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To be included in this list an occupation must be completely, or to a great extent, obsolete. For example, there are still a few lamplighters retained for ceremonial or tourist purposes, but in the main the occupation is now obsolete. Similarly, there are still some manual switchboard operators and elevator operators which are required for historic equipment or security reasons, but these are now considered to be obsolete occupations. Occupations which appear to be obsolete in industrialized countries may still be carried out commercially in other parts of the world, for example charcoal burner. To be included in this list an obsolete occupation should in the past have employed significant numbers of workers (hundreds or thousands as evidenced by, for example, census data).^[1]^[2] Some rare occupations are included in this list, but only if they have notable practitioners, for example alchemist or phrenologist. Terms which describe groups of people carrying out a variety of roles, but which are not specific occupations, are excluded from this list even if they are obsolete, for example conquistador or retinue. Terms describing positions which have a modern equivalent, and are thus not obsolete occupations, are excluded from this list, for example a dragoman would now be termed a diplomat; similarly a cunning woman would now be termed a practitioner of folk medicine. Terms describing a state of being rather than an occupation are excluded, for example castrato. Specialist terms for an occupation, even if they are obsolete, are excluded, for example the numerous historic terms for cavalry and courtesan. Foreign language terms for existing occupations are excluded, for example korobeinik or Laukkuryssa which are types of peddler. All types of forced labour, such as slavery and penal labour are excluded from this list as they are not paid occupations. Only occupations which are notable, well-defined, and adequately documented in secondary sources are included in this list. Reasons for occupations to become obsolete [edit] An occupation may become obsolete for a single reason, or for a combination of reasons. Reasons for occupations to become obsolete fall into a number of groups. Cultural or fashion change The services or products provided by the occupation were made unappealing by cultural changes, including changes in prevalent aesthetic preferences. For example hoop skirt and crinoline manufacturers were significant employers in the 1850s and 1860s but they declined significantly in later years as fashions changed.^[3] Child work Many forms of child work are now considered unacceptable. Following the elimination of much child labour, many more children could attend school. For instance, climbing boys became unacceptable because of the danger to children involved in the job.^[4] Debunked The fundamental assumptions behind the occupation were proved wrong, as occurred with superseded scientific theories (e.g., phrenologists ).^[5]^: 266 ^[6]^: 137 Economic change The occupation was made inefficient by changes in the market or other economic factors (e.g.,the reduction in domestic servants caused by increased wages and alternative employment opportunities).^[7]^: 171 Environmental change Changing natural factors made the occupation less useful or impossible, often as a direct consequence of the activity itself (e.g. over-farming, over-exploitation, deforestation). For example, the trading of ivory has become heavily restricted over recent decades, especially in the Western world, following the international CITES agreement and local legislation, which has put ivory carvers out of work.^[8] Legal, political and regulatory change The occupation was outlawed, or changes in governance, law or politics caused its disappearance or decline. For example the Victorian-era law that made available more cadavers to medical schools, thus signalling the death-knell to body snatchers .^[9] Another example of a political change causing job obsolescence is the disappearance of the workhouse as a way of dealing with the poor.^[10] Social change The occupation was displaced by transformations of social roles or was made useless by other social changes. Technological, scientific and process efficiency change^[11]^[12] The occupation was displaced by technological innovation, with more effective or efficient ways for the same need representing the central focus of the product or service delivered by the occupation. Historical examples are making lime in factories on a large scale rather than by lime-burners on a small scale and the continuous changes in occupations in the textile industry in the 19th century as a result of mechanization.^[13]^: 247 In recent times, the workplace impact of artificial intelligence has arisen as a concern for widespread job changes and/or decline.^[14]^[ 15] List of obsolete occupations [edit] The table lists information about obsolete occupations Occupation: name of the occupation Description: description of the occupation Reason: reason for the occupation becoming obsolete Type: primary type of reason for the occupation becoming obsolete Cultur - Cultural change (includes fashion change) Child - Child work change Debunk - Debunked as pseudoscience Econom - Economic change Envir - Environmental change Legal - Legal change (includes political change and regulatory change) Social - Social change Tech - Technological change (includes scientific change and process efficiency change) Start: century that the occupation started, for example -3 indicates 3rd century BC and -99 indicates prehistoric End: century that the occupation ended, for example 15 indicates 15th century AD Image: image of the occupation Contents: * A * B * C * D * E * F * G * H * I * J * K * L * M * N * O * P * Q * R * S * T * U * V * W * X * Y * Z Key: Common occupation Rare occupation Occupation Description Reason Type Start End Image Alchemists attempted to create and purify The decline of certain materials. European alchemy Common aims were was brought about the transmutation by the rise of of "base metals" modern science (e.g., lead) into with its emphasis Painting of Alchemist "noble metals" on rigorous Debunk 3^[18]^ 20 an alchemist (particularly quantitative : 10 performing an gold); the experimentation. experiment creation of an Alchemy was pushed elixir of aside by chemistry immortality; and by the middle of the creation of the 18th century.^ panaceas able to [17] cure any disease.^ [16] An alewife, also In medieval times brewess^[19]^ men entered the : 21, 87 or brewing trade brewster,^[20] was previously a woman who dominated by brewed, and often women. Unlike also sold, ale as women, men had the Engraving of Alewife a trade. The word legal, capital, Social -70 17 an alewife alewife is first social, and serving beer recorded in cultural resources England in c. to command a 1400.^[21] Women quickly have been active commercializing in brewing since industry.^[20]^ ancient times. : 75 An alnager was an official Some alnagers responsible for collected their the inspection of fees without the shape and carrying out their quality of inspections, and manufactured some accepted Fabric with Alnager woolen cloth. bribes to pass Legal 12 18 an alnage Their duty was to inferior cloth. seal measure each piece The alnage system of cloth, and to was eventually affix a stamp to abolished for show that it was being corrupt and of the necessary ineffective.^[23] size and quality.^ [22] For the wealthy, plate armour was Armourers preferred to chain constructed chain mail as it mail by riveting provided better together iron or protection, Armourer ( steel rings.^[24] however chain mail refer to chain mail) Chain mail was continued to be Tech -3 17 caption more flexible and used by other less tailored to soldiers until an individual than modern firearms the later plate rendered it armour. ineffective in preventing serious injury.^[25] Armourers constructed a suit The development of of armour by the arquebus in fitting armour to the 15th century the individual and the musket in wearer like a the 16th century, Armourer ( tailor.^[26] A which were able to Armourer's plate armour) full suit of high penetrate plate Tech 14 17 workshop quality fitted armour,^[28] armour was very rendered the expensive and occupation of restricted their plate armourer clientele obsolete.^[29] exclusively to the wealthy.^[27] The occupation The ash burner declined with burnt wood for potash being industrial increasingly made purposes. From the in chemical works. ashes, the potash ^[30] Potash as an Campfire with Ash burner needed in dyeing, industrial raw Tech -25^[31] 19 ashes in soapmaking and material was in glassmaking progressively could be made by replaced by leaching and potassium minerals boiling. obtained by mining . Baby farming was accepting custody The practice was of a child in controversial and exchange for quickly fell into payment. For disrepute because unscrupulous of sensational Three practitioners, it court cases.^[32]^ newspaper Baby farmer was more : 56-57 It was Child 18 19 images of profitable if the eliminated by the baby farming child quickly died passage of laws so that the regulating the process could be child-care repeated.^[32]^ industry.^[35]^[36 : 2-8 ^[33]^: 29 ^ ]^[37] [34] A between maid (or The between maid 'tweeny') combined was paid the least the duties of a of all the housemaid with domestic staff.^[7 those of a kitchen ]^: 151 The maid. She was the reduction in Room interior Between maid most junior member domestic staff, Econom 14 20 with dining of staff and did and the table all of the least availability of desirable jobs.^[7 better paid and ]^: 22, 72, 197 ^[ more desirable 38]^: 38 employment, ended the occupation. Body snatchers, Legal changes,^[a] also known as and embalming, resurrectionists, which was in illicitly removed regular use by the corpses from 1880s and which Body Body snatcher burial sites for enabled medical Legal 14 19 snatchers in subsequent sale schools to keep a cemetery to, for example, bodies for months, anatomy schools.^[ led to the demise 9]^[39]^: 144-146 of body snatching. ^[40] A combination of A breaker boy was child labour laws, a coal-mining ^[42]^: 104-113 worker who and technological separated innovations in impurities from coal purification, refer to Breaker boy coal by hand in a ^[42]^: 113-117 Child 19 20 caption coal breaker.^[41] lessened the ^[42]^: 89-95 The demand for breaker job was hazardous boys, but the and exhausting.^[ practice did not 43]^: 47-50 ^[44] end until the early 1920s. Mechanisation during the A brush maker Industrial manufactured Revolution brushes, brooms, eventually made it and mops.^[45]^ uneconomic to Engraving of Brush maker : 20-21 ^[46]^ manufacture Tech -35^[48] 20 brush-maker's : 88-95 Another brushes and brooms workshop term for a broom outside of a maker was a factory.^[48] The broomsquire.^[47] vacuum cleaner also provided competition.^[49] Separate buckles Buckle-makers made remained metal buckles for fashionable until Advertisement Buckle-maker shoes, harnesses, they were Cultur 17 19 card for a saddles and other abandoned in the buckle-maker uses.^[50]^: 219 ^ years after the [51] French Revolution. ^[3]^: 322 A burlak was a With the riverboat or barge proliferation of hauler in the steamships the Russian Empire. It demand for burlaks Painting of Burlak was a seasonal diminished and Tech 16 20 Russian occupation.^[52]^[ they basically burlaks 53] The occupation disappeared by the also existed in end of the 19th other European century.^[52] countries. The first engagements of World War I showed A cavalryman was a that cavalry were soldier who fought ineffective mounted on against modern horseback. Until infantry and Mounted Cavalryman the 20th century, artillery. During Tech -15 20 cavalryman cavalry were the the 20th century with lance most mobile of the nearly all combat arms.^[54] cavalry, apart from ceremonial units, were phased out or mechanized. ^[55]^: 250 The cat's meat man In the late 19th (or woman) sold century commercial meat, frequently cat and dog food Street scene Cat's meat horse meat, for became available with a cat man cats and dogs from and this gradually Tech 19 20 begging for a hand-cart.^[56]^ displaced horse food from a [57]^[58] The meat as the normal vendor occupation was a diet for pets.^[59 type of hawker. ] Climbing boys (or The occupation was girls) were controversial chimney sweeps' because it exposed apprentices. Being children to small they could multiple risks. get into spaces Progressive legal Chimney sweep Climbing boy too restricted for restrictions Child 17 19 and a adults to fit eliminated the climbing boy into. The job was practice by the arduous and end of the 19th dangerous.^[4]^[60 century.^[61]^[62] ]^: 249-254 ^[39]^ ^[b] : 176-177 When horse-drawn A coach-maker was coaches were a person who superseded by constructed motorized horse-drawn vehicles, and passenger-carrying handmade motor Engraving of Coach-maker vehicles.^[46]^ coachwork gave way Tech 14 20 a coach-maker : 1-9 Typically to mass-produced in his the wheels for the vehicles, the workshop coach or carriage number of were made coach-makers separately by a diminished wheelwright. significantly.^[63 ] A coachman was an employee who drove In the 20th a coach or century cars and carriage, a buses replaced horse-drawn horse-drawn vehicle designed coaches making the Two coaches Coachman for the conveyance occupation of Tech 14 20 outside a of passengers.^[64 coachman obsolete public house ]^: 972-977 A except for coachman could be ceremonial and assisted by a tourist purposes.^ footman or a [65]^: 173 postilion. A colporter was a travelling The wider salesman in availability of publications, publications books, and during the late Peddler and Colporter religious tracts.^ 19th century made Econom 16 20 boy on [66] In 1856, the the personal, horseback American Tract overland delivery Society had 547 and sale of colporteurs printed literature working full-time. uneconomic. ^[67] A (human) computer As calculators, performed and later calculations for (machine) mathematical computers, became tables, in more prevalent, Female worker astronomy, in (human) computers writing a Computer weather were replaced Tech 17 20 calculation forecasting and because they were on a other fields.^[68] slower,^[68]^ wall-board Some human : 296 more computers expensive, and transitioned to more prone to being programmers. error. ^[69] The demand for wooden beer A cooper was a barrels fell after craftsman who the 1940s, when produced wooden they were replaced Cooper Cooper casks, barrels, by metal drums and Tech -26 20 working on and other similar glass bottles. the inside of containers from This led to a a barrel timber staves.^[70 great decline in ]^[71] the need for coopers.^[71]^ : 175-177 A cork-cutter cut In the middle of bottle corks (and the 19th century, other items such mechanization of Engraving of Cork-cutter as flotation the cork-cutting Tech 17 19^[ cork-cutter's devices) from process rendered 74] workshop sheets of cork.^[ individual 72]^: 83 cork-cutting uneconomic.^[73] A crossing sweeper Attitudes to was a street crossing sweepers sweeper who swept were mixed.^[75] A a path ahead of combination of Painting of a Crossing people crossing street sweeping, crossing sweeper dirty urban buses and the Social 19 20 sweeper boy streets in replacement of with a lady exchange for a horses by motor client gratuity.^[60]^ vehicles made the : 257-291 occupation uneconomic. A doffer, often a In the United child,^[76]^: 27 States the replaced full practice of bobbins in textile employing children Adolescent Doffer mills. The job was ended in 1933.^[77 Child 18 20 girl doffer noisy, dangerous ]^: 476 In modern in a cotton and often led to mills doffing mill respiratory machines have diseases.^[43]^ replaced humans.^[ : 35 78]^: 596 A dog whipper was As bringing dogs a church official to religious who removed unruly services became dogs from church less acceptable, grounds during and with the later Portrait of a Dog whipper services. They advent of animal Social 16 19 dog whipper were most shelters, the sitting in a prominent in areas occupation of dog church of England and whipper became continental obsolete.^[80]^: Europe.^[79]^[39]^ 12 : 123-125 A drummer was In 1914 drums were responsible for still in use by the military drums the used on the Austro-Hungarian battlefield. army. The Drums, often unsuitability of Drummer accompanied by drums for modern Painting of (military) fifers, were used warfare was Child 13^[c] 20 an English for troops quickly realised drummer boy marching in step, and in September and to signal 1914 the drums commands from were withdrawn, officers to and the drummers troops.^[81]^: 19 transferred to other duties.^[82] A drysalter was a As local dealer in chemical manufacturing products that were businesses used in other consolidated into local occupations, larger regional Plaque especially the factories,^[86]^ commemorating Drysalter dyeing of cloth.^[ : 83 the need for Econom 18 20 the site of a 83]^[84] They local supply by drysalting might also have drysalters business sold pickles, declined, leading dried meat or to the occupation related items.^[85 becoming obsolete. ] An elevator operator ran a manually operated elevator. Elevator The introduction operators still of automated work in some elevators combined Female Elevator historic or with operator operator at operator specialist strikes led to the Tech 19 20 an elevator installations and almost complete door fill modern elimination of niches, such as in elevator luxury hotels and operators.^[88] Japanese department stores. ^[87] Elocutionists An elocutionist started to fall was a speaker, into disrepute at entertainer, and the end of the teacher of 19th century. elocution. The Elocution declined elocutionist's because of Drawing of Elocutionist performances changing public Cultur 18 20 elocutionist featured the tastes, a new speaking to reading of academic approach two boys passages from to speech, and literature with doubtful practices accompanying of less skillful gestures.^[89] readers and "entertainers".^[ 90]^: 491 The escheator was The escheator's the official inquisition responsible for process was enforcing the vulnerable to rights of the malpractice, and Crown as feudal they were lord. The suspected of escheator would sometimes Coat of arms Escheator claim and defrauding the Legal 12 17 of an English administer real Crown by returning escheator property if a inaccurate person died valuations or intestate or revenues.^[93] The committed a felony Tenures Abolition .^[91]^[92]^ Act 1660 ended : 21-25 feudal land tenure. An expressman packed, managed, Government postal and ensured workers, and delivery of a eventually parcel valuable cargo.^[ workers, took over Engraving of Expressman 94]^: 27-31 An the management of Econom 19 20 an expressman expressman mail and packages on horseback travelled on in the early 20th horseback, by century replacing stagecoach, and expressmen.^[94]^ later by train.^[ : 83-85 95] A fifer was a non-combatant foot The concept of soldier who unarmed children originally played on the battlefield the fife during became combat.^[96]^ unacceptable in Fifer : 1-9 The fifer the 19th century, Child 18 19 Painting of a sounded signals leading to the boy fifer and also kept time occupation of during marches fifer becoming with the drummers. obsolete.^[96]^ Fifers were often : 160-161 boys too young to fight.^[97] A footman was a Footmen were male domestic something of a worker employed to luxury as they wait at table and performed a less to ride on or run essential role beside his than the cook, employer's coach maid or butler. or carriage to Once a common Drawing of a provide security position in great footman with Footman and assistance houses, the Econom 14 20 a serving with baggage.^[64] footman became dish ^: 964-970 A much rarer after footman could World War I as perform other fewer households duties, such as could afford a being a guest's large staff. The valet, as directed role of footman is by the butler.^[98 now largely a ] historic one.^[99] A fuller cleansed Manual and and thickened wool mechanical fulling using their hands co-existed from and feet.^[39]^ the 10th to the Engraving of : 70-72 In the 20th centuries, ten women Fuller Middle Ages with manual Tech -8^[d] 20 fulling cloth water-powered fulling gradually with their fulling mills were replaced by the feet introduced to fulling mill.^[39] replace manual ^: 72 ^[100]^ fulling.^[100]^[ : 33-34 101] A garden hermit was an employee dwelling alone in Keeping a garden a small building hermit had on the estate of a practical problems landowner. The for both the hermit would be employer and the Hermit at the Garden hermit contracted to employee, and went Cultur 18 19 door of his remain on site for out of fashion in dwelling a long period, and the middle of the would be cared 19th century.^[39] for, consulted for ^: 146-149 advice, or viewed for entertainment. ^[102] A gladiator was an armed combatant Gladiatorial games who entertained were gradually audiences in the phased out because Roman Republic and of their high cost Roman Empire in and because they Mosaic with Gladiator violent were disapproved Cultur -3 5 fighting confrontations of by prominent gladiators with other Christians like gladiators, wild Augustine of Hippo animals, and .^[104] condemned criminals.^[103] A gong farmer, Modern sewage also known as a disposal systems nightman, dug out largely eliminated and removed human the occupation by Woman with Gong farmer excrement (night the end of the Tech 9 20 two buckets soil) from privies 19th century. of night-soil and cesspits.^[105 Emptying cesspits ]^[39]^: 87-89 ^[ is now usually 106]^[e] carried out by vacuum trucks. The hall boy was the most junior male member of Long hours, poor staff and was pay and assigned the conditions,^[108] dirtiest and and better heaviest jobs. He employment Interior with Hall boy usually slept in opportunities Econom 14 20 dining table the servants' hall outside domestic .^[38]^: 41 ^[107] service combined His female to eliminate this equivalents were occupation. the between maid and the scullery maid. An ice cutter The era of collected surface widespread ice from lakes and refrigeration and rivers during the air conditioning Newspaper Winter for storage technology, page Ice cutter in an ice house.^[ together with Tech 17 20 depicting 109]^: 15-59 The consumer concerns stages in ice ice was later about impure ice,^ cutting delivered to [110]^: 110-111 customers by an largely put an end iceman. to the ice trade.^ [109]^: 143, 159 The introduction An iceman sold or of the electrical delivered ice from refrigerator a wagon, cart, or allowed customers Deliveryman motor-truck.^[109] to make and store with a large Iceman ^: 125-135 In the their own ice, so Tech 17 20 ice block on Winter many icemen that delivery by his shoulder were employed as an iceman was no ice cutters. longer economic.^[ 109]^: 143-147 ^[ 110]^: 210-220 An illuminator of With the invention manuscripts, of the printing sometimes called a press, copies of limner, created books could be copies of books produced more and manuscripts by quickly and less Illuminator lettering and expensively than of illuminating the those produced by Tech -19^[113]^ 16 Mural of book manuscripts text. In the early the scribe and : 20 illuminator period the illuminator. This illuminator technological normally mixed change led to the their own occupation pigments.^[111]^[ becoming obsolete. 112]^[39]^: 26-28 ^[113]^[114]^ : 256 As ivory-producing Ivory carvers species have carved animal become endangered teeth or tusks through hunting, Photograph of Ivory carver with sharp cutting legislation has Envir -99 20 two Japanese tools to produce reduced the ivory carvers decorative availability of objects.^[115] ivory and hence the demand for ivory carvers.^[8] Keypunch operators Keypunch operators were made obsolete keyed data or by data entry programs onto systems which physical media, allowed data and Keypunch for example program Two female operator punched cards, so originators to Tech 19 20 keypunch that it could be enter it directly operators read by machines, instead of writing for example it on forms to be computers.^[116] entered by keypunch operators.^[117] The kitchen maid Attitudes to assisted the cook domestic work with the changed in the preparation of late 19th century meals and was as other responsible for employment Painting of a Kitchen maid numerous cleaning opportunities Econom 14 20 kitchen maid tasks.^[7]^: 225 ^ arose.^[7]^: 171 peeling root [38]^: 36 In As domestic staffs vegetables houses with large shrank, the cook domestic staffs would often be she was assisted retained at the by the scullery expense of the maid. kitchen maid. A knocker-up's job was to rouse sleeping people so they could get to As alarm clocks work on time. A became less Man waking knocker-up was expensive and more people by Knocker-up often employed to reliable, there Tech 18 20 knocking on a wake up workers on was no longer a bedroom shifts, need to pay a window with a particularly in knocker-up.^[118]^ long pole factory areas, but [119] was also sometimes self-employed.^[72 ]^: 164 A lady's companion The occupation of was a woman of lady's companion genteel birth who became obsolete lived with a woman because of rank or wealth. upper-class women Etching of Lady's A lady's companion no longer two elegantly companion usually took up primarily stayed Cultur 18 20 dressed the occupation in in the home, and ladies order to earn a also because of living^[120] and the many other have somewhere to employment live.^[121] opportunities open to modern women. Lamplighters toured public Electric street streets at dusk, lighting, which lighting outdoor does not require fixtures by means lamplighters, of a wick on a replaced candles Street scene Lamplighter long pole. At and oil and gas Tech 16 20 depicting two dawn, the lamps. lamplighters lamplighter would Additionally, gas return to lighting is more extinguish the expensive than lights using a electric lighting. small hook on the ^[123]^[124] same pole.^[122] Leeches were promoted by A leech collector Francois Broussais procured medicinal and other leeches, which physicians. After were in demand by Broussais died in medical 1838 the Three women Leech practitioners for enthusiasm for Debunk 18 20 collecting collector bloodletting. leeches rapidly leeches in a Leech collecting faded away, pond was an unpleasant leading to a drop and poorly paid in the demand for occupation.^[125]^ leeches,^[126]^ [39]^: 54-56 : 120 ^[127]^: 10 and the employment of collectors. A legger used his legs to move a Originally canal boat through a boats were Demonstration canal tunnel or horse-drawn. After of the adit without a boats were fitted process of Legger towpath. The with motors there Tech 18 19 legging occupation was was no longer any through a arduous and requirement for tunnel sometimes legging through dangerous.^[128]^[ tunnels.^[131] 129]^[130] Limeburners loaded, fired, Local small-scale cooled and kilns became unloaded a lime increasingly kiln in a one-week unprofitable, and cycle. The work they gradually was physically died out through Limeburner Limeburner strenuous and the 19th century. Tech -7 20 constructing somewhat dangerous They were replaced a lime kiln as the end-product by larger (lime or CaO) is industrial plants caustic. Lime was with more used as a building efficient kilns.^[ material.^[39]^ 132] : 62-63 A link-boy carried a flaming torch to The introduction light the way for of gas lighting in pedestrians at the 19th century Link-boy night. Linkboys rendered the Tech 15 19 refer to were common in occupation of caption London in the days link-boy obsolete. before street ^[133] lighting.^[72]^ : 171 A man-at-arms was By the 16th a soldier, century well-versed in the men-at-arms use of arms, who carrying the lance served as a fully- were displaced by Mounted man Man-at-arms armoured heavy lightly armoured, Tech 11 16 in a suit of cavalryman. The or later armour with a term man-at-arms unarmoured, lance denoted a military soldiers employing function, rather firearms and a than a social sword.^[135] rank.^[134] A matchgirl was a In common with street vendor of other child labour matches. As occupations, laws Young girl matches were an progressively offering a Matchgirl inexpensive banned work by Child 17 20 box of product, with children and matches for little profit redirected them sale margin, they were into compulsory often sold by education.^[136] children.^[f] A match maker (not Initially, matches to be confused and matchboxes^[72 with matchmaking) ]^: 182 were was a worker in produced locally match on a small scale. manufacturing. The The industry occupation was progressively badly paid and became Women working Match maker also unsafe industrialized, Tech 5 20 in a match because of and following a factory exposure to white match workers' phosphorus leading strike and greater to phosphorus automation, there necrosis of the was a decline in jaw.^[39]^ employment of : 180-182 ^[137] match makers.^[138 ] A mudlark was someone who Although in 1904 a scavenged the person could still banks of rivers claim "mudlark" as for items of an occupation, by value. The then it seems to Man searching occupation was have been no for objects Mudlark adopted by people, longer viewed as Legal 18 20 of value in often children, in an acceptable or the water poverty and with a lawful pursuit.^[ lack of skills. 140] Mudlarking Work conditions today is more of a were filthy and hobby than an uncomfortable.^[60 occupation. ]^: 209-218 ^[139] Scavengers were employed in cotton The Sadler report mills to clear the exposed the poor area underneath a working conditions spinning mule. The in factories for cotton wastage was children, Boy with a Mule seen as too including mule brush under a scavenger valuable for the scavengers.^[142] Child 18 20 cotton owners to leave, The occupation was spinning thus they employed recognised as machine young children to dangerous for work under the child workers and machinery.^[141]^ became obsolete. : 99 ^[39]^ : 164-167 A mute, who could Child mutes were be a child or an present at some adult, was a paid Victorian mourner at funerals, as funerals. The mute described in would wear sombre Dickens's Oliver clothing including Twist and Martin Boy dressed Mute a black cloak, a Chuzzlewit, but Cultur 17 20 as a funeral top hat with have since fallen mute trailing hatbands, out of fashion.^[ and gloves. Adult 144] Other types mutes had an of professional unfortunate mourners are still reputation for employed in some drunkenness.^[143] Asian countries. The needle maker The demand for took the product needles increased of the wire-drawer greatly in the to manufacture 19th century. metal needles in a Increased Engraving multi-step production and showing the Needle maker process.^[145]^ lower unit costs Tech -2^[g] 20 eight steps : 42-46 ^[146]^[ were achieved in in needle 147]^[148] Needle highly mechanised manufacturing making was a toxic factories which and risky replaced human occupation.^[149]^ needle makers.^[ [150] 149] A ninja was an infiltration agent, mercenary, or guerrilla Following the warfare fighter, Tokugawa shogunate and later in the 17th Ninja in Ninja bodyguard in century, the ninja Legal 12 18 black clothes feudal Japan. A faded into climbing a ninja's activities practical rope included espionage obscurity.^[153]^[ , reconnaissance, 151]^: 55 ambush, and agitprop.^[151]^ : 5, 9 ^[152] Oakum, a preparation of hemp or jute used The Poor Relief to seal gaps, was Act 1601 had recycled from old provided for a tarry ropes, which "convenient stock were unravelled of Flax, Hemp ... and reduced to to set the poor on fibre.^[154] This work". The Oakum picker was a common activity became Legal 16 19 Prisoners occupation in uneconomic as free picking oakum prisons and workhouse labour workhouses, where was phased out and inmates who could the cost of paid not do heavy labour exceeded labour were put to the value of the work picking recycled material. oakum.^[39]^ ^[156] : 183-185 ^[155]^[ h] Phrenology has now A phrenologist been debunked as purported to pseudoscience. The measure bumps on central the skull to phrenological predict mental notion that A boy having traits. This was a measuring the his head Phrenologist rare occupation: contour of the Debunk 18 20 examined by a for example, there skull can predict phrenologist were only 27 personality traits phrenologists in has been England and Wales discredited by listed in the 1861 empirical UK census.^[157] research.^[5]^ : 266 ^[6]^[158] A physiognomist purported to assess a person's Physiognomy was character or not a scientific personality from discipline and, Three views their facial like phrenology, of an eagle's Physiognomist appearance. it fell into Debunk -6 19 head and a Physiognomy as a disrepute in the man's head in practice meets the 19th century.^[160 similar poses contemporary ] definition of pseudoscience.^[ 159]^[5]^: 268 Pin boys were boys Replacing pin boys or young men hired with automatic at bowling alleys pinsetting Boys setting Pin boy to manually reset machinery allowed Tech 19 20 up pins in a pins and return bowling alleys to bowling alley balls to the operate 24 hours a player.^[161] day, 365 days a year.^[162] The efficiency The development of gains from the pin closely mechanisation of paralleled that of pin manufacturing the needle.^[163]^ put the majority Six people in Pin maker [39]^: 95-97 Pin of manual pin Tech -2 19 a pin makers used a makers out of work workshop multi-step process by the end of the to make pins.^[145 19th century.^[33] ]^: 36-42 ^: 202 ^[163]^ : 21 ^[i] As the occupation A plague doctor was unpleasant and was a physician dangerous, the who treated physicians victims of bubonic appointed as Engraving of plague during plague doctors a plague Plague doctor epidemics. They tended to be Envir 14 17 doctor were hired by inexperienced and wearing a cities to treat second-rate.^[165] beaked mask infected patients, ^[166] As the especially the plague receded the poor.^[164] need for plague doctors fell. A postilion was a As horse-drawn person who guided vehicles were a horse-drawn replaced by coach (or other motorized vehicles Painting of wheeled vehicle in the first half three such as a gun of the 20th postillions Postilion carriage) while century the need Tech 14 20 and six mounted on a for postilions was horses horse.^[167] By eliminated. A few pulling an contrast, a postilions are artillery coachman controls still used at piece the horses from occasions of the vehicle ceremonial itself. importance.^[168] A poundmaster (or Since the need to pinder)^[72]^ deal with stray : 216, 226 was a livestock today is Man lassooing local government now rare, the a stray dog official function has to be put Poundmaster responsible for evolved into the Social 18 19 into the dog the care of stray modern dog-catcher catcher's livestock. This or animal control horse-drawn was a common officer. Stray vehicle occupation in pets are sent to colonial America.^ animal shelters. [169] A powder monkey manned naval guns as a member of a Developments in warship's crew, naval gunnery, and primarily during the phasing out of the Age of Sail. child labour Team of six Powder monkey His chief role was during the 19th Child 17 19 sailors to ferry gunpowder century, firing a from the powder eliminated the nautical gun magazine in the position of powder ship's hold to the boy.^[96]^ artillery pieces.^ : 106-123 [170]^[171]^[39]^ : 163-164 A priest hunter Catholic spied on or emancipation captured Catholic brought the priests during persecution of Plaque on a Penal Times in the Catholics to an church wall Priest hunter British Isles.^[ end. The Roman Legal 16 19 commemorating 172] Priest Catholic Relief Catholic hunters were Act 1829 finally martyrs effectively bounty eliminated the hunters.^[173]^[ bounty for 174] catching priests. A printer's devil was a young apprentice in a By 1894, with the printing decline of the establishment who apprenticeship Printer's performed a number system in the Social 17 19 refer to devil of tasks, such as printing trade, caption mixing tubs of ink the term printer's for the pressman devil was becoming and fetching type obsolete.^[176] for the compositor .^[175] A privateer was a The 1856 private person (or Declaration of vessel) who Paris outlawed engaged in privateering. maritime warfare During the Privateers under a commission American Civil War physically of war. In 1243, the Confederacy searching Privateer Henry III issued issued letters of Legal 13 19 women for the first marque to attack their privateer Union shipping or valuables commissions, which run the blockade.^ provided that the [178] Privateering king would receive was obsolete by half the proceeds. 1899.^[179] ^[177] In India and other The end of tropical colonial colonialism and countries the the invention of punkahwallah was the electric fan Photograph of Punkah wallah the servant who largely put punkah Tech 17 20 man working a operated the wallahs out of punkah rope punkah (fan), business in the with his foot often using a 20th century.^[181 pulley system.^[ ] 180] A reeve was an official elected With the decline annually by the of the feudal serfs to supervise system, and the lands for a feudal subversion of its lord.^[182]^[183]^ courts by the Reeve on Reeve : 166-178 H. R. introduction of Legal 7 15 horseback Loyn observed, "he justices of the [the reeve] is the peace earliest English (magistrates), the specialist in use of reeves fell estate management out of practice. ."^[184] A resident minister was a government With the end of official who took colonialism in the up permanent 20th century, the Two European residence in resident minister resident Resident another country.^[ system came to an Legal 18 20 ministers minister 185] While in end, and was bowing to the theory they were replaced by emperor of diplomats, in country-to-country Japan practice some diplomatic residents relations. exercised a degree of indirect rule. Resin workers' Resin worker was work involved the an occupation that extraction or largely died out Man on a working of resin,^ in the 20th ladder Resin worker [186] which was century, due to Tech 16 20 stripping needed as a raw increasing labour bark from a material in the costs, and tree manufacture of competition from pitch, tar and the petrochemical turpentine. industry.^[187] A riding officer Riding officers patrolled the proved to be coast to suppress ineffective at smuggling. The suppressing occupation was smuggling. With Smugglers Riding uncomfortable, the reduction in burying a officer poorly-paid, import taxes Legal 17 19 customs dangerous, and smuggling officer unpopular with the declined, and local people who riding officers often supported were phased out in the smugglers.^[39 the early 19th ]^: 134-137 century. A saltpetre worker produced potassium The arduous and nitrate, an expensive process essential of the saltpeter Exterior view Saltpetre ingredient in worker^[190] was of a worker gunpowder, by rendered Econom 13 18 saltpetre extraction from uneconomic by works soil rich in dung cheaper imports and urine.^[39]^ from India.^[188]^ : 102-106 ^[188]^ : 133-135 : 18-25 ^[189] Samurai were members of the As the modern army warrior class who emerged, the served as samurai were retainers to lords rendered in Japan. increasingly Originally obsolete and Illustration Samurai provincial expensive to Legal 10^[193] 19 of a samurai warriors, they maintain. In 1877, climbing eventually came to the national play a major army's victory political role over the rebellion until their by Saigo Takamori abolition during ended the era of the Meiji era.^[ the samurai.^[192] 191] The sawyer cut lumber to length A sawyer sawed for the building wood using a market (now done Engraving of pitsaw, either in more efficiently sawyers at Sawyer a saw pit, or with in a sawmill),^[ Tech 18 20 the two ends a log on trestles 194] and for the of a pit saw above ground.^[45] consumer market ^: 60-61 (now often done in a home improvement store). A scribe was a person who served Scribes have as a professional generally been copyist, displaced by especially one who photocopiers and Three scribes Scribe made copies of printers. An Tech -3 20 sitting manuscripts before exception is the cross-legged the invention of sofer, a Jewish mechanical religious scribe. printing.^[195]^[ 196] A scrivener (or With the advent of scribe) wrote (or compulsory copied) letters education, the and formal general population documents. They learned to read Drawing of also carried out and write and the male Scrivener secretarial and need for Social -3 20 scrivener administrative scriveners faded with female duties such as away. Scriveners client dictation and later developed keeping records.^[ into notaries^[198 197] ] and court reporters. Scullery maids The scullery maid worked long hours was the lowest in and were poorly the hierarchy of paid. Other more Painting of female servants. favourable scullery maid Scullery maid She was assigned employment Econom 14 20 with kitchen tasks by the cook opportunities pans and the kitchen caused them to maid.^[38]^: 39 leave the occupation.^[7]^: 188 Chair bearers, or Improvements in chairmen, were a paving, street form of lighting, and human-powered public Client inside Sedan chair transport using a transportation led Social -8^[200]^ 19 a sedan chair bearer litter such as a to a progressive : 213 carried by sedan chair^[39]^ decline in the use two bearers : 108-111 or a of sedan chairs in palanquin.^[199] the 19th century.^ [200]^: 205 The most common The office of meaning of seneschal declined seneschal was a in importance over Side view steward in a royal the 16th and 17th portrait of a Seneschal or noble household centuries, but was Legal 12 18 French during the Middle not eliminated seneschal Ages and early until the French Modern period.^[ Revolution.^[202] 201]^[183]^: 157 Slave catching in A slave catcher the United States (or slave hunter) ceased with the was a person ratification of employed to track the Thirteenth Mounted slave down and return Amendment in 1865. catcher with Slave catcher escaped slaves to ^[206] Slavery was Legal 16 19 captured their enslavers in abolished in slave on foot the USA,^[203] British colonies Brazil^[204]^ in 1838, in French : 119 or in the colonies in 1848, Caribbean.^[205] and in Brazil in 1888.^[204]^: 1 A soda jerk^[207] Soda jerks were ^: 83 was an relatively common American term for in the United a person--typically States from the a young man--who 1920s until the Soda jerk would operate the late 1950s; due to offering an Soda jerk soda fountain in a economic and Cultur 20 20 ice cream drugstore, social trends, the soda in a preparing and occupation glass serving soda essentially no drinks and ice longer exists.^[ cream sodas.^[207] 207]^: 143-153 ^[ ^: 101-103 208] The still room Still room maids maid was a were only employed middle-ranking in houses with female servant who large staffs. As worked in the specialists, they Still room still room making were amongst the Maid serving maid foodstuffs, first to go as Econom 14 20 tea to a candles, and home employers seated woman remedies.^[209] downsized to the She also prepared essentials of and served butler, afternoon tea.^[38 housekeeper and ]^: 42 cook. A stocking weaver Stockings made made stockings inexpensively in using silk, wool, factories from linen or cotton artificial fabrics Engraving of and was paid on (rayon in the a stocking Stocking the basis of piece 1920s, then nylon Tech 16 20 weaver weaver work. Stocking in the 1940s) have sitting at a weaving machines eliminated the loom started to be used occupation of in the 16th stocking weaver.^[ century.^[72]^ 45]^: 68 ^[210] : 272 A sutler was a Sutlers were not merchant who popular figures provisioned an being army in the field profit-oriented Photograph of or camp.^[211]^ rather than -5^[211]^ a sutler's Sutler : 1 A vivandiere heroic.^[213] The Legal : 1 20 tent with had a similar occupation of clients function;^[212] sutler to the US both were types of army came to an camp followers. end in 1893.^[211] ^: 197 ^[214] Switchboard operators were A switchboard gradually phased operator connected out and replaced calls by inserting by automated Photograph of a pair of phone systems, first operators at Switchboard plugs into the those allowing Tech 19 20 a large operator appropriate jacks direct dialing telephone on a manual within a local switchboard telephone area, then those switchboard.^[215] for long-distance and international direct dialing.^[ 216]^[217] A tallow chandler Tallow candles made and sold were replaced Engraving of tallow candles, first by wax a tallow Tallow which were a less candles and then Tech 13 20 chandler chandler expensive, but by gas and making lower quality, electric lighting. candles alternative to wax ^[45]^: 74 ^[218]^ candles. [219] A telegraph Competition from operator used the telephone, telegraphy to send which had a speed and receive advantage, drove messages over long the telegraph into distances. A decline from 1920 variety of methods onwards.^[220] The Telegraph Telegraph have been few remaining Tech 18 20 operating operator employed, such as telegraph using a morse optical, applications were key electrical, largely taken over wireless (or by alternatives on radio), and the internet reflected sunlight towards the end of . the 20th century.^ [221]^[222] A thief-taker was hired by a crime Thief-takers victim to bring usually worked in criminals to pairs or groups^[ justice.^[223]^ 226] as it was a : 55-59 risky occupation.^ Thief-takers, such [223]^: 260,468 Thief-taker as Jonathan Wild,^ Thief-takers Legal 17 19 refer to [224] had a existed until the caption corrupt reputation mid-19th century ^[225]^: 46 when they were sometimes replaced by colluding with the professional criminals they police forces.^[ were meant to 225]^: 122 catch.^[223]^: 40 Tondenhei were military settler After the colonists Kaitakushi was recruited to abolished in 1882, develop and defend the Imperial Tondenhei Japan's northern Japanese Army farmers Tondenhei frontier in assumed control of Legal 19 20 working in Hokkaido and the units. In 1903 the fields Karafuto against they incorporated foreign states, them into the 7th particularly "Bear" Division.^[ Imperial Russia.^[ 229] 227]^[228] The occupation was A tosher, or dangerous, sewer-hunter, unpleasant, Man in a scavenged in the illegal and sewer tunnel Tosher sewers especially unpopular. Tech 19 20 panning for in London during Modernisation of valuable the Victorian era. the sewerage objects ^[39]^: 190-191 ^[ system helped to 60]^: 250 eliminate the occupation. A town crier was Newspapers, radio, an officer of a television, and Town crier royal court or the internet have with hand Town crier public authority displaced town Tech 11 20 bell and who made public criers from their paper announcements in function. The role announcement the streets.^[230] is now ceremonial. ^[231] The occupation of water carrier The poor carried existed before the water themselves; advent of those who could centralized water afford it paid the supply systems.^[ water carrier.^[ Photograph of Water carrier 232] A water 235] After the Tech 16 20 a male water carrier collected construction of carrier in a water from a pipe networks, the turban source and profession of transported it to water carrier people's homes.^[ became obsolete.^[ 233]^: 75-76 ^[234 233]^: 125 ] In the United A wheelwright was Kingdom census an artisan who there were over built or repaired 26,000 spoked wooden wheelwrights in wheels.^[46]^ 1841,^[237] and : 112-120 over 30,000 in Engraving of Wheelwright Wheelwrights 1871.^[238] By the Tech -20^[j] 20 a wheelwright established early 20th hammering a associations to century, wooden wheel control the trade, wheelwright for example the employment had Worshipful Company faded away due to of Wheelwrights.^[ a lack of demand 236] for wooden wheels. ^[239] A wire-drawer produced metal Increasing demand wires used in for wire and the further development of manufacturing rolling mills processes, such as using greater Engraving of Wire-drawer needle making. The force and higher Tech 9^[242] 20 a wire-drawer wire-drawer temperatures made in his reduced the the production of workshop cross-section of a wire by individual wire by pulling it wire-drawers through one or uneconomic.^[240]^ more dies.^[145]^ [241] : 47-53 A woad dyer extracted woad Imported indigo from the Isatis from India, which tinctoria plant was produced more Circular and used it to dye cheaply and had horse-drawn Woad dyer textiles blue. The better tinting Econom -1^[246] 19 milling occupation strength,^[243] machine for required skill and gradually forced woad experience but was the woad dyers out unpopular due to of business.^[244] the stench.^[39]^ ^[245] : 97-99 A wool comber The invention of cleaned and the wool combing prepared wool into machine in the a state ready to late 18th century Engraving of be spun into and its a wool comber Wool comber worsted. The wool progressive use in Tech -99 19 in his comber used heated factories rendered workshop metal combs to manual wool comb the wool.^[50 combing ]^: 200 inefficient.^[45]^ : 90 ^[247] See also [edit] # Wikimedia Commons has media related to Obsolete occupations. * Artisan * Job obsolescence * Technological unemployment * Tradesperson Notes [edit] 1. ^ For example, the Anatomy Act 1832 in the United Kingdom. 2. ^ In the United Kingdom the following laws progressively restricted the employment of climbing boys: Chimney Sweepers Act 1788, Chimney Sweepers Act 1834, Chimney Sweepers and Chimneys Regulation Act 1840, Chimney Sweepers Regulation Act 1864 and Chimney Sweepers Act 1875 3. ^ In early medieval Europe (5th to 10th century), the Byzantine Empire made use of military drums to indicate marching and rowing cadence. Pryor, John H.; Jeffries, Elizabeth M. (2006). The Age of the DROMON: The Byzantine Navy ca 500-1204. Brill. ISBN 978-9-04740-993-9. 4. ^ Book of Isaiah 7:3 King James Version: "Then said the LORD unto Isaiah, Go forth now to meet Ahaz, thou, and Shearjashub thy son, at the end of the conduit of the upper pool in the highway of the fuller's field." Wischnitzer, Mark (1965). A history of Jewish crafts and guilds. New York: Jonathan David. p. 11. 5. ^ Gong farmer is included under the name "Nightman" in the occupational categories "Dust Collector", "Scavenger" in the UK censuses for 1841, 1851 and 1861. The occupation of scavenger is still current in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. 6. ^ The occupation was drawn to the world's attention by the story The Little Match Girl written by Hans Christian Andersen, first published in 1845. 7. ^ Refers to needles made from metal wire. See Ancient sewing needles 8. ^ Although most oakum was picked in institutions, it was also done as a task onboard ships, and there was an oakum picking cottage industry. Wilson, Ivy G. (June 2011). "The Spectacle of Disorder: Race, Decoration, and the Social Logic of Space". Specters of Democracy: Blackness and the Aesthetics of Politics in the Antebellum (Online ed.). pp. 126-144. doi:10.1093/ acprof:oso/9780195337372.003.0007. Retrieved 2024-10-18. 9. ^ Pin manufacturing in England and Wales showed a progressive decrease in employment from 1841-1871 according to the decennial census figures. However, the figures should be treated with caution as occupations were self-declared, and changing demand could affect the figures irrespective of developments in manufacturing processes. Pin Manufacture Workers, England and Wales, 1841-1871 1841: 1330 "1841 Census of Great Britain, Occupations". Retrieved 2024-10-12. 1851: 1295 "Census of 1851 - Occupations". Retrieved 2014-10-12. 1861: 729 "Census of 1861 - Occupations - England and Wales". Retrieved 2024-10-12. 1871: 687 Census Office, Great Britain (1970) [1873]. 1871 census, England and Wales; ages, civil condition, occupations and birthplaces. Irish U.P. pp. xl, xlv. ISBN 978-0-71651-195-3. Retrieved 2024-10-27. 10. ^ Refers to wheels with spokes rather than earlier solid wooden wheels References [edit] 1. ^ "Census Reports for Great Britain 1801-1971". University of Portsmouth, Vision of Britain. Retrieved 2024-09-23. 2. ^ "Comparative Occupation Statistics 1870-1930" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. 1930. Retrieved 2024-09-25. 3. ^ ^a ^b Tortora, Phyllis G.; Marcketti, Sara B. (2015). Survey of Historic Costume (6th ed.). Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-62892-167-0. 4. ^ ^a ^b Phillips, George Lewis (1949). England's climbing boys; a history of the long struggle to abolish child labor chimney-sweeping. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Retrieved 2024-09-10. 5. ^ ^a ^b ^c Williams, William F., ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience. New York: Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 0-8160-3351-X. 6. ^ ^a ^b Hines, Terence (2002). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal: a critical examination of the evidence. New York: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0-87975-419-8. Retrieved 2024-09-10. 7. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Horn, Pamela (1995). The rise and fall of the Victorian servant. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 978-0-71959-730-5. Retrieved 2024-09-28. 8. ^ ^a ^b Lemieux, A. M.; Clarke, R. V. (2009). "The International Ban on Ivory Sales and its Effects on Elephant Poaching in Africa". British Journal of Criminology. 49 (4): 451. doi:10.1093 /bjc/azp030. 9. ^ ^a ^b Richardson, Ruth (1989). Death, dissection, and the destitute. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-14022-862-5. Retrieved 2024-09-04. 10. ^ Longmate, Norman (1974). The Workhouse. London: Temple Smith. ISBN 978-0-71260-637-0. Retrieved 2024-09-11. 11. ^ Autor, David H. (2015-08-01). "Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation". 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Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 719. 23. ^ Ford, Felicity (26 November 2014). "Wovember Words: Alnagers". Retrieved 2024-09-30. 24. ^ Burgess, E. Martin (April 1953). "The mail-maker's technique". The Antiquaries Journal. 33 (1-2): 48-55. doi:10.1017/ s0003581500058856. 25. ^ Stone, George Cameron (1934). A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use of Arms And Armor in All Countries and in All Times. The Southworth Press. Retrieved 2024-09-10. 26. ^ Peterson, Harold L. (1968). A History of Body Armor. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 43. Retrieved 2024-09-30. `Good armor was custom-made with detailed measurements taken from the man for whom it was intended.' 27. ^ Ffoulkes, Charles John (1988) [1912]. The armourer and his craft from the XIth to the XVIth century. Mineola, NY: Dover. p. 18. ISBN 0-4862-5851-3. Retrieved 2024-09-30. `The material was so costly in the making that it was made and remade over and over again' 28. ^ Arnold, Thomas F.; Keegan, John (2001). The Renaissance at war. London: Cassell. pp. 75-78. ISBN 0-3043-5270-5. Retrieved 2024-10-26. 29. ^ Curl, Michael (2012). "The Industry of Defence: A Look at the Armour Industry of the Fourteenth, Fifteenth and Sixteenth Century". Medieval Warfare. 2 (1): 38-42. JSTOR 48578631. 30. ^ Risse, L. Mark; Gaskin, Julia W. (2 September 2016). Best Management Practices for Wood Ash as Agricultural Soil Amendment (Technical report). University of Georgia Extension. Bulletin 1142. Retrieved 2024-10-09. `Wood was burned in the United States in the 1700s through the early 1900s to produce ash for chemical extraction. The ash was used mainly to produce potash for fertilizer and alkali for industry. As other potash production technologies became more economical, the value of wood ash as a raw material dropped.' 31. ^ Hennings, Juli; Lynch, Harry (27 July 2022). Powerful Pot Ash. EarthDate (Technical report). Bureau of Economic Geology at the University of Texas at Austin. Episode 274. Retrieved 2024-10-09. `The earliest record of the use of potash comes from the Sumerian civilization around 4,500 years ago' 32. ^ ^a ^b Stuart-Bennett, Joshua G. (2023). Motherhood, Respectability and Baby-Farming in Victorian and Edwardian London . Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003161806. ISBN 978-0-36775-275-0. 33. ^ ^a ^b Ward, Margaret (2008). Female occupations: women's employment 1850-1950. Countryside Books. ISBN 978-1-84674-097-8. Retrieved 2024-10-05. 34. ^ Broder, S. (1988). "Child care or child neglect?: Baby farming in late-nineteenth-century Philadelphia". Gender & Society. 2 (2): 128-148. doi:10.1177/089124388002002002. 35. ^ "Report on the Baby Farming System and its Evils. I. History" (PDF). British Medical Journal. 1 (1834): 489-491. 22 February 1896. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1834.489. PMC 2406327. PMID 20756062. Retrieved 2024-10-13. 36. ^ "Report on the Baby Farming System and its Evils. II. The working of the Infant Life Protection Act in London" (PDF). British Medical Journal. 1 (1835): 543-544. 29 February 1896. doi :10.1136/bmj.1.1835.543. PMC 2406376. PMID 20756073. Retrieved 2024-10-13. 37. ^ Arnot, Margaret L. (August 1994). "Infant death, child care and the state: the babyfarming scandal and the first infant life protection legislation of 1872". Continuity and Change. 9 (2): 271-311. doi:10.1017/S0268416000002290. 38. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Evans, Sian (2011). Life below stairs: in the Victorian & Edwardian country house. London: National Trust. ISBN 978-1-907892-11-0. Retrieved 2024-09-28. 39. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ^i ^j ^k ^l ^m ^n ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t Robinson, Tony; Willcock, David (2004). The Worst Jobs in History . London: Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-33043-857-5. 40. ^ Levinson, David. "body-snatching". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2024-10-06. 41. ^ Derickson, Alan (1998). Black Lung: Anatomy of a Public Health Disaster. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. pp. 26-29. ISBN 0-8014-3186-7. 42. ^ ^a ^b ^c Hindman, Hugh D. (2002). Child Labor: An American History. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-0936-3. 43. ^ ^a ^b Freedman, Russell (1998). Kids at Work: Lewis Hine and the Crusade Against Child Labor. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-3957-9726-8. Retrieved 2024-10-26. 44. ^ Clement, Priscilla Ferguson (2001). "Jobs in the Nineteenth Century". In Clement, Priscilla Ferguson; Reinier, Jacqueline S. (eds.). Boyhood in America: An Encyclopedia. Volume 1: A-K. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 390-391. ISBN 1-5760-7215-0. 45. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Drury, Elizabeth, ed. (2006) [1818]. A book of English trades: being a library of the useful arts. Swindon: English Heritage. ISBN 978-1-85074-978-3. 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A Dictionary of Occupational Terms Based on the Classification of Occupations used in the Census of Population, 1921. HMSO. Retrieved 2024-10-01. * Van Leeuwen, M.H.D.; Maas, I.; Miles, A. (2002). HISCO - historical international standard classification of occupations. Leuven University Press. ISBN 9-0586-7196-8. Retrieved 2024-09-11 . * Hewitt, Jane; Hewitt, Paul Jack. "Dictionary of Old Occupations: A-Z Index". Family Researcher. Retrieved 2024-10-01. * Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= List_of_obsolete_occupations&oldid=1333906557" Category: * Obsolete occupations Hidden categories: * Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference * Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica * CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) * CS1: long volume value * Wikipedia articles incorporating text from Easton's Bible Dictionary * CS1 French-language sources (fr) * Articles with short description * Short description is different from Wikidata * Commons category link is locally defined * This page was last edited on 20 January 2026, at 12:04 (UTC). * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. 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