https://cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/howtostudy.html
+-------------+
|How to Study:|
| |
|A Brief Guide|
+-------------+
William J. Rapaport
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Department of Philosophy,
and Center for Cognitive Science
State University of New York at Buffalo,
Buffalo, NY 14260-2000
+--------------------------------------------+
| Last Update: Thursday, 14 September 2023 |
| |
|Note: NEW or UPDATED material is highlighted|
+--------------------------------------------+
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PDF version (25 January 2018)
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If you are reading a printed version of this, you might be interested
in the Web version, at
https://cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/howtostudy.html
which has numerous links to other helpful Web sites (indicated in
some printed versions by underlined phrases).
Belorussian -- German -- Italian -- Portuguese -- Russian -- Spanish --
Ukrainian
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OUTLINE and INDEX:
1. Introduction
2. Manage your time
3. Take notes in class & rewrite them at home
4. Study hard subjects first & study in a quiet place
5. Read actively & slowly, before & after class
6. Do your homework
7. Study for exams
8. Take Exams
9. Do research & write essays
10. Do I really have to do all this?
11. Are there other websites that give study hints?
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Jump Start
1. Introduction
It has been claimed that everyone has a different "learning style".
* If you believe in the existence and validity of learning styles,
then you might find some of the following references of interest:
+ Claxton & Murrell 1987,
+ "Learning Styles" (Wikipedia),
+ Keirsey Temperament and Character Web Site,
+ William Perry's Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical
Development,
+ Holland 1966,
+ Kolb 1984,
+ Sternberg 1999.
+ For some online tools targeted at different learning styles,
see "100 Helpful Web Tools for Every Kind of Learner".
* However, there is no evidence that supports their use! The major
study is Pashler et al. 2009; see also Glenn 2009/2010 and
Willingham 2008, who writes:
"using learning-styles theories in the classroom does not
bring an advantage to students. ... There's increasing evidence
that people [who claim to have learning preferences] act on
those beliefs .... But doing so confers no cognitive advantage.
People believe they have learning styles, and they try to
think in their preferred style, but doing so doesn't help
them think." (pp. 28-29)
But everyone surely has a different "studying style".
More importantly, the way that you are studying right now might not
be the best for you:
How would you know? Easy: If your grades aren't what you'd like them
to be, then you probably need to change how you study!
One important clarification before we begin:
"Studying" is not the same thing as "doing homework"!
Studying may include doing homework, but it is also a lot more, as
you will see.
(So, if you say that you have no homework and that therefore you
can't, or you don't have to, study, you're mistaken!)
I am going to give you some suggestions on how to study efficiently.
They worked for me when I was in high school, college, and graduate
school.
Not only that, but they worked equally well for me in humanities
courses (like philosophy and literature) and in science courses (like
math and computer science).
But, to the extent that everyone's styles may be different, some of
my suggestions may not work for you, at least not without some
individual modifications.
Nevertheless, I urge you to try them. Most successful students use
them (or some slight variation of them).
Please feel free to send me suggestions for studying that worked for
you. I will try to include them in further versions of this guide.
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2. Manage Your Time
[Funky_Wink]
(c)Batom Inc.
2.1. School is a full-time job. And managing your time is important.
* If you have a "real" job after school that you do just for fun
(or for some extra spending money), or if you participate in
extra-curricular activities (whether school-related or not), keep
your priorities in mind:
Your education should come first!
* If you must work (in order to make ends meet), you should realize
the limitations that this imposes on your study time.
[phd110306s]
(c)Jorge Cham
* How much time should you devote to studying? A recent survey in
the Chronicle of Higher Education suggested that students are not
studying enough. So, how much is enough?
+ If you assume that your education is a full-time job, then
you should spend about 40 hours/week on it. Figure that 1
academic credit equals about 1 hour. So, if you're taking 15
credits, then you're spending about 15 hours in class.
Subtracting that from 40 gives you 25 hours that you should
be spending studying at home (or in the library).
+ You should spread that out over the week. Suppose you decide
to study Sunday through Thursday evenings, taking Fridays and
Saturdays off (from studying, that is). Dividing that 25
hours by those 5 days gives you 5 hours of studying per
night. If you think that's too much, then plan on studying in
the afternoons, too, or some of Saturday.
+ The above are just rules of thumb. If you're taking a
3-credit independent-study course, but you meet with your
instructor only 1 hour/week, then you should add the extra 2
hours to your at-home study time. If you're working to earn
some money, you should subtract your work hours from your
free time, not from your study time! (If you don't want to do
that, then you should consider quitting your job or reducing
your course load.)
+ So, for instance, if you are a part-time student taking (say)
3 courses worth a total of 9 credits and working (say) 20
hours per week, then you have 20 hours per week for your
coursework (40 hours in a typical work-week minus 20 hours at
your job). The 9 credits amount to approximately 9 hours in
class. So, 20 - 9 = 11 hours to spend at home studying. That
works out to about 2.2 hours (2 hours and 12 minutes, to be
overly precise) per day (in a 5-day week, using the
assumption about no studying on Fridays or Saturdays), or
about 0.7 hours (42 minutes) per course for 3 courses.
+ If that still seems like a lot, consider the difference
between high-school courses and college courses. The typical
high-school course meets every day, for about 5 hours/week.
But the typical college course meets only about 3 hours/week,
yet is supposed to be more intensive than its high-school
counterpart. That's because in college you're expected to put
more of your own time into studying.
[0336a3b02d]
(c)Lynn Johnston Productions Inc.
2.2. Set yourself a grade goal. If you don't meet it, cut down on
non-school activities. (If you can't, because you're working for a
living, then consider dropping down to part-time schooling.)
Jump Start
2.3. For some tips on managing your time during exams, see below.
[589e0c905e]
2.4. For some tips on managing your time when doing projects, see
below.
[ch951002]
[ch951003]
[ch951004]
[ch951005]
[ch951006]
[ch951007]
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3. Take Notes in Class & Rewrite Them at Home
Outline and Index:
1. Take Notes
2. Take Complete Notes
3. Use Abbreviations
4. Neatness Doesn't Count
5. Ask Questions & Make Comments
6. Copy Your Notes at Home
7. Don't Take Notes on a Computer
8. Don't Rely on the Instructor's Lecture Notes
9. Further Reading
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3.1. Take Notes
Good studying at home begins with good notes taken in class.
Just as different students may have different learning or studying
styles, different teachers have different teaching styles (and often
these clash with the students' learning styles!):
* Some teachers lecture, some lead discussions, some "facilitate"
individual work (as in a lab), etc.
Consequently, different classroom settings will require different
note-taking techniques. But the suggestions here are general enough
to work in most situations.
3.2. Take Complete Notes
The key idea of taking good notes in class is to write down as much
as possible. There are several reasons to take notes that are as
complete as possible:
1. It will force you to pay attention to what's going on in class.
2. It will keep you awake (!)
3. There will be less that you'll have to remember.
Should you concentrate on taking notes or should you concentrate on
understanding what you are learning?
* Paradoxically, I'd err on the side of taking notes, not
understanding!
+ Understanding can come later, when you review your notes.
+ But if you have incomplete notes, it will be hard for you to
learn what you didn't take notes on.
3.3. Use Abbreviations
Taking complete notes will require you to write fairly quickly and,
as a consequence, to use abbreviations. Here are some that I use
(many of which I borrowed from other students and teachers), to give
you an idea of how you can abbreviate. If you send text messages on
your cell phone, then you know the sort of abbreviations I'm talking
about. Use them when you take notes in class!
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| ABBREVIATION | MEANING |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|betw |between |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|ccpt |concept |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|cd |could |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|compn |computation |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|compnl |computational |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|comp |complete |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|dn |description |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|fn |function |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|h. |human |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|...g |...ing |
|(e.g., contg) |(continuing) |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|...l |...al |
|(e.g., compnl)|(computational) |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|lg |language |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|mn |mean |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|mng |meaning |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|...n |...tion |
|(e.g., abbrvn)|(abbreviation) |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|NB: |note/note well/nota bene |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|pn |proposition |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|prop |property |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|re |about (from Latin) |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|reln |relation |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|qn |question |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|...r |...er |
|(e.g., compr) |(computer) |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|shd |should |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|s.t. |something/sometimes |
| |(context should make it clear which you mean)|
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|stmt |statement |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|thot |thought |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|w/ |with |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|w/o |without |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|wd |would |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|wh |which |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|& |and |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|[?] |or (this is a symbol from logic) |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|! |not/negation sign |
| |(this is a symbol from logic) |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|[Diamond] |possible/possibly |
| |(this is a symbol from logic) |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|[Box] |must/necessary/necessarily |
| |(this is a symbol from logic) |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|[forall] |all/for all/every |
| |(this is a symbol from logic) |
|--------------+---------------------------------------------|
|[exists] |some/there is/there are/there exists |
| |(this is a symbol from logic) |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
A related idea is based on a system of shorthand called Speedwriting:
There used to be ads in the New York City subway system that read
something like this:
if u cn rd ths, u cn lrn spdwrtg
The key idea in abbreviating is to use abbreviations that will make
sense to you. You can put an abbreviation key in the margin of your
notebook for any abbreviations that you make up on the spot.
3.4. Neatness Doesn't Count.
Yet another key idea of note-taking is that you don't have to be neat
! You only have to be legible enough to be able to read your notes a
few hours (or, at most, a few days) later. The reason for this will
become clear later.
3.5. Ask Questions & Make Comments
If you have a question or something comes to mind as you're taking
notes, you have two choices:
You can contribute to the class discussion by asking your question or
making your comment.
Or you can jot your question or comment down in your notes.
I suggest always doing the latter, but also doing the former as often
as possible.
One reason that you should always put your question or comment in
your notes is so that you won't forget it. You can then always bring
it up later, either in class or one-on-one with the teacher or a
fellow student.
Another reason, of course, is that if you do bring it up in class, it
should thereby become part of the day's class notes!
One technique that I use to be able to distinguish my own questions
or comments from the rest of the notes is to put them in the margin
and/or to surround them with big, bold square brackets [like this.]
By the way, if you have a question, especially if you need
clarification of something that the teacher said or wrote (possibly
because it was inaudible or illegible), ask it!
Do not be embarrassed about asking it!
I can guarantee you that there will be at least one other student in
the class (and often many more) who will be extremely grateful to you
for having asked the very same question that they were too
embarrassed to ask.
And they will come to view you as wise and brave for having asked it.
(So will the teacher!)
3.6. Copy Your Notes at Home
Recall that this section was titled "Take Notes in Class & Rewrite
Them at Home".
The title was not "Take Notes in Class & Study Them at Home".
Of course you should study your class notes at home; but just (re-)
reading them is too passive.
One of the themes of this guide is that
STUDYING MUST BE ACTIVE.
It is all too easy when just reading passively to have your mind
wander or even to fall asleep:
[betty]
Moreover, notes are often incomplete or sketchy; just reading such
notes won't help. And a few days or months after you take them, they
may very well be illegible or incomprehensible. Finally, if you don't
do something active with your notes, you run the risks of having
unorganized notes or of misplacing them.
What I suggest is that you study your notes by re-writing them:
* For each class, buy a separate notebook from the one you take
your notes in. I recommend a "composition" or spiral notebook,
not a looseleaf notebook, for your "permanent" (i.e., re-written)
notes.
* Then, as soon as possible after class (preferably that evening or
the next), copy your notes into your permanent notebook.
The main idea behind re-writing your "raw" class notes (besides
making them more legible and organized) is that the very act of
copying them is one of the best ways of studying them! Further study
of your class notes can then be done from these "cooked" ones that
are neater, more legible, more organized, and more complete. I will
suggest ways to do this later.
Use this opportunity to fill in gaps from your memory while they are
still fresh in mind. You may find that you have questions, perhaps
something you missed or don't understand, or even a "substantive"
question. If so, good! Make a note of your question and ask it in
class next time!
Use this opportunity to (re-)organize your notes in a more logical or
coherent fashion. You could write your permanent notes in an outline
form if that seems suitable: You don't have to follow any "official"
or formal outlining style (e.g., using the I.A.1.(a)(i) format or the
(sometimes silly) rule that there must always be at least two
subsections, never just one) -- after all, these are your notes.
Personally, I like to number main ideas (and separate them with a
line), using an "indented bullet" style for details:
1. Main idea 1
- detail 1
- detail 2
- further detail 2.1
- detail 3
- further detail 3.1
- further detail 3.2
------------------------------------------
2. Main idea 2
------------------------------------------
3. Main idea 3
------------------------------------------
etc.
3.7. Don't Take Notes on a Computer
By the way, I do not recommend taking notes on a laptop computer
during class.
Certainly you should not do this unless you are a very good typist
and have "compiled" your word-processing or text-editing program into
your fingertips.
(In any case, typing can be very noisy and disturbing to your fellow
students!)
Also, typing class notes into a computer file can be inconsistent
with my recommendation to re-write your class notes.
Rewriting on a computer might have some advantages in terms of
keeping track of your notes or, especially, searching them.
And, of course, you can edit your computer file later, but editing is
not the same as copying, and I am recommending copying as a means to
studying (for one thing, it forces you to (re-)read all your notes).
Of course, you can copy your raw notes into a neater computer file;
this may be a matter of taste, but I find that I have a firmer grasp
of what I write if I handwrite it than if I type it.
(As Usama Fayyad has said: computers are "great at bookkeeping but
not yet great at recording impromptu ideas, thoughts, feelings. For
that, paper is still far superior. You can hold it, fold it, put it
in your pocket, look at it again later when it's convenient" (as
quoted in Swerdlow 1999: 130).)
Moreover, the main use of your notes should be for summarizing them
to make a study guide for exams.
In that case, handwritten notes would serve as well as online ones,
especially if you're tempted to create the summary merely by cutting
and pasting your computer file rather than by rewriting.
Worse, you may be tempted to use the computer that you're ostensibly
taking notes on to surf the Internet, look at email, or chat with
friends. Don't! (For an interesting debate on this topic, see Adams
2006.)
For that matter, turn off your computer in class. And your iPod. And
your cell phone. And your pager. And anything else that might
distract you. For reasons why, see:
* Bugeja, Michael J. (2007), "Distractions in the Wireless
Classroom", Chronicle of Higher Education (26 January): C1,C4.
* Zhu, Erping; Kaplan, Matthew; Dershimer, R. Charles; & Bergom,
Inger (2011), "Use of Laptops in the Classroom: Research and Best
Practices", CRLT Occasional Papers No. 30 (University of Michigan
Center for Research on Learning and Teaching).
* Mueller, Pam A.; & Oppenheimer, Daniel M. (2014), "The Pen Is
Mightier than the Keyboard: Advantages of Longhand over Laptop
Note Taking", Psychological Science 25(6): 1159-1168; summarized
at Journalist's Resource.
* Klass, Perri (2016), "Why Handwriting Is Still Essential in the
Keyboard Age", New York Times (20 June).
[33dc1160d3]
3.8. Don't Rely on the Instructor's Lecture Notes
Some instructors provide their own set of lecture notes, often on the
Web or in PowerPoint (or some other format).
These can be useful, but you should not rely on them.
If all you do with them is print them out, maybe read them once, and
save them, they are useless, because you are using them passively.
* You need to treat them just as you would with your own lecture
notes: Re-write them!
* Better yet: Use them to fill in gaps in your own re-written
lecture notes, and to check whether you had any mistakes in your
own notes.
* (You may find new material in the instructor's notes that was not
discussed in class, or you may find material in your own notes
that was discussed in class but did not find their way into the
prepared notes.)
3.9. Further Reading
* Pappano, Laura (2008), "Strategy: Notetaking To Survive the
Lecture Course, Take Heed if the Professor Waves His Arms", New
York Times Education Life (6 January): 6.
* Hoffmann, Roald; & McGuire, Saundra Y. (2010), "Learning and
Teaching Strategies", American Scientist 98(5)
(September-October): 378-382.
+ The first of their "Six Learning Strategies" "is to take
notes by hand" and "rewrite your notes, by hand".
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4. Study Hard Subjects First & Study in a Quiet Place
Study hard subjects first.
* Each night (or day) when studying or doing your homework, do
those subjects first for which you need to be alert and
energetic.
* Leave the easier, or more fun, subjects to later.
Study in a quiet place, with as few distractions as possible.
* Do not listen to music or TV: It is virtually impossible to do
two things at once if one of them is studying.
* (For the evidence on why it is difficult--if not impossible--to do
two things at once (called "multitasking"), see:
Willingham, Daniel T. (2010), "Have Technology and
Multitasking Rewired How Students Learn?", Ask the Cognitive
Scientist, American Educator (Summer): 23-28, 42.
[hilois-201]
When should you study or do your homework?
* It's tempting to put off your homework to the last minute. There
are at least two good reasons to do your homework as soon as
possible and not put it off till the evening, when it's not
daylight (although you should certainly take a break between the
end of the school day and before starting your homework):
1. It's better to get it done and over with, and to leave
yourself enough time to do it all.
o If you put it off, you may find that you have an
assignment or two that are going to take you a lot longer
than you thought they would.
o If you start early and get your work done before you
relax, you'll have enough time for even those hard
assignments (even if it means not having enough time to
Facebook or play videogames or read for fun).
o The general principle is: Don't eat your dessert first!
2. You're more awake during the daytime or after relaxing for,
say, an hour or so after classes end, than you will be at the
end of the day just before going to sleep.
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5. Read Actively & Slowly, before & after Class
Outline & Index:
1. Read actively, not passively
2. Read slowly
3. Highlight the text in the margin
4. Make notes in the margin
5. Keep a notebook
6. Read literature quickly and passively the first time
7. Read before and after class
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5.1. Read Actively, Not Passively
Whatever you have to read -- whether it's a text book, a work of
fiction, a poem, an essay, an article from a journal or magazine, or
even a class handout -- read it slowly and actively:
* With one major exception, you should not read passively.
* That is, don't just read the text straight through without
thinking about what you're reading.
[peanuts]
If you read without thinking, I guarantee that your mind will
eventually wander off, your eyes will eventually glaze over, and
you will fall asleep it's a form of self-hypnosis.
+ So you must read actively.
+ To use computer jargon, you must turn the inert medium of
text on paper to an interactive medium, in which you have a
"conversation" with the text, as you might if you could be
talking to the author.
5.2. Read Slowly.
"...an undeniable truth: that in the pursuit of knowledge, slower can
be better."
--Gleick, James (2011), The Information (New York: Pantheon):
404.
[ziggy-slo]
The first step in reading actively is to read s-l-o-w-l-y. Here is an
algorithm (i.e., a procedure) for how to read any text, in any
subject, slowly and actively:
WHILE there is a next sentence to read, DO:
BEGIN { while }
Read it, SLOWLY;
IF you do not understand it, THEN
BEGIN { if }
re-read the previous material, SLOWLY;
re-read the incomprehensible sentence, SLOWLY;
IF you still don't understand it, THEN
ask a fellow student to explain it;
IF you still don't understand it, THEN
ask your Teaching Assistant (TA) to explain it;
IF you still don't understand it, THEN
ask me;
IF you are in an upper-level course & you still don't understand it, THEN
write a paper about it (!)
END { if }
END; { while }
Since there is no next sentence (because the Boolean test in the
WHILE is false), you've understood the text!
For those of you who may not be familiar with how to read structured
computer programs such as this one, here's how it goes:
* In a "while" statement, if the initial test is false, then the
rest of the statement is not executed.
* So, if you are at the beginning or the middle of reading a text,
there will be a "next" sentence, so you do execute the rest of
the statement, which says to read that next sentence slowly, etc.
* However, if you have finished reading the entire text (and,
hopefully, have now understood it), then there is no next
sentence, so you are finished!
* (The words in braces, like "{ while }", are just
computer-programming notation for a comment that is intended for
human readers of a computer program but that is ignored by the
computer.)
This algorithm has three major advantages:
1. It forces you to actively think about each sentence you read
before you go on to read the next one.
2. It slows you down, so that you don't read past the point at which
you don't understand. This is especially important in
mathematical and scientific subjects.
3. It can help you get help from your teacher, because you can show
your teacher exactly where you got lost.
+ It is always much better to show your teacher exactly what it
is that you don't understand than it is to just say that you
don't understand the material.
4. Note that it also provides you an opportunity to interact with
your instructors and fellow students!
How do you know whether you understand what you've read? Easy: After
each sentence, ask yourself "Why?" (Pressley & El-Dinary 1992).
[7c4dc780657f012f2fdb00163e41d]
For more information on slow reading, see:
1. Pressley, Michael, & El-Dinary, Pamela Beard (1992), "Memory
Strategy Instruction that promotes Good Information Processing",
in Douglas J. Herrmann, Herbert Weingartner, Alan Searleman, &
Cathy McEvoy (eds.), Memory Improvement: Implications for Memory
Theory (New York: Springer-Verlag): 79-100.
2. Hartman, Geoffrey H. (1996), "The Fate of Reading Once More",
PMLA (Proceedings of the Modern Language Association) 111(3)
(May): 383-389; see especially p. 386.
3. Waters, Lindsay (2007), "Time for Reading", Chronicle of Higher
Education 53(23) (9 February): B6-B8.
4. Bauerlein, Mark (2008), "Online Literacy Is a Lesser Kind: Slow
Reading Counterbalances Web Skimming", Chronicle of Higher
Education 54(31) (19 September): B10-B11.
5. Blessing, Kimberly A. (2013), "I Re-Read, therefore I Understand"
, Philosophy Now No. 94 (January/February): 17.
+ "Rene Descartes' advice on reading philosophy"
1. "Read through the entire work quickly, as you would a
novel...."
2. "Read through a second time, paying greater attention..."
3. "Read through a third time, keeping the questions and
problems noted in Step 2 in mind...."
4. "If some difficulties still remain, re-read those parts a
fourth time...."
6. And for information on why speed reading doesn't work, see:
+ Adams, Cecil (1992), "Does Speed Reading Training Actually
Work?", The Straight Dope (14 February).
+ Zacks, Jeffrey M.; & Treiman, Rebecca (2016), "Sorry, You
Can't Speed Read", New York Times (17 April): SR9.
5.3. Highlight the Text in the Margin
There are some other tricks for active reading. One, of course, is to
highlight important or interesting passages. There are several ways
to do this:
* The worst is to use a yellow highlighting marker (or hot pink, or
whatever color you like).
+ The main problem with this is that you will tend to find
almost every sentence to be important or interesting.
+ As a consequence, every page will become yellow (or hot pink,
or whatever).
+ Not only does this defeat the purpose of
highlighting -- because if everything has been highlighted,
then really nothing has been! -- but the pages of your text
will become damp, curl up, and be generally messy.
+ This technique can have other problems, too:
[betty]
* A slightly less messy, but equally useless, technique is to use a
pen or pencil to underline important or interesting passages.
+ I guarantee that you will wind up underlining every sentence
on every page, and you will have gained nothing.
* The technique that I suggest is also susceptible to this problem,
but has a built-in way to overcome it, so that you can re-read
the text, highlighting different passages each time.
+ The trick is to highlight a passage by drawing a vertical
line in the margin.
o I like to use the right margin and to make my line a
right square bracket: ]
o If you want to make it clear [exactly where the
highlighted passage begins or ends,] you can use small
square brackets in the text, as I did in this sentence,
along with the vertical line in the margin.
o This way, even if you've slipped into the error of
highlighting (i.e., vertical-lining) every sentence on
every page, at least you haven't ruined the page.
o Moreover, when you re-read the text -- note that I said
'when', not 'if' :-) -- you can then use a different
highlighting technique (e.g., underlining) to highlight
more important passages.
o Sometimes, I use double brackets in the margin for this
second round of highlighting: ]]
and underlining for a third round. (If you must, you
could use yellow highlighter for a fourth round.)
5.4. Make Notes in the Margin
You should also make notes in the margin of the text (if there's
room, and if the text belongs to you).
* I like to put cross-references in the margin; e.g., if a passage
on p. 20 reminds me in some way of a passage on p. 10, I'll write
"see p. 10" in the margin on p. 20, and "see p. 20" in the margin
on p. 10.
* Or I'll put some keyword in the margin if a passage reminds me of
some major idea.
But now suppose that a few months (or a few years) later, you want to
find that interesting passage that related to, say, consciousness;
how will you find it?
* You could, of course, page through the book till you find it, but
what I like to do is to make an index of my marginal comments.
* You can add entries (e.g., Consciousness: 10, 20) to the book's
index if it already has one, or use a blank page at the end of
the book if it doesn't have an index.
5.5. Keep a Notebook
Highlighting has the disadvantage that it can lead you to highlight
everything, and margins have the disadvantage that they are often too
small for making comments.
* The best technique for active reading is to keep a notebook.
* In addition to (or instead of) highlighting a passage, copy it
-- verbatim -- into your notebook.
* Be sure to begin your notebook with a full citation to the text
for use in a bibliography, and be sure to write down the page
numbers of each passage that you copy.
* Then, write down -- at length and in detail -- your comments on
the passage.
* (I sometimes like to use a pen for the text and a pencil for my
commentary.)
These notes can then be used later if you write a term paper or
research paper that discusses the material in the text.
* For that purpose, it will be useful to number your notes.
* I find the following scheme useful: Number each notebook page
with a Roman numeral (I, II, etc.), number each quoted passage
(or stand-alone comment) with an Arabic numeral (1, 2, etc.), and
letter (a, b, etc.) each comment associated with a quoted passage
(or stand-alone comment).
* Then you can refer to each passage with an identifier (like
XIV-7-b, i.e., comment b about quotation 7, which comment is
located on notebook page XIV) that will enable you to find it
later. See below.)
5.6. Read Literature Quickly and Passively the First Time.
Earlier, I said that there was an exception to this method of slow
and active reading:
* If the text is a work of literature (a story, novel, play, poem,
etc.), then it is often best to read it once all the way through
without stopping, just as you would read something for fun, so
that you get to know what it's about and can appreciate it as a
work of literature.
* (If there's a recording of it, you might find it helpful to
listen to the recording while reading the text. I have found this
especially useful for Shakespeare.)
* Then you can use the slow and active reading techniques for a
second (or third, or fourth, or ...) reading when you are studying
the text.
* Actually, even for non-fiction, it can be useful to read the text
through once, quickly, to get an overview, perhaps making notes
if something strikes you, and then doing the slow and active
reading techniques when you are studying the text.
What about film or video versions?
* They can be helpful but, in general, of course are no substitute
for reading.
* The exception here is for plays, which are intended to be seen,
not (just) read.
* If you do decide to watch in addition to read, which should you
do first?
+ I prefer watching first, reading afterwards.
+ I have almost always been disappointed by film adaptations of
favorite texts (because they don't match the mental images
that I construct when I read), but I have almost never been
disappointed by a text after watching a film adaptation.
+ Besides, if you watch first and read later, the adaptation
can help you visualize what you're reading.
5.7. Read Before and After Class
Ideally, you should read a text at least twice:
* Read it (perhaps quickly) before the class in which it will be
discussed, so that you are familiar with its contents.
* Then (re-)read it after class using the slow and active method.
* If time permits, you can cut corners by only reading it slowly
and actively! after class.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
6. Do Your Homework
Jump Start
It should go without saying that you should do your homework and do
it on time.
Jump Start
Science and math courses (and some others, such as foreign-language
courses) often require you to do homework exercises or problem sets.
* I strongly recommend that you do not simply do the problems and
hand them in.
* Rather, do them on scrap paper, check them over, and then copy
them neatly.
* Turn in the neat copy (and, of course, be sure that your name is
on it!).
* You may even want to duplicate your work in case the teacher
loses it (unlikely) or doesn't give it back in time to use it for
studying for an exam (this should only happen in rare
circumstances, usually just before an exam (when the teacher has
a lot of things to do), but it is not unheard of).
Jump Start
* And don't just write down answers. Write down the problem and the
complete solution showing how you arrived at your answer.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
7. Study for Exams
[Funky_Wink]
(c)Batom Inc.
Outline:
1. Don't study for exams!
2. Manage your time
3. How not to study
4. Make a study outline
5. Write sample essays & do sample problems
6. Make "flash cards"
7. Stop studying when you feel confident
---------------------------------------------------------------------
7.1. Don't Study for Exams!
What?
That's right: You shouldn't study only for exams. And you shouldn't
study for the sake of exams.
You should "study for learning and understanding":
* David Jaffee, "Stop Telling Students to Study for Exams",
Chronicle of Higher Education (27 April 2012): A35.
* Henry L. Roediger III, "How Tests Make Us Smarter", New York
Times (20 July 2014): SR12.
But in case you do want to study for that exam, here are some
suggestions:
7.2. Manage Your Time
The first rule is: Don't cram!
[7c5dced09f]
Earlier, I discussed managing your time. When you have exams, time
management becomes even more crucial.
Begin studying about 1 week before the exam.
* Spend at least an hour each night (or day) studying for the exam
in the manner described below.
* Try to spend the entire night (and/or day) before the exam
studying for it.
* Of course, if you have two exams on the same day, you'll have to
split the time in half.
For final exams, try to spend as much time as possible studying.
* Do not be tempted, by any free time that you have during exam
week, to do anything other than studying.
+ (If you must take some time to relax, do it after you've done
all your studying for the day.)
* If you have E exams and D days to study for them, spend roughly D
/E days studying for each exam.
+ (E.g., if you have 4 exams and 5 days to study for them,
spend a little more than 1 day (1.25 days to be exact)
studying for each exam.)
* If you have some free days, then some exams, then some more free
days, then some more exams, etc., plan your studying so that
you'll spend approximately the same amount of time studying for
each exam, making sure that the night (or day) just before an
exam is spent studying for it.
+ E.g., suppose you have 2 free days to study before exam #1,
then one more free day before exams #2 and #3.
+ Think of each day as having 3 parts: morning, afternoon, and
evening.
+ Let's assume that each exam is in only one of these parts
(i.e., it's not so long that it extends through 2 of them).
+ Then you might divide your studying time as shown in the
chart below.
+ Note that you should not delay studying for exam #3 until
after exam #2! Start studying for all exams right away.
+---------------------------------------------------+
| DAY |PART OF DAY| WHAT TO DO |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
|Day 1|morning |study for exam #1 |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
| |afternoon |study for exam #2 |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
| |evening |study for exam #3 |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
|Day 2|morning |study for exam #1 |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
| |afternoon |study for exam #2 or #3 (or both)|
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
| |evening |study for exam #1 |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
|Day 3|morning |study for exam #1 |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
| |afternoon |take exam #1 |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
| |evening |study for exam #2 |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
|Day 4|morning |study for exam #3 |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
| |afternoon |study for exam #2 |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
| |evening |study for exam #3 |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
|Day 5|morning |study for exam #2 |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
| |afternoon |take exam #2 |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
| |evening |study for exam #3 |
|-----+-----------+---------------------------------|
|Day 6| |take exam #3 |
+---------------------------------------------------+
* Moreover, you should distribute your studying, not "mass" it all
together:
+ "set aside blocks of time throughout each week to study the
content for each class"; "massed practive leads to quick
learning and quick forgetting, whereas interleaved practice
slows learning but leads to much greater retention"
(Dunlosky, John (2013), "Strengthening the Student Toolbox:
Study Strategies to Boost Learning", American Educator 37(3)
(Fall): 12-21).
7.3. How Not to Study
Believe it or not, re-reading your textbook has "little or no
benefit" when you are studying for a test. (Callender & McDaniel
2009; see also John Dunlosky, "Strengthening the Student Toolbox:
Study Strategies to Boost Learning", American Educator 37(3) (Fall
2013): 12-21.)
Most students don't realize this, because they have an "illusion of
competence" (that is, you think you know the material better than you
really do) when they re-read notes and textbooks
(Karpicke et al. 2009; Belluck 2011), especially when re-reading
passively instead of actively.
One method of studying that is better than passive re-reading is the
"read-recite-review" ("3R") method: "Read the text, set the text
aside and recite out loud all that [you can] remember, and then read
the text a second time" (McDaniel et al. 2009).
More importantly, you learn better and remember more from repeated
testing (from both in-class quizzes and from self-testing at home)
than from repeated reading (Karpicke et al. 2009). (So when your
instructor gives you lots of quizzes or tells you to memorize basic
facts, don't complain! That's the best way to learn and to remember
what you learn.)
The next few sections give you some suggestions on how to do this.
7.4. Make a Study Outline
Use your recopied class notes, together with your highlighted text
and notebook, to make an outline of the material.
* Try to put as much as possible onto the front sides of only 1 or
2 sheets of paper (like those plasticized crib sheets that are
often sold in college bookstores).
* Then do all your studying from these.
* (You could even combine this outline with "flash cards".)
Sally Forth
7.5. Write Sample Essays & Do Sample Problems
For subjects in which you will be expected to write essays, either
"psych out" the teacher and make up some plausible essay questions,
or get copies of old exams that have real essay questions on them.
* Then write sample essays.
+ Although the essay questions that you find or make up may not
be the actual ones on your exam, you will probably find that
much of what you wrote in your sample essays by way of
preparation for the exam can be recycled for the actual exam.
+ You will then be in the advantageous position during the exam
of not having to create an essay answer from scratch but
being able to merely recall the main ideas from a sample that
you have already written as part of your studying.
For subjects in which you will have to solve problems or write
proofs, solve lots of sample problems from your text or from other
texts.
* ( Schaum's Outline Series (McGraw-Hill) books are usually quite
good in this regard).
* How will you know if your answers are correct?
+ The best way is to form a study group of 2 or more fellow
students:
o Solve the same problems and compare answers.
o If your answers agree, they're probably correct; if not,
go to your Teaching Assistant (TA) or teacher.
o As with slow reading, it's always better when asking for
help from a teacher to have a specific problem or
question to ask.
7.6. Make "Flash Cards"
For any subject, you can make a set of "flash cards".
* But I suggest using regular 8 1/2" x 11" paper, not index cards.
* Divide each page in half, vertically.
* On the left, write a "question" that requires an "answer", e.g.,
the name of a theorem, a term to be defined, the statement of a
theorem, etc.
* On the right, write the answer, e.g., the statement of the
theorem named on the left, the definition of the term on the
left, the proof of the theorem stated on the left, etc.
+ (This could even be your study outline.)
Then memorize the questions and answers but do not simply recite them
by heart.
* Instead, write down the answers:
+ Cover the right-hand side (the answers) with a blank sheet of
paper, and write down the answers.
+ When you finish a page, check your work and repeat writing
the answers to the questions you missed until you get them
all correct.
Recent psychological evidence suggests that people learn better by
making mistakes than by getting everything correct. So don't worry
about getting some answers wrong! (See Roediger III, Henry L.; &
Finn, Bridgid (2010), "The Pluses of Getting It Wrong", Scientific
American Mind 21(1) (March/April): 39-41.
Why write, and not merely recite?
* Because you will have to write the answers on the actual test, so
get used to writing them now.
* (Of course, if it's going to be an oral exam, reciting may be
better than writing.
* Still, one tends to skip details when reciting, especially if you
recite silently to yourself, but if you write the answers and
have a good memory, then, during an oral exam, you can "read" the
answers with your mind's eye.)
Moreover, there is evidence that the kind of "self-testing" that you
can do with this technique is one of the best ways to study: "taking
practice tests (versus merely rereading the material to be learned)
can substantially boost student learning", according to John
Dunlosky, "Strengthening the Student Toolbox: Study Strategies to
Boost Learning", American Educator 37(3) (Fall 2013): 12-21.
7.7. Stop Studying When You Feel Confident
How do you know when you've studied enough?
* It's not when you're tired of studying!
* And it's not when you've gone through the material one time!
* You should stop only when you get to the point that you feel
confident and ready for whatever will be on the exam -- when
you're actually eager to see the exam to find out if you guessed
its contents correctly.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
8. Take Exams
First, read the entire exam all the way through.
[peanuts23oc1970-studying]
For an essay question, do a "mind dump":
* Write down, on scrap paper, brief reminders (keywords) of
everything that you remember about the topic of the question.
* Then develop an outline of your answer.
* Then write the essay. (With luck, much of the essay can be
"copied from memory" from the sample essays you wrote when
studying.)
For an exam with problems to solve or proofs to write, do the easy
ones first.
When you are all done, review your answers carefully.
And, when all of your exams are over, take heed... :-)
[Zits-2005-]
(c)KingFeaturesSyndicateInc.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
9. Do Research & Write Essays.
Outline:
1. Choose topic carefully
2. Do research
3. Make an outline
4. Write, using your outline
5. Edit
6. Manage your time
7. Some Interesting Online Articles on Writing
---------------------------------------------------------------------
From For Better or For Worse:
[c48c3d9043]
[4bvw-04120]
[4bvw-04120]
[4bvw-04121]
[c8922ba043]
---------------------------------------------------------------------
9.1. Choose Topic Carefully
Choose your topic wisely.
Avoid the two extremes of a topic that is so broad or well-known that
there are too many sources of information and a topic that is so
narrow or little-known that there is a paucity of information.
If you are having trouble choosing a topic, talk to your teacher.
9.2. Do Research
Once you have a topic and have found appropriate resource materials,
read them slowly and actively, and be sure to keep a notebook.
I won't repeat the details of those suggestions here, with one
exception: Be sure to carefully record your sources and the page
numbers of any quotations, so that you can include them in your final
report.
9.3. Make an Outline
This stage may require several iterations.
You should make an outline and sort your notes into categories that
correspond to the main sections of your outline.
But which of these should you do first? It doesn't matter.
* You may have a clear outline in mind, in which case, sorting your
notes will be relatively straightforward (though you may find
that some notes don't quite fit or that some suggest a section
that you hadn't initially thought of).
* Or you may need to sort your notes first, to see which ones go
together, and then create an outline based on the categories you
discover during the sorting process.
How do you make an outline? The suggestions that follow work for
almost anything you have to write.
First, write down a handful of main themes that you want to discuss
(these will be the categories that you sorted your notes into);
describe each using only a few keywords.
Decide in what order you want to write about them, and then on a
blank piece of paper put each at the head of a column, something like
this:
intro topic1 topic2 topic3 conclusion
These will be the main sections of your paper. In addition, you
should always have an introductory section and a conclusion or
summary section.
Next, in each column, write down the main ideas that you want to
include, again ordering them and using just a few keywords.
* These will be your subsections.
* Under each of these, put the identifying numbers of the items in
your notes that you want to include in each subsection.
+ (You may find that you will need to repeat this process
recursively for subsubsections, etc.
+ If so, do this when you're ready to write that subsection,
not at the beginning.
+ This kind of process is called "top-down design and stepwise
refinement".)
9.4. Write, Using Your Outline
"How can I tell what I think until I see what I say?"
Once you've got your outline, start writing, using your outline and
notes as a guide.
Don't spend too much time editing what you write at this stage. Just
write.
(I should note that some people prefer "free writing" , in which you
don't spend any time preparing an outline before you write. If that
works for you, go for it.)
By the way, it's always helpful for keeping track of where you are in
your outline, both to you as writer and to your reader, to give each
section and subsection a name, as I have done in this document.
9.5. Edit
After you've written your first draft, re-read what you wrote, using
the method of slow and active reading, and revise (or "edit") what
you wrote.
Then ask a friend to read it and give you feedback.
Then revise again, and prepare the final version.
9.6. Manage Your Time
[zits-20603]
(c)KingFeaturesSyndicateInc.
And don't procrastinate!
[phd071307s]
(c)Jorge Cham
For some tips on how to procrastinate about procrastinating, see:
Slatalla, Michelle (2007), "The Big Dilly-Dally", New York Times
Education Life (7 January): 14-15.
On the other hand, for an argument in favor of procrastinationg, see:
* Pannapacker, W.A. (2009), "How to Procrastinate Like Leonardo da
Vinci", Chronicle of Higher Education: The Chronicle Review 55
(24) (February 20): B4-B5.
[ch080602-p]
9.7. Some Interesting Online Articles on Writing:
1. Vonnegut, Kurt (1982), "How to Write with Style"
Abstract:
+ Find a subject you care about.
+ Do not ramble.
+ Keep it simple.
+ Have the guts to cut.
+ Sound like yourself.
+ Say what you mean to say.
+ Pity the readers.
2. Gray, Tara (2005), "Publish and Flourish: Become a Prolific
Scholar", Tomorrow's Professor Mailing List #661
3. Andrews, Mark, "Some Elements of an Essay"
---------------------------------------------------------------------
10. Do I Really Have to Do All This?
[0d6259f0c1]
Right about now, you're probably asking yourself whether you really
have to do all of this. It seems like an awful lot of work.
[ch20120402]
Well, of course, you don't have to do all of it at once. Try various
of these suggestions to see what works for you. Try some variations
that may better fit your learning style or personal circumstances.
But, in the long run, there's no quick and easy road to studying. It
is hard work and should take a lot of time.
So, do you really have to do all of this? Yes (or things very much
like them) if you want to really learn the material (and get good
grades).
---------------------------------------------------------------------
[td080308]
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Finally, for what it's worth, here are some comments from students
and others who have tried some of these methods:
* "... this is the way you taught me to study years ago and it
finally paid off last year!" (a college sophomore who went from
high-school grades in the 70s to a 3.00 average in college)
* "Thank you for the guide. It has some great tips! I'm surprised
that I use some of the techniques myself. (E.g., I abbrev. and
cndnse my notes.) I have one suggestion, though: when reviewing
for a test/exam, only study what you aren't familiar with. It
reduces studying time and is helpful if you're a last minute
person like me. :) Well, that may not work for you, but who
knows?"
* "... encourage some study groups! Not 5 in a group, 'cause that
will be a crowd, but study environment is as important as
studying itself; change of environments is sometimes good to make
you study better. Thank you for your helpful hints, and it does
help me to notice some of my weaknesses in studying."
* "I'd like to pass along a bit of technique that worked well for
me in just about all my courses. Thinking about the subject
matter often catalyzed by discussion with others before delving
into it was my key to success. After giving it some thought, I
wrote out a series of logical, fundamental questions which I
sought to answer that would clarify the subject matter. You know,
make it perspicuous. I read/listened/watched with those questions
in mind, noting as well other points an author/instructor was
attempting to make. If my questions (which were fundamental to a
clear understanding) went unanswered, I would seek the answers
through other written, visual, or aural materials. Visiting an
instructor during office hours or asking the question in class
was often most helpful. Once I had the basics well in mind,
building on them was easy and fun. Studying and learning in this
way also helped me to prepare for exams. Clearly, if I could
think of a question, there was a good chance one writing an exam
might think of it too. The technique is not a panacea for all
study-related problems; however, it does set forth a system to
build upon in an individualized way. I also suggest a visit to
the children's section of the library when revisiting or
attempting to master the basics of certain things. Books written
at that level, though often oversimplified, present ideas and
concepts in a clear and easily understandable form usually
lacking in primers written for adults. There's no substitute for
laying a good foundation on which to build additional knowledge."
Marc L. Ames
* "I would like to thank you for the effort made doing this
guide.... But there is one thing I would like to suggest for ...
future "upgrades" of this text: I think you have to mention that
it is important to be in good physical condition as well, I mean:
sleep 8 hours a day, eat well, .... What I would like to point is
that, in my opinion, it would be good to tell students that they
have to be in their best condition to study/take an exam/work."
Diego Fernandez Fernandez, E.U.I.T.I.O student (Computer
Engineering), Oviedo (SPAIN).
* "I would like to thank you very much for the "How to Study"
document I discovered on the net. It is very informative, and it
will help me with my day to day activities. I only wish I had it
while I was in high school!" Joseph Di Lillo, Team Lead SAP
Service Desk.
* "Thanks so much for the great study guide. I am a high school
counselor, and we have been teaching a freshmen study skills
class for two years.... Your ideas have really inspired me, and
there are many of the same theories that we have been presenting,
but in a new way! Thanks for the great tips!" Trinity Walsh,
Guidance Counselor, Elder High School, Cincinnati, OH.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Goldbaum, Ellen (2009, December 17), "UB Professor's Online Study
Guide Makes a Great Gift That Keeps On Giving", University at Buffalo
NewsCenter.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
11. Are There Other Websites that Give Study Hints?
Yes; here are some that looked good to me; many of them have further
links for you to follow:
* The Harvard Guide to Happiness (reprinted from The New York Times
(18 April 2001).
* Keys to College Success
* Graduate Study in the Computer and Mathematical Sciences: A
Survival Manual (by Dianne Prost O'Leary)
* Hayes-Bohanan, James (2002), "The Not-the-13th-Grade Page: A FREE
Online Guide to College Success"
* Masino, Dennis; & Giuliano, Jackie (2014), "How to Study and
Learn Effectively--Techniques & Methods
---------------------------------------------------------------------
References
Adams, Dennis (2006), "Wireless Laptops in the Classroom (and the
Sesame Street Syndrome)", Communications of the ACM 49(9; September):
25-27.
Belluck, Pam (2011), "Take a Test to Really Learn, Research Suggests"
, New York Times (21 January): A14.
Callender, Aimee A.; & McDaniel, Mark A. (2009), "The Limited
Benefits of Rereading Educational Texts", Contemporary Educational
Psychology 34: 30-41.
Claxton, Charles S., & Murrell, Patricia H. (1987), Implications for
Improving Educational Practices, ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report
No. 4 (Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Higher Education
).
Glenn, David (2010, January 8), "Customized Teaching Fails a Test",
Chronicle of Higher Education: A1, A7-A8.
* Published online as "Matching Teaching Style to Learning Style
May Not Help Students" (15 December 2009).
* Also see:
"An Assortment of Learning Styles", Chronicle of Higher Education
(8 January 2010): A8; published online 15 December 2009.
Holland, John L. (1966), The Psychology of Vocational Choice
(Waltham, MA: Ginn & Co.)
Karpicke, Jeffrey D.; Butler, Andrew C.; & Roediger III, Henry L.
(2009), "Metacognitive Strategie in Student learning: Do Students
practise Retrieval When They Study on Their Own?", Memory 17(4):
471-479.
Kolb, David A. (1984), Experiential Learning: Experience as the
Source of Learning and Development (Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall).
McDaniel, Mark A.; Howard, Daniel C.; & Einstein, Gilles O. (2009),
"The Read-Recite-Review Study Strategy: Effective and Portable",
Psychological Science 20(4): 516-522.
Pashler, Harold; McDaniel, Mark; Rohrer, Doug; & Bjork, Robert
(2009), "Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence", Psychological
Science in the Public Interest 9(3): 105-119.
* Also see:
Mayer, Richard E. (2009), "Editorial: Advances in Applying the
Science of Learning and Instruction to Education", Psychological
Science in the Public Interest 9(3): i-ii.
Sternberg, Robert J. (1999), Thinking Styles (Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press)
* Summary at "Theory of Mental Self-Government: Thinking Styles"
Swerdlow, Joel L. (1999, August), "The Power of Writing", National
Geographic 196(2): 110-133, 136.
Willingham, Daniel T. (2018), "Does Tailoring Instruction to
'Learning Styles' Help Students Learn?", American Educator 42(2)
(Summer): 28-32, 43.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Text copyright (c) 1999-2023 by William J. Rapaport
Cartoon links and screen-captures appear here for your enjoyment and
are not meant to infringe on any copyrights held by the creators.
For more information on any cartoon, click on it, or contact me.
(rapaport@buffalo.edu)
https://cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/howtostudy.html-20230914-3