of the tonic inspection bureau.
| UmYeahNo wrote:
| Gin drinkers, too
| hinkley wrote:
| Err, yes.
| robert_tweed wrote:
| I don't have a green laser, but I just tried shining a 365nm UV
| torch on the various bottles of oil in my kitchen.
|
| My good EV olive oil in a glass bottle goes a sort of pinkish
| colour. With the natural colour of the oil & the way the glass
| reflects/refracts light, it makes it look like copper.
|
| I don't get the same effect with cheapo refined olive oil in a
| plastic bottle. I get a bit of fluorescence - the normal violet
| colour and much less than say a white piece of paper - but all or
| most of that is just from the container.
| is_true wrote:
| What happens if you put some of the cheap oil in a different
| container and then shine it with the torch?
| teekert wrote:
| This is science. Do it first before you bring the torch to
| the supermarket ;)
| detrites wrote:
| Interesting. I wonder if this technique could be used as an
| olive oil purity/quality test of sorts? Maybe correlating a few
| samples of various kinds, along with some external form of
| verifiable testing, it may be possible to figure it out.
| robert_tweed wrote:
| I'm definitely taking my UV torch to the supermarket next
| time. However, most good olive oils come in dark glass
| bottles, so I don't think it will be possible to check those.
| Might be interesting to look for variation among the cheaper
| EV ones.
|
| The article mentions differences between brands, but IDK if
| there's a specific correlation with quality other than that
| fake olive oils certainly won't turn red/pink.
| kjellsbells wrote:
| I think your instinct is right: the dark glass is going to
| negate any test.
|
| I always assumed that products like olive oil sold in thick
| green bottles were sensitive to degradation by (UV,
| sun)light, so if that is true then by definition a casual
| in store test is not going to work. But perhaps green
| bottles mean nothing vis a vis light.
|
| I do recall that brown bottles were a thing in brewing to
| prevent beer from becoming funky by the action of light,
| but perhaps oils aren't susceptible to that.
| shirleyquirk wrote:
| Olive oil absolutely degrades in light. Even in dark
| bottles. Really high quality olive oil is sold in opaque
| ceramic containers.
| wil421 wrote:
| It's the same as beer. Light degrades the beer or oil. My
| olive oil research says a lot of cheap oils are already
| going rancid by the time you buy them. Very good quality
| bill oils, like Costco's EVOO, will go rancid before you
| can use it all.
| great_tankard wrote:
| Make sense. Plastics are notorious for absorbing in the UV
| range- for most useful spectroscopy experiments below ~400 nm
| we have to go straight to quartz cuvettes.
| jrockway wrote:
| Recommended video if you want to dive deeper into UV
| absorption: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwsHRrDYu5o
| ProllyInfamous wrote:
| Other fun household items which will fluoresce under UV light:
|
| Your feet (athlete's foot) and sometimes hands.
|
| Banana "mold" (the black spots' edges).
|
| Your credit cards and IDs (usually a bird on VISA and "AMEX" on
| so-named).
|
| Money (embedded denomination "strip" is different for each modern
| bill).
|
| Centipedes and Scorpions (seriously, just go into your yard at
| night and scan the ground for wigglies).
|
| If you have beehives, the Varroa Destructor (species/pest) also
| shines brightly on their little carapaces.
| jrockway wrote:
| Getting way off topic, but if you hit ordinary peanut butter
| with strong light, it glows afterwards. Go into a very dark
| room, adjust your eyes to the dark, look away with your eyes
| closed/covered as you hit a jar of peanut butter with a camera
| flash (not the household item it once was, sadly), and then
| look at the peanut butter. It's glowing!
|
| I heard this on the Internet and didn't believe it, but tried
| it for myself, and yup. It glows.
| dehrmann wrote:
| I'd add turmeric.
| sdwr wrote:
| Turmeric glows???
| littlestymaar wrote:
| I'm surprised not to see tonic water in this list.
| qwezxcrty wrote:
| An addition: Human urine.
|
| This can be useful when inspecting the cleanliness of toilets.
| echelon wrote:
| Things that obviously fluoresce under normal visible light
| conditions can turn much more brilliant under visible laser
| light (eg. 532 nm green)
|
| Orange and green fluorescent dyes (such as on tennis balls),
| white clothes washed in detergent, etc.
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(page generated 2023-04-15 23:01 UTC)