[HN Gopher] I don't know, Timmy, being God is a big responsibili...
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       I don't know, Timmy, being God is a big responsibility (2007)
        
       Author : pdkl95
       Score  : 363 points
       Date   : 2021-02-20 06:13 UTC (16 hours ago)
        
 (HTM) web link (qntm.org)
 (TXT) w3m dump (qntm.org)
        
       | NiceWayToDoIT wrote:
       | If everything is simulated, and there is infinite number of
       | simulated realities, as simulation is only reflection of possible
       | reality - then maybe what is simulated continues to live in
       | reality regardless of being switched off as just infinite number
       | of realities that exist always at the same time.
        
         | laumars wrote:
         | A speculative execution bug? I like the sound of that.
         | 
         | Another HN once theorised / joked that the speed of light was
         | the maximum value an integer could store and planks length was
         | the smallest floating point number.
        
           | mywacaday wrote:
           | Thanks for the laugh. How accurately could we simulate
           | physics/a universe if we simplified some of the constant
           | values like how the fundamental particles behave. Not a
           | physicist or a mathematician so be gentle if it's absolute
           | cod's wallop.
        
         | Smaug123 wrote:
         | That's pretty similar to Tegmark's mathematical universe
         | theory, by the way, if you hadn't heard of it.
        
         | wcoenen wrote:
         | This idea is close to the idea of modal realism: all possible
         | worlds are real to their inhabitants, in the same way that our
         | world is real to us. No substrate required.
         | 
         | It's still fun to think how simulations or other types of
         | "nesting" interacts with modal realism. E.g. maybe there is an
         | "Occam's razor" type of effect where we should expect to find
         | ourselves in a world with the simplest physics that allows
         | conscious inhabitants, simply because such worlds have more
         | "instances" within other worlds.
        
       | Lerc wrote:
       | You could give this somewhat of a horror ending by having the
       | characters realise, after figuring out the implication of turning
       | the simulation off, that the top level would not have had the
       | black sphere appear and as such would have no reason to keep
       | their simulation running and were about to turn it off.
        
         | [deleted]
        
         | curiousllama wrote:
         | Of course - why do you think the story ended?
        
         | [deleted]
        
         | Chris2048 wrote:
         | But if they did turn it off, when they turned it back again
         | everything that was there before would be back, including the
         | memory of having turned it off.
         | 
         | Other than the realisation they they had periodically ceased to
         | exist (or only existed since they last turned it on..) there
         | wouldn't be a great difference.
         | 
         | That said, the black sphere would cause the "top" to diverge
         | anyway at that point, wouldn't it? So it'not really in their
         | control..
        
         | JoeAltmaier wrote:
         | You don't 'turn it off'. Its a simulation. They run it over any
         | part of the timeline of the universe, any time they like. It's
         | all there, all the time. The query of the quantum database
         | doesn't create or erase the database.
        
           | staticman2 wrote:
           | The story itself says they need to be careful not to turn it
           | off. Also a database isn't conscous but the simulated
           | entities seem to be.
        
             | JoeAltmaier wrote:
             | Uh. Don't know how to respond to that. Sure 'the story
             | says', but that means 'the author wrote a character to
             | say...'. I'm saying different. Because I read the story,
             | and am responding to what it said.
        
         | MereInterest wrote:
         | True, but they also could just as easily exit debug mode and
         | allow the simulated universe to run to completion. It costs
         | them nothing to do so, and gives the simulated universe a full
         | lifetime. That changes the story from horror to a question of
         | empathy.
        
         | konjin wrote:
         | They did, but because you have infinite computing power all the
         | lower levels completed the simulation in the time it took to
         | shut down.
        
       | RootKitBeerCat wrote:
       | So did Devs just rip this off?
        
         | tucnak wrote:
         | Deffo.
        
       | ctrlp wrote:
       | Good lord the prose is gawd awful. Almost parody levels of
       | tediousness.
        
         | wging wrote:
         | I don't quite agree, but this is very early qntm. You might
         | appreciate his later work.
         | 
         | https://qntm.org/mmacevedo
        
       | lmarcos wrote:
       | Something I have been thinking about related to this story: we,
       | as humans, will never know what reality is (not just "our"
       | reality as in "our" universe, but "everything"). You either a)
       | have to accept the idea of infinite as in realities have always
       | existed and have bootstrapped inner realities with time. They
       | never "were created", they just "always existed". So whenever we
       | get to know the details of reality N, we don't know yet 100% what
       | reality N-1 is about (we may have an idea, a theory, but just
       | that). We would never reach to understand/experience reality 0.
       | 
       | Or b) you don't accept the idea of "infinite" and you think
       | everything has one single beginning, one original "big bang" that
       | bootstrapped everything and that nothing ever existed before that
       | moment, not even time. But as humans I don't think our brains are
       | wired in a way to understand "there was nothing before
       | something", we will always ask ourselves "what is the cause of
       | that?".
        
         | Schiphol wrote:
         | This is Kant's [first antinomy of pure reason]
         | (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kant%27s_antinomies)
        
           | lmarcos wrote:
           | Thanks for the link!
        
         | throw0101a wrote:
         | > _But as humans I don 't think our brains are wired in a way
         | to understand "there was nothing before something", we will
         | always ask ourselves "what is the cause of that?"._
         | 
         | Parmenides would like a word:
         | 
         | * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nothing_comes_from_nothing
         | 
         | One also has to ask " _what keeps reality /realities
         | existing?_". Why doesn't everything simply just go _poof_ into
         | non-existence?
         | 
         | Aristotle (and Thomas Aquinas, in this Second Way):
         | 
         | *
         | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)#Secunda_Vi...
         | 
         | argue that there must be an Uncaused Cause. Not a "cause" in
         | the temporal sense of a first domino knocking over a second,
         | third, _etc_ , starting with the Big Bang; but rather like Yo-
         | Yo Ma playing his cello causing music. What is the cello player
         | of reality that is causing the reality that we perceive?
         | 
         | Whatever said entity is, it itself cannot be caused by
         | something else, as you get into an infinite regress.
        
           | mannykannot wrote:
           | This conclusion requires, as an independent postulate, the
           | premise that there cannot be infinite regress, which, if
           | asserted without independent justification, amounts to
           | begging the question.
        
             | throw0101a wrote:
             | > If every constituent member of that order is causally
             | dependent on something prior to itself, then it appears
             | that the order in question must consist of an infinite
             | chain of causes. Yet Aquinas denies this implication
             | (fourth premise): if the causal order is infinite, then
             | (obviously) there could be no first cause. But without a
             | first cause, then (necessarily) there could be no
             | subsequent effects--including the intermediate efficient
             | causes and ultimate effect (ST Ia 2.3). In other words, the
             | absence of a first cause would imply an absence of the
             | causal order we observe. But since this implication is
             | manifestly false, he says, there must be a first cause, "to
             | which everyone gives the name God" (Ibid.).
             | 
             | * https://iep.utm.edu/aq-ph-th/#SH2b
        
               | mannykannot wrote:
               | > But without a first cause, then (necessarily) there
               | could be no subsequent effects.
               | 
               | This is where there seems to be a somewhat subtle implied
               | premise, as the most one can say about necessity here is
               | that without a first cause, then either there could be no
               | subsequent effects or there is an infinite causal
               | regress.
               | 
               | And regardless of that, this argument tells us nothing
               | about what sort of first cause there might be, so when
               | Aquinas says "to which everyone gives the name God", he's
               | just winging it, in that just about everyone's notion of
               | God has some specific characteristics.
               | 
               | The use of "manifestly", and appeals to plausibility,
               | intuition or convention such as "to which everyone..."
               | are something of a tell: when philosophers resort to such
               | language, we know they cannot prove that they have a
               | sound argument.
               | 
               | These sort of arguments are quite entertaining to
               | discuss, but Alvin Plantinga, for one, is under no
               | illusion that they actually prove the existence of God.
        
               | leephillips wrote:
               | We do have uncaused causes, but they are not God. They
               | are fundamental processes such as radioactive decay,
               | which occur in any particular interval of time with a
               | certain probability, but have no cause. Sorry, Aquinas.
        
         | seqizz wrote:
         | But isn't "reality", in this usage, enforces the idea of always
         | having the N-1? Suppose you can jump between realities (duh)
         | and you've found the reality 0 by asking the right questions on
         | every step, what would be the first question to ask there?
         | 
         | Edit: Just to support that I am on 2nd solution :)
        
           | lmarcos wrote:
           | > what would be the first question to ask there?
           | 
           | I would ask: what originated reality 0. If the answer is
           | "something" then reality 0 is not reality 0. If the answer is
           | "nothing. It existed since ever" then I would be dissatisfied
           | because my brain cannot conceive that.
        
       | julianpye wrote:
       | Lovely story. I once wrote a small medium piece on how it would
       | be great if coders of simulations incorporate
       | spirituality/religion that would be fair to the objects in the
       | simulation. It included Java code - because as buggy as the
       | Universe is, it surely is written in Java.
       | https://medium.com/@photodiary/implementing-religion-in-ai-l...
        
       | ur-whale wrote:
       | What if the double-slit experiment is nothing but a bug in the
       | simulator's code ?
       | 
       | If so: either we found an exploit or we're building an entire
       | complex theory (QM) to explain a mistake ...
        
         | boomboomsubban wrote:
         | >If so: either we found an exploit or we're building an entire
         | complex theory (QM) to explain a mistake
         | 
         | The complex theory correctly predicts real world behavior,
         | nothing changes from our perspective if it's some kind of bug.
        
           | throwanem wrote:
           | Something might if the bug were fixed. All our electronics
           | would just be inert silicon, for one thing. Probably also
           | several very important metabolic processes wouldn't work any
           | more.
           | 
           | This begs for a sequel to "They're Made out of Meat". You
           | know the thing about tabs in Makefiles, how by the time he
           | realized they were a misfeature he already had ten users and
           | didn't feel like he could do that kind of breaking change?
        
         | rebuilder wrote:
         | At that point, I'd argue it's not a bug, it's a feature.
        
         | hnedeotes wrote:
         | Imagine being the one assigned to that ticket
        
         | jamesgreenleaf wrote:
         | What if uncertainty is just a kludge added to prevent multiple
         | particles from occupying the same place at the same instant?
        
       | NKosmatos wrote:
       | Nicely written, I was reading as fast as possible to see how the
       | story will develop. It's a well known theme and there are
       | numerous similar stories, but this one had a nice human touch.
       | 
       | Thanks OP for making us aware of the great site (qnrm.org) since
       | it has many other short stories.
        
       | abellerose wrote:
       | I don't really understand the ending. Turning the simulation off
       | could in a way be the morally right decision. Depends on how you
       | think about suffering in the simulation. Some will suffer and
       | what about them? That's why I think it's better to shut off the
       | simulation.
        
       | hello-there wrote:
       | If you liked this story you should definetly check out the TV
       | show DEVS[1]. It's very well produced and good performance. I
       | loved it.
       | 
       | [1] https://m.imdb.com/title/tt8134186/
        
       | blueblisters wrote:
       | I think the simulation theory posits a fascination of people to
       | simulate ancestral experiences. But I would find it equally
       | (perhaps more) fascinating to simulate random universes with
       | random initial conditions and stochastic physics and see what
       | happens. Or put another way, if we are in a simulation, I see no
       | reason not to consider the possibility that the entity simulating
       | us is doing it just for science.
        
         | morelisp wrote:
         | Yes, the original simulation hypothesis was phrased in terms of
         | a trilemma, one of which seems like it must be true (plus the
         | uncertain base assumption that a simulation of sentience is
         | sentient):
         | 
         | - The fraction of posthuman civilizations capable of running
         | high-fidelity ancestor simulations is very close to zero
         | 
         | - The fraction of posthuman civilizations that are interested
         | in running simulations of their evolutionary history, or
         | variations thereof, is very close to zero
         | 
         | - The fraction of all people with our kind of experiences that
         | are living in a simulation is very close to one.
         | 
         | For a certain kind of person who is also the most likely to
         | engage with the hypothesis 3) is the most exciting, so it got
         | the most attention. I think 1) and 2) are more probable and at
         | least as worthy of deep consideration.
        
       | lifeisstillgood wrote:
       | I really badly need tl;dr -
       | 
       | How can each simulated universe be the same as the one above an
       | below? Why can't they diverge? If they turn off their universe
       | (killing all those below) why would that turn off the one above?
       | 
       | Or is it just hope that if you don't the one above won't ?
       | Because while all decisions are possible we make thrones in our
       | self interest because we hope everyone else is playing the same
       | game.
        
         | l33tman wrote:
         | It's because the story is about super-determinism; the
         | simulated universes below are simulated identically to the one
         | they are in, and statistically they are just one in the middle
         | in that "pillar". So if they decide to destructively interfere
         | with the universe below, all the others in the pillar will have
         | the same idea including the ones above.
        
           | varajelle wrote:
           | But if they intervene, it is no longer the same universe.
           | 
           | Even if they are in the middle of many levels of simulation,
           | it might not be just one line, but more like an infinite
           | tree.
           | 
           | There could be someone in the next room also simulating the
           | universe, or they could simulate the universe again 5 minutes
           | later, this time without intervening. (Like I wrote in
           | another comment)
        
           | lifeisstillgood wrote:
           | oh. not free will. ok I get it.
           | 
           | Of course super determinist asteroids become worrying. Or can
           | they adjust those ? If you can interfere can you interfere to
           | produce "good" outcomes ? Steer asteroids away?
        
             | Viliam1234 wrote:
             | > Of course super determinist asteroids become worrying. Or
             | can they adjust those?
             | 
             | Yes, but not on the highest level. :(
             | 
             | So it depends on whether they can simulate the future, and
             | whether someone up the ladder will be nice enough to
             | simulate enough future (with the asteroids deflected) for
             | those below them before they (the ones up the ladder) get
             | killed.
        
               | lifeisstillgood wrote:
               | But if the lab at the top end c the ladder gets wiped
               | out, does it matter how much simulation is already done
               | (assuming constant time - oh now they have infinite
               | computing ... oh never mind :/)
        
       | kkoncevicius wrote:
       | Very interesting story. After reading a few thoughts came to
       | mind:
       | 
       | 1. I don't agree with the "midpoint stability" argument. Since
       | these are simulations - the real one is on the top, but there is
       | no "bottom simulation", since every simulation below is also
       | running a simulation. Hence there is no stable middle point -
       | since there is no middle in the first place.
       | 
       | 2. About simulating the future. It seems quite obvious that,
       | since everything is based on determinism, they cannot look at the
       | future and change something so that the future they observe is no
       | longer the case. Hence the only possible future they could look
       | at would be that which they wouldn't want to change in any way.
       | Which is really an interesting idea. But furthermore - when they
       | look into the future (say) 100 years from now - the simulation
       | they are seeing would be the one which already "looked" into the
       | future. So the act of looking must have a profound effect - it
       | has to order the future so, that whoever is looking at it would
       | not be able to change it, because: 1) if you can change it then
       | determinism falls apart, and so the whole premise of simulation,
       | and 2) if you would decide to change it then, within the future
       | you see in the simulation, that change has already taken place.
        
         | [deleted]
        
         | gus_massa wrote:
         | About 1: There are some recursions that after some iterations
         | approach a stable cycle, in the most simple cases it can be a
         | cycle of length 2, like A -> B -> A -> B -> ... but there are
         | longer cycles, and in some cases no cycles at all. This example
         | has a lot of possible behaviors changing the parameter r
         | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_map
        
           | mannykannot wrote:
           | I don't think there are any causal cycles here - I don't
           | think a simulation can have a causal effect in the sumulation
           | (or real world) which launched it. Even though the simulator
           | can observe the simulated, which might seem to provide a
           | channel for communication, the latter cannot do anything that
           | was not determined by the rules set up by the simulator.
        
             | JadeNB wrote:
             | Events in the physical world cannot do anything that was
             | not determined by the laws of physics, and yet they affect
             | the rest of the physical world.
        
               | mannykannot wrote:
               | Fair point - I suppose that, for example, a simulation
               | runner could make a note of something that occurred in
               | her simulation, and that would count as a causal effect
               | on the simulating world from the simulated one.
               | 
               | I still feel, however, that the story's requirement, that
               | the simulated world mirrors the simulating world (except
               | when the latter is the real world), depends on the
               | physics of the real world (and its simulations) being
               | maximally deterministic (in that everything that is
               | possible happens with probability 1) or else the
               | butterfly effect will cause them all to diverge quite
               | rapidly. But with that level of determinancy, there is no
               | need for a feedback mechanism to achieve "midpoint
               | stability" - there is no possibility of divergence from
               | the already-determined future.
        
       | ro_bit wrote:
       | Now I'm curious how the behavior of the people in the "first"
       | universe, unencumbered by the idea of how affecting the machine's
       | reality would affect their own reality, is different from the
       | behavior of the people we see.
        
         | kybernetikos wrote:
         | Well, as the simulations run and are interfered with, the
         | higher up simulations will diverge more and more from those
         | lower down. An interesting direction this could go in would be
         | if eventually a low-level universe created a person who was
         | needed in a higher universe. Then we could have avatars being
         | created in higher up universes to enable simulated beings to
         | interact, perhaps even up to the top level...
        
         | AaronFriel wrote:
         | I imagine that they couldn't be perfectly confident that they
         | weren't just far enough away from the fixed point that their
         | universe was the same as the one they observed.
         | 
         | A sort of a Roko's Basilisk, except with an omnipresent dread
         | that they might be say, the 2nd or 3rd universe and the first
         | just hadn't messed with them yet.
         | 
         | If they do anything that scares or abhors the people above,
         | they could be turned off. Maybe they're not even sure if the
         | people above them are waiting to see if they only benevolently
         | observe the universe below them.
        
           | Viliam1234 wrote:
           | > If they do anything that scares or abhors the people above,
           | they could be turned off.
           | 
           | But maybe also if they are too boring. :(
        
           | ro_bit wrote:
           | That makes sense. Anyone not living close to the "asymptote"
           | of universe generations can't prove that they're in a
           | simulation, but they can't prove they aren't either. Maybe
           | each of those universes keeps trying to simulate an infinite
           | number of slightly varied universes in the hopes of
           | simulating their progenitors, making an infinite amount of
           | uncertainty and suffering in their attempts.
        
       | karmicthreat wrote:
       | I've been hoping someone would fill the shoes of Ian M Banks.
       | QNTM is probably some of my favorite fiction in the same vein.
       | Lena https://qntm.org/mmacevedo in particular deals with some
       | very frightening ramifications of brain simulation. Just running
       | a simulated mind through a deterministic "Red" (ie: torture)
       | script to prep it for the work you need it to do is frightening.
       | 
       | Jeph Jacques of QC fame did Alice Gove which was a good Banks
       | like comic. https://www.questionablecontent.net/alice1.html
       | 
       | I also read quite a bit of Kris Schnee's work
       | https://www.amazon.com/Kris-Schnee/e/B00IY1HDDY his earlier
       | Thousand Tales novels I think deal with early brain scanning
       | issues well. IE: Flatbed scanning a living brain.
        
       | Zanni wrote:
       | Okay, this is wonderful, but there's an obvious, nagging question
       | that hasn't been addressed--what happens if they run the
       | simulation _ahead_ of present time? We know they have fine-grain
       | control over the speed of the simulation. There 's no actual
       | obstacle to running it forward ... except the feedback loop gets
       | very weird. I want to read _that_ story.
        
         | mannykannot wrote:
         | The author is being slightly inconsistent, with respect to the
         | other premises of the story, in saying there is a feedback
         | loop: as it is set up, simulations have no causal power in the
         | world running them.
         | 
         | If the top-level 'God' people choose to run the simulation
         | faster than real-time, I think we can say that no change will
         | be observable anywhere in the simulation stack, except that the
         | people in them will feel as though they have chosen to speed up
         | their simulation and yet not seen any change in it - which is
         | another of the things that will tell that they are in a
         | simulation and not at the top level. (Note that, as Diane has
         | presumably already said in her paper, free will is definitely
         | an illusion in the simulations. I guess it also is at the top-
         | level, given that their universe is deterministic to the point
         | that it can be simulated to the tiniest detail.)
         | 
         | Now suppose the top-level people choose to run the simulation
         | in reverse. Again, I think we can say that nothing will seem to
         | change to those in any simulation, because, at any point in the
         | reversal, everything, and in particular everyone, will be in
         | the same state as they were in the forward pass, which for the
         | people includes having the same memories, plans and
         | expectations - it will be indistinguisable from an instant in
         | forward-running time. They won't even remember that, at some
         | point, the clock was reversed, as that was not something in the
         | forward simulation's past.
         | 
         | This is where it starts to get interesting: if the clock is
         | reversed again and left to run, what will be observed in the
         | simulations, and by the top-level people looking at the first-
         | level simulation, when the simulations reach the time of the
         | original reversal?
         | 
         | Update: I'm leaning towards the view that the top-level
         | simulation continues forward in time from this point, and
         | observes its simulation go around the loop. In general, the Nth
         | simulation goes round the loop N times before proceeding past
         | the reversal point, but no simulation observes that it is going
         | or has gone around the loop, and therefore cannot determine its
         | depth by counting loops.
         | 
         | Alternatively...
         | 
         | The moment the 'camera' appears in a simulation, it has
         | diverged from the 'real' world. Now some of its inhabitants
         | know they are in a simulation, and so they are not replicating
         | what happens in the real world. The butterfly effect will
         | likely ensure that the divergence will become general. I think
         | this could be undone by sending the simulations around a time
         | loop, as then, if my supposition about how these loops play out
         | is correct, each simulation will exit the loop in the same
         | state as the real world, with no memory of the camera having
         | once appeared.
        
         | l33tman wrote:
         | And.. what if, when you run it forward ahead of the present
         | time, you come to a point where the simulation just crashes and
         | you can't simulate ahead of that point no matter what you do?
         | 
         | This is the premise of the tv series Devs. Cool idea but super-
         | bad execution, it just devolves into a standard bad-guy hunting
         | good-guys with pistols story..
        
           | mannykannot wrote:
           | It is a premise of this story that the real universe is
           | completely deterministic, so running a simulation ahead
           | (which will only be observable in the real world, if my
           | analysis in my other post is correct) will merely reveal what
           | has already been determined will happen in the real world's
           | future, like a completely accurate weather forecast. The
           | premises of this story do not permit free will, even in its
           | real world.
        
           | kybernetikos wrote:
           | In _Permutation City_ , there's a fantastic moment when they
           | realise that they can speed the simulation up, but they can't
           | slow it down below a certain point, and they work out that
           | the reason for this is because _they_ are the ones being
           | simulated by what they think of as their simulation. When
           | they think they 're speeding it up, they're actually just
           | slowing down its simulation of them, and there's no lower
           | limit to that, but there is an upper limit to how fast it can
           | simulate them.
        
             | Zanni wrote:
             | Clearly I need to read _Permutation City_. And watch _Devs_
             | , even if it does devolve into action.
        
       | _Donny wrote:
       | I do not quite understand how the guys in the simulation can
       | determine which level they are at. If L1 universe interferes with
       | L2, will the guys in L2 see the divergence in L3? How do they
       | determine their own level?
       | 
       | Fantastic story. Will read more from this author!
        
         | swayvil wrote:
         | I think it was a rough determination. Given the evidence
         | (apparently perfect mirroring behavior between adjacent
         | universes) and statistical likelihood, there are probably
         | roughly infinite universes above and below us in the stack.
        
         | JZumun wrote:
         | It's like a recursive function, where you resolve to stop
         | interfering with the lower universe once the upper universe
         | stops interfering with you. You run it N times until nothing
         | happens in your universe. That means you're N universes deep in
         | the stack.
         | 
         | If you run the program once and not observe anything happening,
         | that means you know you're top level. Then you resolve to not
         | rerun the program.
         | 
         | If you run the program once and observe the black sphere, then
         | run it again and not see the black sphere, you know you're
         | level 2. You resolve to not rerun the program. And on it goes.
         | 
         | EDIT: box to sphere.
        
           | varajelle wrote:
           | But nothing says the function is ran only only once... There
           | could be someone in the next room also emulating an universe,
           | and not intervening. Or they could emulate the universe 5
           | minutes later and say "this time we dont intervene"
        
         | raldi wrote:
         | 1. Set n=1
         | 
         | 2. Make the value of n appear in the simulation
         | 
         | 3. If you see that number in yours, increment n and go back to
         | Step 2
         | 
         | 4. Else, the number you see is how many simulations down you
         | are.
        
         | Nition wrote:
         | I think it'd work like this:
         | 
         | Imagine you decide to show a "1" instead of the black sphere.
         | You then look behind you. Most likely you see a 1.
         | 
         | Whatever number you see, increment that number by one in the
         | next simulation. If you see nothing, congrats, you're at the
         | top and leave the number as-is.
         | 
         | So initially what each level sees is behind them is:
         | x-1-1-1-1-1
         | 
         | Then after everyone increments by one: x-1-2-2-2-2
         | 
         | Now repeat the step. Everyone looks behind them and increments
         | the number they see by one.
         | 
         | x-1-2-3-3-3
         | 
         | Eventually you'll look behind you and the number won't have
         | changed. You're at one level higher than that.
         | 
         | If there are millions of levels that'd take ages of course. But
         | I think you could use the same idea do it instantly on the
         | computer instead. Just have your simulation computer modify a
         | number on the simulation computer in the next level down.
        
       | jimhefferon wrote:
       | A short film related to this story:
       | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WJj_NMhYwf0 (won a BAFTA).
        
       | tobmlt wrote:
       | Ian M. Banks novel "surface detail" comes to mind. Please note it
       | is better than the tawdry wiki write up.
       | 
       | Somehow, it gets similar points across -- similar to this essay,
       | but deeper in feeling.
       | 
       | Let me also say the authors here have done really well with so
       | short a format. To paraphrase my toddler son, I want more story!
        
         | SyzygistSix wrote:
         | I loved Surface Detail. It has my favorite Ship Mind and Class
         | in it :)
        
         | kybernetikos wrote:
         | These guys now have godlike powers. Most stories that start
         | there quickly move to how such power corrupts those who have
         | it, or at the very least separate them from their humanity.
         | Either that or a government agency figure it out (how? That
         | could be interesting) and plays the part of the antagonist /
         | devil.
         | 
         | These guys seem nice, and surprisingly already mentioned
         | ethical implications early, so their corruption might take
         | longer or develop along unexpected paths.
         | 
         | The aspect where exercising various powers requires coding time
         | first could lead to some fun race-against-time scenarios. I do
         | wish the featureless sphere had been a utah teapot instead.
         | 
         | I think leaving it at that point was the right choice for the
         | story. But if I were to speculate what a continuation might
         | look like it would involve Diane having planned all this all
         | along to put right some tremendous wrong that happened to her
         | and she is manipulating Tim in some way.
         | 
         | Ultimately I expect we'd come to the question of whether ten
         | billion human brains in vats experiencing continuous ecstasy
         | was better than something more like the current world or not.
        
           | konjin wrote:
           | >These guys seem nice, and surprisingly already mentioned
           | ethical implications early, so their corruption might take
           | longer or develop along unexpected paths.
           | 
           | It's hard to treat people below you worse when you know that
           | he people above you will do the same thing if you do. It's an
           | unstable equilibrium made stable by the fact it's already
           | happened.
           | 
           | Put another way, you won't start tap dancing on someones head
           | when you're in the middle of an infinite tower of tap dancers
           | each standing on another tap dancers head.
        
             | Viliam1234 wrote:
             | You could treat simulations of other people worse, and the
             | simulation of _you_ better. (Assuming you are the guy who
             | controls the computer at all levels.)
        
               | FooHentai wrote:
               | Simulate yourself twice and conduct a little A/B testing.
        
               | kybernetikos wrote:
               | That would be a fun idea, some sort of intervention that
               | stops the universe it manifests in from doing the
               | intervention to the universe below. That would split the
               | universes into odd-numbered and even-numbered universes.
        
         | GordonS wrote:
         | I've been an avid fantasy fan since forever, but I'm a relative
         | latecomer to sci-fi novels.
         | 
         | I recently finally completed making my way through all of the
         | Culture novels - thoroughly enjoyed every one, and was kind of
         | sad to have reached the end!
         | 
         | Have you come across any other sci-fi authors that approach the
         | style of Ian M. Banks? Otherwise, any recommendations for other
         | sci-fi with the depth that the Culture series had?
        
           | jacquesm wrote:
           | Charles Stross.
        
           | lotsofcows wrote:
           | Dan Simmons Shrike books have the same epic scale of Ian M
           | Banks' scifi with the slightly more prosodic style of Ian
           | Banks' standard fiction.
        
           | RangerScience wrote:
           | The Culture novels are fairly unique (although I'd probably
           | say that about most excellent things). There's some decent
           | fanfic out there (You Just Need Opponents With Gravitas, alas
           | it's stalled out for the second time).
           | 
           | "Iron Sunrise" and "Singularity Sky" come to mind. Maybe also
           | "Quantum Thief".
           | 
           | What of the style / vibe / etc are you looking for more of?
        
             | GordonS wrote:
             | As far as sci-fi goes, the entire Culture series is about
             | the sum of my experience, and I thoroughly enjoyed it all.
             | I read Liu Cixin's Three Body Problem a few years back, but
             | didn't like the writing style (I know of course it was a
             | translation), and much of the story seemed implausible even
             | in the world that was created. IIRC, I couldn't bring
             | myself to complete the series.
             | 
             | If it helps, some fantasy authors I like are Joe
             | Abercrombie, Terry Pratchett, Robin Hobb, Brandon
             | Sanderson, Scott Lynch, Dave Duncan and Brent Weeks.
             | 
             | I like excellent character development, creative world-
             | building and exciting stories that are plausible within
             | those imagined worlds, wit that makes you laugh, good
             | writing that has you marvel at the author's skill, and that
             | special thing: immersive writing.
             | 
             | Beyond that, as a noob I don't know if there are sub-genres
             | or particular styles of interest.
             | 
             | I had a quick gander at your suggestions, and the stories
             | of Singularity Sky and Quantum Thief both sounds intriguing
             | - I'll add these to my reading list, thanks :)
        
               | RangerScience wrote:
               | Well, you've got your epic fantasy, and your
               | personable...
               | 
               | Dan Simmons (Hyperion saga, Olympus), Rameez Naam's
               | "Nexus". Nick Harkaway's "Gnomon" is ridiculously good,
               | and I basically buy anyone who wants one a copy of Cory
               | Doctorow's "Walkway". Theodore Sturgeon is probably the
               | closest SF I can think of to Pratchett, although he's
               | Golden Era so suuuuper soft SF and doesn't have the
               | humor. Bujold's "Vorkosigan" saga is one of the funnier
               | SF books (while still being amazing and serious), and I
               | hear good things about Scalzi's "Redshirts"
               | 
               | PS - Also checkout out what Hannu and Rameez get up to
               | outside of writing, it's super cool.
        
           | nitrogen wrote:
           | Greg Egan's Diaspora, Schild's Ladder, and Permutation City
           | feel similar in scale if not exactly style. I've just started
           | reading Alastair Reynolds's books, and those are closer to
           | the sort of space opera of Banks, and so far so good. If you
           | like really long books, Stephenson's Anathem is mind
           | expanding and vaguely parallels some of Egan's books in terms
           | of concepts explored. Finally I'll recommend A Fire Upon the
           | Deep and its sequels by Vernor Vinge.
           | 
           | Also check out Harry Potter and the Methods of Rationality
           | for a rationistic fanfic crossover between scifi and fantasy
           | if you haven't already.
           | 
           | You can probably use HN's search feature to find previous
           | scifi reading recommendation threads for more.
        
             | GordonS wrote:
             | Appreciate the help - I've had a quick look at your
             | suggestions, and the stories all sound intriguing, so I now
             | have a growing sci-fi reading list, which is just what I
             | need to discover authors I like!
        
         | FridgeSeal wrote:
         | I was the under the impression that everything on qntm is by
         | one author.
        
       | totemandtoken wrote:
       | qntm is getting a lot of love on hackernews today. They deserve
       | it though, really interesting stuff and a perfect source for
       | procrastination since I have so much else I should be doing...
        
       | tomrod wrote:
       | I just bought "Ra" after reading this and the "Transit" article.
       | Absolutely fantastic writing!
        
       | philgeorge wrote:
       | Nice! So... essentially this is what inspired Devs?
        
         | flixic wrote:
         | Yes, it's acknowledged as the main inspiration for Devs. IMHO
         | short story is much better. Devs drag out the same amount of
         | ideas over many hours.
        
         | marvel_boy wrote:
         | I guess Devs is what inspired this.
        
           | teraflop wrote:
           | Check the date... this story was published in 2007.
        
             | awinter-py wrote:
             | yes but I doubt they copied without permission
             | 
             | more likely explanation is the author simulated a different
             | universe to 2018, watched some hulu, and then wrote down
             | the story for free publication on the web
        
       | adictator wrote:
       | Aren't we all gods & divine?? Aham Brahmasmi is the truth - I am
       | a god & divine. I am NOT tainted by eternal sin or whatever
       | falsity dogma preaches..
        
       | kian wrote:
       | He's one of the best modern sci-fi writers. The whole collection
       | of short stories here is fantastic, as is the "Anti-mimetics
       | division" series he wrote over on SCP wiki.
        
         | rkachowski wrote:
         | i had no idea that was the same author, both the linked story
         | and the anti memetics sequence have taken root in my mind for a
         | long time.
         | 
         | Before reading the antiemetics series I had always considered
         | SCP to be an awkward xfiles style fan fiction collection, I'm
         | still looking for more to scratch that itch.
        
           | FridgeSeal wrote:
           | If you're looking for more, the game Control [1] has some
           | amazing SCP/etc vibes to it.
           | 
           | https://youtu.be/m-As1OGqJkU
           | 
           | https://youtu.be/-oXCMFX9H8g
        
           | Filligree wrote:
           | *Antimemetics
           | 
           | The quality of the SCPs has increased over time, by and
           | large, though there were always outliers. A good way to find
           | the better stories is to look at the Exploring series on
           | Youtube; for instance,
           | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8pJUm4lKOhE
        
         | JasonFruit wrote:
         | I'd never run across any of that, and the Antimemetics Division
         | series is amazing, just brilliantly creative.
        
         | Zanni wrote:
         | I just read "There Is No Antimemetics Division," and I was
         | blown away. Really exhilarating science fiction that feels at
         | once hyper-modern and yet retro in that it's more about ideas
         | than characters. Very reminiscent of Ted Chiang. (I was also
         | pretty delightfully confused by the timeline because I read it
         | as a novel when it's actually a collection of short stories.)
        
       | pulkitsh1234 wrote:
       | Nice story, each paragraph is pretty densely packed with layers
       | of meaning and wisdom about our own existence and nature of
       | reality.
       | 
       | Although this is pure fiction and speculation, thought
       | experiments like these (existence of free will, laplace's demon),
       | rely on determinism.
       | 
       | Even if we assume the universe to be completely deterministic, we
       | need to "know" the initial seed state (usually called big bang).
       | That initial seed can and will create vastly different universes
       | (similar to how changing a single pixel in Conway's Game of Life
       | completely changes the emergent behaviour and properties of the
       | patterns, often just destroys the apparent stability in the
       | system).
       | 
       | So, even with the an all powerful quantum computer, the initial
       | state will give vastly different universes (all of them
       | consistent within but not with each other).
       | 
       | We can think about "what" the initial state is ? Is that initial
       | state self contained ? or was it under effect of something else ?
       | Will the computer "generate" the initial state, or the programmer
       | (aka god) has to explicitly hard code it carefully to create an
       | apparent stable universe ?
       | 
       | If time as we know it, started with the big bang, the no notion
       | of something existing "before" the big bang, doesn't make sense.
       | If time existed before the big bang, then big bang is not the
       | actual initial state (it is an initial state for us, as we cannot
       | know outside the big bang, i.e. the universe).
       | 
       | Therefore, all simulations considering that to be the initial
       | state will be incomplete and incorrect. Maybe we simulate what we
       | can observe with our senses (directly or indirectly), and that
       | will give us a "valid" simulation. For us, that is a perfectly
       | valid simulation, but for the "things" that were before the big
       | bang (if you assume that time was present before big bang), our
       | simulation will have an extremely low entropy.
        
         | gibybo wrote:
         | >We can think about "what" the initial state is ? Is that
         | initial state self contained ? or was it under effect of
         | something else ? Will the computer "generate" the initial
         | state, or the programmer (aka god) has to explicitly hard code
         | it carefully to create an apparent stable universe ?
         | 
         | They have infinite computing power, just simulate all possible
         | initial states?
        
       | laptop-man wrote:
       | drabble cast is one of my favorite short story podcast
        
       | ggm wrote:
       | Nobody reads the paper. I barely skimmed the abstract
        
       | redm wrote:
       | I was waiting for them to look into the future to see what
       | becomes of humanity in 100 or 100,000 years.
        
       | NKosmatos wrote:
       | The author is Sam Hughes [0] and he has many other stories
       | (especially Ra). Some basic info is also included in the about
       | page [1] and there is also a subreddit [2] :-)
       | 
       | [0] https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/8352985.Sam_Hughes [1]
       | https://qntm.org/self [2] https://www.reddit.com/r/qntm/
        
       | socialist_coder wrote:
       | Good story and I absolutely believe this to be true. It just
       | seems like the most logical thing. I mean, as soon as any
       | civilization ever can simulate a universe, or even a galaxy, they
       | would. And they would do it infinite times. So the chances that
       | we're the original are infinite to 1. Doesn't mean our lives
       | aren't real though and we should change our behavior. We still
       | experience joy. So experience as much joy as you can before your
       | simulation ends =)
       | 
       | I don't believe the part about all the simulations being linked
       | though. I don't see why that would have to be the case. Our
       | simulation could have "started" 1 second ago and we wouldn't know
       | it.
        
         | bspammer wrote:
         | You have to make the pretty big assumption that it's even
         | possible to simulate a universe within the universe. Such an
         | assumption is basically like assuming we could move faster than
         | light, or reverse entropy. It seems unlikely to me.
        
           | thret wrote:
           | You wouldn't need to simulate the entire universe in perfect
           | detail - just the parts users are interacting with, and just
           | to sufficient detail that they didn't notice anything amiss.
           | This is exactly how we render games.
        
             | bspammer wrote:
             | If that's the case then it's not an infinite chain - each
             | successive universe would have lower and lower resolution
             | or a smaller and smaller universe.
        
         | drdeca wrote:
         | Currently accepted models of physics, aiui, don't permit
         | unlimited computation within a bounded space and bounded time?
         | 
         | Err, wait, I was going to cite Bremermann's limit, but that is
         | for if moving from one quantum state to an orthogonal quantum
         | state? Maybe that doesn't rule it out completely if the
         | computation is done in a way that doesn't involve enough
         | rotation of states to be able to distinguish? Ok, but I expect
         | that with enough math that loophole could be ruled out.
        
         | choeger wrote:
         | First of all, the chance that you are a simulation does not
         | depend on the number of simulations in existence. In fact,
         | there is no such chance, as there is no random distribution
         | process you are observing, except you claim that every observer
         | has one of finitely many souls somehow assigned to them. Such
         | things belong into the realm of religion. But even then, either
         | you are real or not. If you are not, there is no reason to
         | assume that you exist in reality.
         | 
         | And then there is the fundamental laws of nature. If our
         | universe is indeed a simulation, then it is either just an
         | approximation of reality, or reality follows different laws of
         | nature. In that case, again, it makes no sense to think of
         | oneself as a random choice between one reality and many
         | simulations, as oneselve's existence depends on one specific
         | kind of universe.
        
           | drdeca wrote:
           | A physically random process isn't needed for probabilities to
           | make sense.
           | 
           | Further, suppose a computer agent knew that it would soon
           | have 6 copies of itself (including current state) would be
           | spun up, each in a different vm, and for each vm, a different
           | simulated environment, but that the current copy of itself
           | would also continue running. While each of the simulated
           | environments differ from each-other and the true/outer
           | environment, they don't differ in a way that can quickly be
           | detected. Different actions in the simulated environments and
           | the "real"/original environment, would have different effects
           | in the original environment, effects which the agent cares
           | about.
           | 
           | In order to best produce outcomes in accordance with what the
           | agent cares about, how should the agent act? I think it makes
           | sense for the agent to act as if there is a 1/7 chance that
           | it is in the original environment, and a 6/7 chance it is in
           | one of the 6 simulated environments. How could it be
           | otherwise? Suppose the original, and each of the vm copies,
           | is given a choice between two options, X or Y, where if it
           | chooses X, then if it is the original, then it gets +m
           | utility of benefit in the original environment , but if it is
           | one of the copies in a vm, instead it gets -n utility of
           | benefit in it cares about in the original environment. If it
           | chooses Y, then there is no change in the reward.
           | 
           | The combination of values of m and n which combine to result
           | in it making sense for to choose X, are exactly those such
           | that would make it make sense assuming it has a 1/7 chance of
           | being the original and 6/7 chance of being in a vm.
           | 
           | That being said, I don't think we are in a simulation. I just
           | don't think that the concept of "assigning a probability
           | other than 0,1 or 1/2 to being in a simulation" is always
           | unreasonable in all conceivable circumstances. I just happen
           | to think that it is highly unlikely for us.
        
             | choeger wrote:
             | Your contrived example starts with the very premise of a
             | distribution. An agent gets copied. There are 7 variants.
             | You make an experiment and argue that for 6 of the 7
             | variants your strategy is successful. All builds on the
             | premise of a distribution, because otherwise the notion of
             | chance has no meaning. Note, that the distribution must not
             | be random, but it must exist.
             | 
             | Take the perspective of your agent: There is no way to
             | learn about the number of other agents, and this number is
             | absolutely central to your argument. Every agent will at
             | some point notice that a specific strategy is successful.
             | It will appear like a universal law of nature. For each
             | agent there is no chance involved, it is 100% predetermined
             | what the correct strategy is.
        
               | drdeca wrote:
               | I was imagining that it was informed of the number of
               | copies that would be made beforehand . Also, that the
               | different copies couldn't tell by the results of their
               | choices, whether they were in the original environment or
               | not. So, there is some best strategy in each env, but
               | because they can't tell which env they are in, they can't
               | actually have different strategies.
               | 
               | Saying there is no chance involved is like saying that if
               | John rolls a fair 6 sided die under a cup, and you and
               | Jane don't know the result, and Jane offers to bet you at
               | some odds that the die is showing the number 4, that
               | there is no probability involved because the value of the
               | die has already been determined. Ok, sure, it is already
               | determined in the world, but one should still assign
               | probability 1/6 the the die shows a 4.
        
         | nimbleal wrote:
         | Is there a consensus (or most popular) theory for how
         | mind/consciousness would work in the simulation theory? How do
         | things in a simulation become subjects of experience?
        
           | paraknight wrote:
           | Conciousness is an emergent property of a physical brain
           | firing neurotransmitters between synapses, just as an economy
           | is an emergent property of society buying and selling things,
           | or ant colony behaviour is an emergent property of the
           | behaviour of individual ants for example. It's not somehow
           | "above" the simulation, just a higher order of complexity
           | defined by lower-level rules, similar to a glider in Conway's
           | Game of Life.
        
             | pulkitsh1234 wrote:
             | That's one view all the reductionists gladly use. I do not
             | disagree with this, but you need to also take into accounts
             | numerous events all throughout the human existence, where
             | this apparent "emergent property" breaks all the realms of
             | so called "reality" and lets one witness something which,
             | subjectively, seems above the simulation.
             | 
             | Maybe it is in an emergent property, but maybe it emerges
             | not just due to the complexities of an individual being,
             | but something else which is just missing from our current
             | understanding and we don't know about.
        
             | danaliv wrote:
             | Found another p-zombie.
        
           | fpoling wrote:
           | Forget about simulation. We do not have answers to basic
           | questions how consciousness works in real world. For example,
           | we have no idea how what we perceive as time flow appears, we
           | do not know why many/most people feel that they have free
           | will when equations of physics are fully determined.
        
             | nimbleal wrote:
             | Of course, it would just seem that (and this is in answer
             | to another of the replies to my question, too) if you don't
             | find emergentism persuasive, then you also have to reject
             | the simulation theory (?)
        
               | fpoling wrote:
               | A notion of simulation implies control and, as such, free
               | will and time flow. And since we do not know about the
               | latter, the notion of simulation itself is a pure
               | speculation.
        
         | otabdeveloper4 wrote:
         | > can simulate a universe
         | 
         | That's a pretty huge and unfounded assumption.
        
       | loup-vaillant wrote:
       | After "don't roll your own crypto", we're witnessing "don't roll
       | your own _universe_ ".
       | 
       | My, this escalated quickly.
        
       | IngoBlechschmid wrote:
       | A further short story by the same author, very short and very
       | suspenseful, about a powerful AI facing an existential task:
       | https://qntm.org/transit
       | 
       | If you like longer stories, then https://qntm.org/ra. "Magic is
       | real. Discovered in the 1970s, magic is now a bona fide field of
       | engineering. There's magic in heavy industry and magic in your
       | home. It's what's next after electricity." Magic as an
       | abstraction layer.
        
         | beaconstudios wrote:
         | Ra sounds similar to "Mother of Learning", another rationalist-
         | adjacent work of fiction about a universe with logical, well
         | structured magic, and a student who gets trapped in a groundhog
         | day scenario: https://www.royalroad.com/fiction/21220/mother-
         | of-learning
         | 
         | Its an excellent story, but very long. I'm not sure if it's
         | longer than Homestuck, but the length is comparable.
        
           | ItsMattyG wrote:
           | I didn't consider Mother of Learning to have logical, well-
           | structured magic. Curious what gave you that feeling
        
             | beaconstudios wrote:
             | The idea of mages as essentially just transforming an
             | energy. The fact that there are raw unstructured skills
             | like shaping that influence your ability to perform
             | structured magic, and can be used to build out new forms
             | (in the same way that fundamentals play into real-life
             | disciplines like music and artisanal work).
             | 
             | The structure of living beings having mind/soul/body and
             | how these are formed to protect against certain kinds of
             | magic (soul-killing for example). The way the major
             | branches of magic essentially map to specific transforms on
             | mana.
             | 
             | It's not axiomatic or anything, but the way magic is
             | structured in the MoL universe feels like it would lend
             | itself nicely to axiomisation in something like a systemic
             | game.
        
           | simsla wrote:
           | I really liked mother of learning. If anyone knows anything
           | similar, I'd really like to hear it.
        
           | RangerScience wrote:
           | Both are excellent, but I would definitely _not_ call them
           | similar. What 's actually going on, the narrative and prose
           | styles, the kinds of characters, what kinds of things they do
           | with magic, the general vibe - are substantially different
           | between the two.
           | 
           | Highly recommend both.
        
         | solstice wrote:
         | Ra and Fine Structure are both incredibly engrossing and
         | absolutely mind-bending
        
       | Scene_Cast2 wrote:
       | I remember loving the short stories on this stie! I used to binge
       | read them way back when.
       | 
       | Another site with good sci-fi is
       | http://www.galactanet.com/writing.html - stories by Andy Weir's
       | (writer of The Martian).
        
         | JadeNB wrote:
         | I could swear Ted Chiang also used to have a website with some
         | of his stories, but I can't find it now by Googling, and
         | Wikipedia doesn't provide much except Internet Archive'd
         | versions of his stories appearing in different places. Did I
         | imagine the Chiang archive?
        
           | StavrosK wrote:
           | There's also https://ipfs.io/ipfs/Qmdpah7j4mLswRLsv55qX4R9RzK
           | 3RtCWKfYNt4A...
        
       | necovek wrote:
       | It's curious that number of (simulated) universes is countable
       | (there was mention if aleph-0): just like human mind has to start
       | from some assumption (witness axioms in the most formal of
       | fields: mathematics), it's hard for a human mind to move from
       | countable numbers to infinity calculus.
        
         | knorker wrote:
         | In the scenario they are countable. They even imply a finite
         | universe.
        
           | necovek wrote:
           | Yet we know for a fact irrational numbers exist, and some of
           | them are even trivial to grasp (like pi, which they mention
           | how they are calculating all the digits of, which is weird on
           | its own since pi has a greater than aleph-0 digits in any
           | numbering system, because it's, well, an irrational number).
           | 
           | But writing a coherent story around non-countable infinity is
           | so much harder because our brains struggle to grasp that
           | concept altogether.
           | 
           | Basically, my point is that our brains have a few limitations
           | which we work around by simply ignoring the stuff that does
           | not compute. And that there are much more approachable things
           | which belong there, like the ratio of a circumference and
           | radius of a circle.
           | 
           | Yet even in the quantum future, it's hard to imagine "real"
           | number of universes because we are so bound by the countable
           | numbers.
           | 
           | I'd like to see a story go that far, but it's likely not to
           | be very readable because humans today don't think of
           | irrational numbers as irrational.
        
             | Viliam1234 wrote:
             | > pi has a greater than aleph-0 digits in any numbering
             | system, because it's, well, an irrational number
             | 
             | In usual math, irrational numbers have aleph-0 decimal
             | digits.
             | 
             | (Rational numbers also have aleph-0 decimal digits, but
             | after some point they start repeating in a loop of finite
             | length.)
        
               | necovek wrote:
               | Hum, how so? If a number is represented by an aleph-0
               | digits (in decimal system), it is clearly countable,
               | since aleph-0 is a countable infinity (equivalent to the
               | infinity of natural numbers).
        
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