https://ionutbalosin.com/2024/02/jvm-performance-comparison-for-jdk-21/ Skip to content Ionut Balosin Software Architect | Technical Trainer | Oracle ACE Associate | Security Champion | Speaker | Blogger [ ] * * Home * Training + Java Performance Tuning Course + Software Architecture Essentials Course + Designing High-Performance, Scalable, and Resilient Applications Course + Application Security for Java Developers Course * Blog * Clients * Talks * Contact * External Links [ ] Performance JVM Performance Comparison for JDK 21 [b2acbe68eded9e2e24f9] ByIonut Balosin Feb 6, 2024 ARM64, assembly, c2 jit, compiler, compiler benchmark, graal jit, graalvm, graalvm ce, HotSpot JVM, hotspot vm, java, java performance tuning, JDK21, jit optimizations, jmh, just in time compiler, native code, optimizations, oracle graalvm, performance, performance analysis, runtime optimizations, x86_64 [revenue-operations-collage] JVM Performance Comparison for JDK 21 Authors Ionut Balosin * Website: www.ionutbalosin.com * X: @ionutbalosin * GitHub: @ionutbalosin * Mastodon: @ionutbalosin Florin Blanaru * X: @gigiblender * GitHub: @gigiblender * Mastodon: @gigiblender Content * Context * SetUp * JIT Compiler + Benchmarks + Geometric Mean * API + Benchmarks + Geometric Mean * Miscellaneous + Benchmarks + Geometric Mean * Overall Geometric Mean * Overall Conclusions * Final Thoughts * Acknowledgements * References Context The current article describes a series of Java Virtual Machine (JVM) benchmarks with a primary focus on top-tier Just-In-Time (JIT) compilers, such as C2 JIT, and Graal JIT. The benchmarks are structured in three distinct (artificial) categories: 1. Compiler: This category is dedicated to assessing JIT compiler optimizations by following specific handwritten code patterns. It assesses common optimizations found in compilers, including inlining, loop unrolling, escape analysis, devirtualization, null-check elimination, range-check elimination, dead code elimination, vectorization, etc. 2. Api: This category includes benchmarks targeting common APIs from both the Java Platform, Standard Edition (Java SE) (e.g., java.io, java.nio, java.net, java.security, java.util, java.text, java.time, etc.) and the Java Development Kit (JDK) (e.g., jdk.incubator.vector, etc.). 3. Miscellaneous: This category covers a broader spectrum of classical programs (e.g., Dijkstra's shortest path, factorial, Fibonacci, Game of Life, image rotation, knapsack problem, N queens, palindrome, Huffman coding/encoding, Lempel-Ziv-Welch compression, etc.) using different techniques (e.g., dynamic programming, greedy algorithms, backtracking, divide and conquer, etc.), various programming styles (e.g., iterative, functional), and high-level Java APIs (e.g., streams, lambdas, fork-join, collections, etc.). The categorization is for informative purposes to better organize and direct the focus of our benchmarks, ranging from low-level (compiler benchmarks) to high-level (API and Miscellaneous) benchmarks. For this report we aggregated in total a number of 1112 benchmark runs, including all three categories. The list of JIT compilers included (comprising the JVM and architecture) is as follows: JIT JVM Arcitecture C2 (Server) JIT OpenJDK 21 x86_64, arm64 Graal JIT GraalVM CE 21+35.1 x86_64, arm64 Graal JIT Oracle GraalVM 21+35.1 x86_64, arm64 This article is based on the jvm-performance-benchmarks project. For any further information (not explicitly mentioned here) including the OS tuning settings, the deliberate decision on choosing these JVMs and/or specific JDKs, etc., please check out the repository. The reference architecture (and, subsequently, the benchmarks analysis) for this article is x86_64, and arm64 is only included in the geometric mean score section for comparison. In this article, we present benchmarks and a comparison for JDK 21. For information related to JDK 17, please refer to our previous article JVM Performance Comparison for JDK 17. SetUp * Java Development Kit (JDK) 21 * Java Microbenchmark Harness (JMH) v1.37 * Each benchmark uses 5x10s warm-up iterations, 5x10s measurement iterations, and 5 JVM forks, for both single-threaded and multi-threaded workloads (depending on the test case) * The benchmarks were run on the below machines: 1. Apple MacBook Pro, M1 Chip 10-Core, 16-Core Neural Engine, 32GB RAM, macOS Ventura 13.6.1 2. Dell XPS 15 7590, Intel Core i7-9750H 6-Core, 32GB RAM, Ubuntu 20.04 LTS * To eliminate potential sources of performance non-determinism, the below OS tunings were performed on the Intel machine: 1. Disabled the turbo-boost mode 2. Set CPU governor to performance 3. Disabled CPU hyper-threading JIT Compiler This section presents the results obtained from running the JIT benchmarks. As mentioned earlier, these benchmarks primarily target different optimizations commonly found in compilers. For the benchmarks that show significant differences, we provide a comprehensive analysis, including optimized generated assembly code, flame graphs, etc. JIT Benchmarks The JIT benchmarks are measured in average time per operation, which is the score reported by the JMH. InfrastructureBaselineBenchmark This benchmark is used as a baseline (i.e., a preliminary check) to assess the infrastructure overhead for the code to measure. Since no magical infrastructures are incurring no overhead, it is essential to know what default overheads might occur in our setup. It measures the calls performance of empty methods (w/ and w/o explicit inlining) but also the performance of returning an object versus consuming it via black holes. All of these mechanisms are used by the benchmark suite. This is particularly useful in case of a comparison between different types of JVMs, and it should be run before any other real benchmark to check the default costs. A comparison between different JVMs might not be further relevant unless, at least, the baseline is the same. Source code: InfrastructureBaselineBenchmark.java InfrastructureBaselineBenchmark.svg Conclusions The results are identical. This increases the confidence in the benchmark results, across the selected JVMs. ArithmeticCanonicalizationBenchmark This benchmark checks whether the compiler performs arithmetic canonicalization, a process that involves transforming arithmetic expressions into a canonical form. This transformation includes restructuring expressions to a common, simplified form. Canonical forms are easier to analyze and optimize, potentially leading to better code generation and improved performance. @Param({"true"}) private boolean isHeavy; // a big prime number @Param({"179426549"}) private long value; @Benchmark public long add() { return doAdd(); } @CompilerControl(CompilerControl.Mode.DONT_INLINE) private long doAdd() { long val = this.value; return isHeavy ? val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val + val // i.e., 64 additions : val; } Source code: ArithmeticCanonicalizationBenchmark.java ArithmeticCanonicalizationBenchmark.svg Analysis of add The analysis below pertains to the add method, which is more interesting due to the highest differences in performance. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler performs a repetitive addition operation, summing all the values together iteratively. doAdd() 0x7fd710638cba: mov 0x10(%rsi),%r10 ; get field 'value' into r10 0x7fd710638cbe: movzbl 0xc(%rsi),%r8d ; get field 'isHeavy' as a zero-extended byte into r8d 0x7fd710638cc3: test %r8d,%r8d ; test if 'isHeavy' is false 0x7fd710638cc6: je 0x7fd710638d9d ; jump if 'isHeavy' is false 0x7fd710638ccc: lea (%r10,%r10,1),%rax ; rax = r10 * 2 0x7fd710638cd0: add %r10,%rax ; rax = rax + r10 ... <-- Adds r10 ('value') to rax repetitively 60 times --> ... 0x7fd710638d87: add %r10,%rax ... 0x7fd710638d9c: ret Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler replaces the additions with the shift operation, which is more efficient. doAdd() 0x7f99e2d80e4a: mov 0x10(%rsi),%rax ; get field 'value' into r10 0x7f99e2d80e4e: shl $0x6,%rax ; shift rax left by 6 bits (rax = rax << 6) GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler performs the same optimization as the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler. Conclusions In the case of the add benchmark, the GraalVM compilers (Oracle GraalVM JIT and GraalVM CE JIT) trigger strength reduction for additions, unlike the C2 JIT compiler, which adds the values individually. CanonicalizeInductionVariableBenchmark This benchmark checks if the compiler is capable of simplifying loops, transforming the induction variable and computations that depends on it into a simpler form. In some cases, the loop can be completely removed and the body of the loop can be replaced with a constant value. Ideally, a compiler should be able to optimize canonicalize and baseline to a form that is equivalent to manual_canonicalize. @Benchmark public long baseline() { long result; for (result = 0; result != reducedLength; ++result) {} return result; } @Benchmark public long manual_canonicalize() { return (long) Math.sqrt(length) - start; } @Benchmark public long canonicalize() { long result = 0; for (long l = start; l * l < reducedLength; ++l) { result++; } return result; } Source code: CanonicalizeInductionVariableBenchmark.java CanonicalizeInductionVariableBenchmark.svg Analysis of baseline The body of the loop in the baseline method is empty and the only side effect of the loop is the increment of the induction variable that is then returned by the benchmark method. Therefore, it should be safe for the compiler to remove the loop and replace the return value with a constant value (i.e. reducedLength). C2 JIT Compiler and Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler Both C2 and the Oracle GraalVM JIT compilers are able to remove the loop and replace the return value with a constant. 0x7f8f80757bba: mov $0x400000,%eax ; move the constant value into the return register 0x7f8f80757bbf: add $0x10,%rsp 0x7f8f80757bc3: pop %rbp 0x7f8f80757bc4: cmp 0x450(%r15),%rsp ; {poll_return} 0x7f8f80757bcb: ja 0x7f8f80757bd2 0x7f8f80757bd1: ret ; return the constant value (eax) GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler is able to compute the return value of the function and replace it with a constant. It fails however to remove the loop, resulting in an empty bodied loop whose induction variable, rax, is overwritten. / 0x7f05a74bbce0: inc %rax ; increment the induction variable | 0x7f05a74bbce3: cmp $0x400000,%rax ; compare the induction variable with the loop bound + 0x7f05a74bbcea: jne 0x7f05a74bbce0 ; jump back to the increment instruction if loop condition is true 0x7f05a74bbcec: mov $0x400000,%rax ; overwrite the induction variable with the loop result 0x7f05a74bbcf3: add $0x18,%rsp 0x7f05a74bbcf7: cmp 0x450(%r15),%rsp ; {poll_return} 0x7f05a74bbcfe: ja 0x7f05a74bbd12 0x7f05a74bbd04: ret ; return the constant value (rax) Analysis of canonicalize The loop in the canonicalize method is slightly more complex than the one in the baseline method. The loop condition requires the computation of the square of the induction variable and the loop body increments the method result. All three JIT compilers are not able to remove or simplify the loop. / 0x7fddd74bab60: mov 0x458(%r15),%r8 ; load the safepoint pool address in %r8 | 0x7fddd74bab67: test %eax,(%r8) ; safepoint pool | 0x7fddd74bab6a: inc %r11 ; increment the loop result variable | 0x7fddd74bab6d: inc %r10 ; increment the induction variable | 0x7fddd74bab70: mov %r10,%r8 ; perform the loop condition computation | 0x7fddd74bab73: imul %r10,%r8 ; ^ | 0x7fddd74bab77: cmp %r8,%rax ; compare against the loop bound + 0x7fddd74bab7a: jg 0x7fddd74bab60 ; jump back to the loop start if loop condition is true 0x7fddd74bab7c: mov %r11,%rax ; place the result in the return register Conclusions The C2 and Oracle GraalVM JIT compilers are able to remove the loop and replace the return value with a constant in the baseline case. The GraalVM CE JIT compiler is able to compute the return value but fails to remove the unnecessary loop. In the canonicalize case, all three JIT compilers fail to remove the loop and show close performance results. DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark This benchmark assesses the removal of arguments that are directly dead, as well as arguments that are passed into function calls as dead arguments of other functions. The inliner plays a fundamental role as it aids in the identification of whether the arguments passed to the inlined function are utilized within the function's body or not. private final int DEPTH = 8; @Benchmark public int recursive_method_calls() { // allocate 'dead argument' objects final Object obj1 = new Object(); final Object obj2 = new Object(); final Object obj3 = new Object(); final Object obj4 = new Object(); final Object obj5 = new Object(); final Object obj6 = new Object(); final Object obj7 = new Object(); final Object obj8 = new Object(); // only the defaultValue will 'survive' return recursiveMethod(DEPTH, defaultValue, obj1, obj2, obj3, obj4, obj5, obj6, obj7, obj8); } private int recursiveMethod( int depth, int aValue, Object obj1, Object obj2, Object obj3, Object obj4, Object obj5, Object obj6, Object obj7, Object obj8) { if (depth == 0) { return aValue; } return recursiveMethod(depth - 1, aValue, obj1, obj2, obj3, obj4, obj5, obj6, obj7, obj8); } Source code: DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark.java DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark.svg Analysis of recursive_method_calls The analysis below pertains to the recursive_method_calls method, which is more interesting due to the highest differences in performance. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler is capable of devirtualizing recursiveMethod virtual calls and performs inlining up to a depth of 2. recursive_method_calls() 0x7fe3fc4f8635: mov 0x10(%rsi),%ecx ; move field 'defaultValue' to ecx, the 2nd parameter 0x7fe3fc4f8638: mov $0x6,%edx ; move 0x6 to edx ('depth'), the 1st parameter ... <-- stack manipulation operations for the other parameters --> ... 0x7fe3fc4f866b: call 0x7fe3fc4f7fc0 ; <--- call to recursiveMethod two layers deep ; invokevirtual recursiveMethod ; - DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark::recursiveMethod@26 (line 129) ; - DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark::recursiveMethod@26 (line 129) ; - DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark::recursive_method_calls@89 (line 80) ; {optimized virtual_call} recursiveMethod() 0x7fe3fc4f7fc0: mov %eax,-0x14000(%rsp) ... 0x7fe3fc4f7fda: test %edx,%edx ; test if 'depth' is zero + 0x7fe3fc4f7fdc: je 0x7fe3fc4f803b ; jump if zero | 0x7fe3fc4f7fe5: add $0xfffffffe,%edx ; add -2 (in two's complement) to edx, effectively decrementing it by 2 | ... | <-- stack manipulation operations for the other parameters --> | ... | 0x7fe3fc4f801b: call 0x7fe3fc4f7fc0 ; <--- recursive call to itself | ; invokevirtual recursiveMethod | ; - DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark::recursiveMethod@26 (line 129) | ; - DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark::recursiveMethod@26 (line 129) | ; {optimized virtual_call} | ... /| 0x7fe3fc4f8028: add $0x40,%rsp || ... || 0x7fe3fc4f803a: ret || ... |\ 0x7fe3fc4f803b: mov %ecx,%eax ; eax = ecx ('defaultValue') + 0x7fe3fc4f8041: jmp 0x7fe3fc4f8028 Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler inlines the recursiveMethod, eliminates dead arguments and returns the defaultValue directly. 0x7fccbad9ce3a: mov 0x10(%rsi),%eax ; move field 'defaultValue' to eax ... 0x7fccbad9ce4e: ret GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler, akin to the C2 JIT compiler, is capable of devirtualizing recursiveMethod virtual calls and performs inlining up to a depth of 6. recursive_method_calls() 0x7fb11718e9b3: mov 0x10(%r10),%ecx ; move field 'defaultValue' to ecx, the 2nd parameter ... 0x7fb11718e9bd: mov $0x2,%edx ; move 0x2 to edx ('depth'), the 1st parameter ... <-- stack manipulation operations for the other parameters --> ... 0x7fb11718e9e3: call 0x7fb11718e240 ; <--- call to recursiveMethod six layers deep ; invokevirtual recursiveMethod ; - DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark::recursiveMethod@26 (line 129) ; - DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark::recursiveMethod@26 (line 129) ; - DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark::recursiveMethod@26 (line 129) ; - DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark::recursiveMethod@26 (line 129) ; - DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark::recursiveMethod@26 (line 129) ; - DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark::recursiveMethod@26 (line 129) ; - DeadArgumentEliminationBenchmark::recursive_method_calls@89 (line 80) ; {optimized virtual_call} Conclusions The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler, in this scenario, was able to eliminate the dead arguments. This effect appears to be mostly a result of more aggressive inlining. In comparison, the C2 JIT compiler has a limited capability for inlining recursive calls (recursive_method_calls scenario), resulting in slower execution times compared to the GraalVM CE JIT compiler. However, in this benchmark, neither of the two compilers eliminates dead arguments since full inlining of the callee method recursiveMethod does not occur. DeadLocalAllocationStoreBenchmark This benchmark checks if the compiler is able to remove dead allocations. A dead allocation is an allocation that is not used by any subsequent instructions. The compiler should be capable of removing such allocations even across function boundaries when inlining occurs. @Benchmark public Wrapper wrapper_obj_dse_inter_procedural() { Object obj1 = new Object(); ... Object obj8 = new Object(); return new Wrapper(obj1, obj2, obj3, obj4, obj5, obj6, obj7, obj8); } @Benchmark public Wrapper wrapper_obj_baseline() { return new Wrapper(); } private static class Wrapper { private Object obj1, obj2, obj3, obj4, obj5, obj6, obj7, obj8; public Wrapper() { this.obj1 = new Object(); this.obj2 = new Object(); this.obj3 = new Object(); this.obj4 = new Object(); this.obj5 = new Object(); this.obj6 = new Object(); this.obj7 = new Object(); this.obj8 = new Object(); } public Wrapper( Object obj1, Object obj2, Object obj3, Object obj4, Object obj5, Object obj6, Object obj7, Object obj8) { // inlining of the default constructor should enable the DSE and eliminate redundant allocations this(); this.obj1 = obj1; this.obj2 = obj2; this.obj3 = obj3; this.obj4 = obj4; this.obj5 = obj5; this.obj6 = obj6; this.obj7 = obj7; this.obj8 = obj8; } } Source code: DeadLocalAllocationStoreBenchmark.java DeadLocalAllocationStoreBenchmark.svg Looking at the plot above we can see that all compilers perform equally well in all cases except for wrapper_obj_baseline and wrapper_obj_dse_inter_procedural. Analysis of wrapper_obj_baseline This section analyzes the wrapper_obj_baseline benchmark. C2 JIT Compiler and GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The C2 and GraalVM CE JIT compilers are close in performance in the wrapper_obj_baseline case. Eight Object allocations are performed in the generated assembly code and stored in the Wrapper object fields. The pattern of the generated assembly code is the same for all eight allocations. 0x7f0e90639089: mov 0x1b8(%r15),%rbx ; load the TLAB top 0x7f0e90639090: mov %rbx,%r10 0x7f0e90639093: add $0x10,%r10 ; bump pointer allocation in TLAB; allocate sizeof(Object) (16 bytes) 0x7f0e90639097: nopw 0x0(%rax,%rax,1) ; alignment nop 0x7f0e906390a0: cmp 0x1c8(%r15),%r10 ; TLAB bounds check 0x7f0e906390a7: jae 0x7f0e90639905 ; jump to slow path if TLAB is full. Try to request a new TLAB. 0x7f0e906390ad: mov %r10,0x1b8(%r15) ; TLAB allocation successful, update TLAB top. 0x7f0e906390b4: prefetchw 0xc0(%r10) ; prefetch for the next allocation 0x7f0e906390bc: movq $0x1,(%rbx) ; set the mark word of the object (0x1 to mark it as unlocked) 0x7f0e906390c3: movl $0xe80,0x8(%rbx) ; store the klass word {metadata('java/lang/Object')} 0x7f0e906390ca: mov %r12d,0xc(%rbx) 0x7f0e906390ce: cmpb $0x0,0x40(%r15) 0x7f0e906390d3: jne 0x7f0e9063949c 0x7f0e906390d9: mov %rbx,%r11 ; store the object reference in the local variable 0x7f0e906390dc: shr $0x3,%r11 ; compute the oop from the full address 0x7f0e906390e0: mov %r11d,0x10(%rbp) ; store the oop in the field ... ^ the above sequence is repeated for the remaining 7 allocations Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler is faster than the C2 and GraalVM CE JIT compilers. The reason for this is that it is able to generate more compact assembly code for the grouped allocations that allows for better prefetching and pipelining. On the fast path, it also performs a single thread-local allocation buffer (TLAB) allocation for the sum of the sizes of all the objects. 0x7f62bad7dfdf: mov 0x1b8(%r15),%rax ; load the TLAB top 0x7f62bad7dfe6: lea 0xb0(%rax),%rsi ; bump pointer allocation in TLAB = 48 (sizeof(Wrapper)) + 16 * 8 (sizeof(Object)) 0x7f62bad7dfed: cmp 0x1c8(%r15),%rsi ; TLAB bounds check 0x7f62bad7dff4: ja 0x7f62bad7e151 ; jump to slow path if TLAB is full. 0x7f62bad7dffa: mov %rsi,0x1b8(%r15) ; TLAB allocation successful, update TLAB top. 0x7f62bad7e001: prefetchw 0x170(%rax) ; prefetches for allocated objects and the next allocation 0x7f62bad7e008: prefetchw 0x1b0(%rax) ; ^ 0x7f62bad7e00f: prefetchw 0x1f0(%rax) ; ^ 0x7f62bad7e016: prefetchw 0x230(%rax) ; ^ 0x7f62bad7e01d: data16 xchg %ax,%ax ; alignment nop 0x7f62bad7e020: test %rax,%rax ; edge case when TLAB allocation failed and a new TLAB was requested (rax = 0) 0x7f62bad7e023: je 0x7f62bad7e15d ; ^ 0x7f62bad7e029: mov %rax,%rsi ; rsi = rax = Wrapper object address 0x7f62bad7e02c: lea 0x30(%rax),%r10 ; r10 = address of the first Object field 0x7f62bad7e030: lea 0x40(%rax),%r11 ; r11 = address of the second Object field 0x7f62bad7e034: lea 0x50(%rax),%r8 ; r8 = address of the third Object field 0x7f62bad7e038: lea 0x60(%rax),%r9 ; r9 = address of the fourth Object field 0x7f62bad7e03c: lea 0x70(%rax),%rcx ; rcx = address of the fifth Object field 0x7f62bad7e040: lea 0x80(%rax),%rbx ; rbx = address of the sixth Object field 0x7f62bad7e047: lea 0x90(%rax),%rdi ; rdi = address of the seventh Object field 0x7f62bad7e04e: lea 0xa0(%rax),%rdx ; rdx = address of the eighth Object field 0x7f62bad7e055: movq $0x1,(%rax) ; set the mark word of the Wrapper object (0x1 to mark it as unlocked) 0x7f62bad7e05c: movl $0x102bd88,0x8(%rax) ; store the klass word of the Wrapper object 0x7f62bad7e063: shr $0x3,%r10 ; compute the oop of the first Object field 0x7f62bad7e067: mov %r10d,0xc(%rax) ; store the oop in the field 0x7f62bad7e06b: shr $0x3,%r11 ; compute the oop of the second Object field 0x7f62bad7e06f: mov %r11d,0x10(%rax) ; store the oop in the field ... <-- same pattern for the remaining 6 Object fields --> ... 0x7f62bad7e09f: movq $0x1,0x30(%rax) ; set the mark word of the first Object field (0x1 to mark it as unlocked) 0x7f62bad7e0a7: movl $0xe80,0x38(%rax) ; store the klass word of the first Object field 0x7f62bad7e0ae: movq $0x1,0x40(%rax) ; set the mark word of the second Object field (0x1 to mark it as unlocked) 0x7f62bad7e0b6: movl $0xe80,0x48(%rax) ; store the klass word of the second Object field ... <-- same pattern for the remaining 6 Object fields --> ... 0x7f62bad7e129: mov %rsi,%rax ; move the Wrapper object address into the return register Analysis of wrapper_obj_dse_inter_procedural This section analyzes the wrapper_obj_dse_inter_procedural benchmark. C2 JIT Compiler and GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The C2 and GraalVM CE JIT compilers fail to inline the Wrapper constructor into the benchmark method wrapper_obj_dse_inter_procedural. This causes both compilers to perform additional object allocations in the constructor. Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler is able to inline the Wrapper constructor into the benchmark method wrapper_obj_dse_inter_procedural. This results in the elimination of the redundant allocations. The generated assembly code is therefore very similar to the one generated for the wrapper_obj_baseline benchmark. Conclusions In general, the Oracle GraalVM JIT seems to be more aggressive in inlining constructors and also generates more compact TLAB allocation code for grouped allocations. Below is some high-level pseudo-code that shows how the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler performs TLAB allocations. The code does not fully resemble the assembly code: void allocateObjects() { if (TLAB_SIZE > CURRENT_TLAB + sizeof(Object) * 3) { // fast path CURRENT_TLAB += sizeof(Object) * 3; obj1 = new Object(); obj2 = new Object(); obj3 = new Object(); } else { // slow path // 1st object allocation if (TLAB_SIZE <= CURRENT_TLAB + sizeof(Object)) { // allocate a new TLAB CURRENT_TLAB = allocateNewTLAB(); } obj1 = new Object(); CURRENT_TLAB += sizeof(Object); // 2nd object allocation if (TLAB_SIZE <= CURRENT_TLAB + sizeof(Object)) { // allocate a new TLAB CURRENT_TLAB = allocateNewTLAB(); } obj2 = new Object(); CURRENT_TLAB += sizeof(Object); // 3rd object allocation if (TLAB_SIZE <= CURRENT_TLAB + sizeof(Object)) { // allocate a new TLAB CURRENT_TLAB = allocateNewTLAB(); } obj3 = new Object(); CURRENT_TLAB += sizeof(Object); } DeadMethodCallStoreBenchmark The benchmark assesses how the compiler could remove code (i.e., a dead method call store) that does not affect the program results. @Benchmark public double method_call_dse() { double pi; pi = computePi(); pi = computePi(); pi = computePi(); pi = computePi(); pi = computePi(); return circleRadius * circleRadius * pi; } @Benchmark public double method_call_baseline() { double pi = computePi(); return circleRadius * circleRadius * pi; } // Leibniz formula for p private static double computePi() { double pi = 4; boolean sign = false; for (int i = 3; i < 1_000; i += 2) { if (sign) { pi += 4.0 / i; } else { pi -= 4.0 / i; } sign = !sign; } return pi; } Source code: DeadMethodCallStoreBenchmark.java DeadMethodCallStoreBenchmark.svg Analysis of method_call_dse The analysis below pertains to the method_call_dse method, which is the primary focus of the benchmark. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler inlines all the computePi methods, and then the dead operations are removed. Without inlining of the call target, a compiler (in general) wouldn't see the dead operation eliminated since it would not know if the callee has side effects that cannot be eliminated. Additionally, it unrolls the main loop by a factor of 16, thereby handling 16 operations per unrolled loop cycle. To compute the results, the compiler leverages double-precision scalar floating-point instructions with SIMD capabilities, utilizing SSE/AVX extensions. // Main loop (from 0x5 ... to 0x3e2) 0x7f044c636b7a: mov $0x5,%r9d ; r9d = 5 (loop counter) / 0x7f044c636ba0: vaddsd %xmm1,%xmm0,%xmm0 ; xmm0 = xmm0 + xmm1 | 0x7f044c636ba4: mov %r10d,%r9d ; r9d = r10d | 0x7f044c636ba7: lea 0x1e(%r9),%r11d ; r11d = r9 + 0x1e (i.e., offset 30) | 0x7f044c636bab: lea 0x1a(%r9),%r8d ; r8d = r9 + 0x1a (i.e., offset 26) | 0x7f044c636baf: vcvtsi2sd %r11d,%xmm1,%xmm1 ; convert r11d to double and store in xmm1 | 0x7f044c636bb4: vdivsd %xmm1,%xmm2,%xmm3 ; xmm3 = xmm2 / xmm1 | ; xmm2 stores the 4.0 value | 0x7f044c636bb8: vcvtsi2sd %r8d,%xmm1,%xmm1 ; convert r8d to double and store in xmm1 | 0x7f044c636bbd: vdivsd %xmm1,%xmm2,%xmm4 ; xmm4 = xmm2 / xmm1 | ... | <--- similar for offsets 0x1c, 0x18, 0x10, 0x8 --> | <--- store results in xmm5, xmm6, xmm7, xmm8 --> | ... | 0x7f044c636bf5: lea 0x2(%r9),%r11d // 2 ; set r11d = r9 + 0x2 (i.e., offset 2) | 0x7f044c636bf9: lea 0x4(%r9),%r8d // 4 ; set r8d = r9 + 0x4 (i.e., offset 4) | 0x7f044c636bfd: vcvtsi2sd %r11d,%xmm1,%xmm1 ; convert r11d to double and store in xmm1 | 0x7f044c636c02: vdivsd %xmm1,%xmm2,%xmm1 ; xmm1 = xmm2 / xmm1 | 0x7f044c636c06: vsubsd %xmm1,%xmm0,%xmm0 ; xmm0 = xmm0 - xmm1 | 0x7f044c636c0a: vcvtsi2sd %r8d,%xmm1,%xmm1 ; convert r8d to double and store in xmm1 | 0x7f044c636c0f: vdivsd %xmm1,%xmm2,%xmm1 ; xmm1 = xmm2 / xmm1 | 0x7f044c636c13: vaddsd %xmm1,%xmm0,%xmm0 ; xmm0 = xmm0 + xmm1 | ... | <--- similar for offsets 0x6, 0xa, 0xc, 0xe, 0x12, 0x14, 0x16, 0x20 --> | <--- the results are alternatively stored in xmm0, xmm1 --> | ... | 0x7f044c636ca6: lea 0x20(%r9),%r10d ; set r10d = r9 + 0x20 (i.e., offset 32) | 0x7f044c636caa: vcvtsi2sd %r10d,%xmm1,%xmm1 ; convert r10d to double and store in xmm1 | 0x7f044c636caf: vdivsd %xmm1,%xmm2,%xmm1 ; xmm1 = xmm2 / xmm1 | 0x7f044c636cc0: cmp $0x3e2,%r10d ; compare against 994 + 0x7f044c636cc7: jl 0x7f044c636ba0 ; loop back if less ; xmm1 stores the result of the main loop The post-loop processes the remaining elements individually, without unrolling: // Post loop (0x3e2 ... 0x3e8) 0x7f044c636ccd: add $0x20,%r9d ; r9d = r9d + 0x20 (loop counter) 0x7f044c636cd1: mov $0x1,%r10d ; r10d = 1 / 0x7f044c636cd7: test %r10d,%r10d ; check if r10d is zero | 0x7f044c636cda: je 0x7f044c636ce2 ; jump if r10d == 0 | 0x7f044c636cdc: vaddsd %xmm1,%xmm0,%xmm0 ; xmm0 = xmm0 + xmm1 | 0x7f044c636ce0: jmp 0x7f044c636ce6 | 0x7f044c636ce2: vsubsd %xmm1,%xmm0,%xmm0 ; xmm0 = xmm0 - xmm1 | 0x7f044c636ce6: add $0x2,%r9d ; r9d = r9d + 2 (increment by loop stride) | 0x7f044c636cea: cmp $0x3e8,%r9d ; compare against 1000 | 0x7f044c636cf1: jge 0x7f044c636d02 ; exit loop if greater or equal | 0x7f044c636cf3: vcvtsi2sd %r9d,%xmm1,%xmm1 ; convert r9d to double and store in xmm1 | 0x7f044c636cf8: vdivsd %xmm1,%xmm2,%xmm1 ; xmm1 = xmm2 / xmm1 | 0x7f044c636cfc: xor $0x1,%r10d ; r10d = r10d XOR 1 (i.e., toggle r10d between 0 and 1) + 0x7f044c636d00: jmp 0x7f044c636cd7 ; jump loop back ; xmm1 stores the result of the post loop Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM compiler optimizes code by eliminating redundant method calls and applying inlining to the computePi method, much like the C2 JIT. It achieves optimization by unrolling the main loop by a factor of 8, allowing 8 operations to be handled per unrolled loop cycle using double-precision scalar floating-point instructions. // Main loop (0x5 ... 0x3d8) 0x7f0ac2d7d86a: mov $0x5,%r10d ; r10d = 5 (loop counter) / 0x7f0ac2d7d880: lea 0x10(%r10),%r11d ; r11d = r10 + 0x10 (i.e., offset 16) | 0x7f0ac2d7d884: vxorpd %xmm2,%xmm2,%xmm2 ; zero out xmm2 | 0x7f0ac2d7d888: vcvtsi2sd %r10d,%xmm2,%xmm2 ; convert r10d to double and store in xmm2 | 0x7f0ac2d7d88d: vdivsd %xmm2,%xmm0,%xmm2 ; xmm2 = xmm0 / xmm2 | 0x7f0ac2d7d891: vaddsd %xmm2,%xmm1,%xmm1 ; xmm1 = xmm1 + xmm2 | | 0x7f0ac2d7d895: lea 0x2(%r10),%r8d ; r8d = r10 + 0x2 (i.e., offset 2) | 0x7f0ac2d7d899: vxorpd %xmm2,%xmm2,%xmm2 ; zero out xmm2 | 0x7f0ac2d7d89d: vcvtsi2sd %r8d,%xmm2,%xmm2 ; convert r8d to double and store in xmm2 | 0x7f0ac2d7d8a2: vdivsd %xmm2,%xmm0,%xmm2 ; xmm2 = xmm0 / xmm2 | 0x7f0ac2d7d8a6: vsubsd %xmm2,%xmm1,%xmm1 ; xmm1 = xmm1 - xmm2 | ... | <--- similar for offsets 0x4, 0x6, 0x8, 0xa, 0xc, 0xe --> | <--- the results are alternatively stored in xmm0, xmm1 --> | ... | 0x7f0ac2d7d928: mov %r11d,%r10d ; r10d = r11d | 0x7f0ac2d7d92b: cmp $0x3d8,%r10d ; compare against 984 + 0x7f0ac2d7d932: jb 0x7f0ac2d7d880 ; loop back if below ; xmm1 stores the result of the main loop Of interest in this listing are the vxorpd instructions (used to zero out the target registers before each convert instruction), which might help to avoid the pipeline stalls due to false dependencies. The post-loop processes the remaining elements individually, without unrolling: // Post loop (0x3d8 ... 0x3e8) 0x7f0ac2d7d938: mov %r10d,%r11d ; r11 = r10 (loop counter) 0x7f0ac2d7d93b: mov $0x1,%r10d ; r10d = 0x1 ... // 0x7f0ac2d7d950: cmp $0x3e8,%r11d ; compare against 1000 || 0x7f0ac2d7d957: jae 0x7f0ac2d7d996 ; exit loop if greater or equal || 0x7f0ac2d7d95d: lea 0x2(%r11),%r8d ; r8d = r11 + 2 (increment by loop stride) || 0x7f0ac2d7d961: mov %r10d,%r9d ; r9d = r10d || 0x7f0ac2d7d964: xor $0x1,%r9d ; toggle the least significant bit of r9d (i.e., r10d) || 0x7f0ac2d7d968: vxorpd %xmm2,%xmm2,%xmm2 ; zero out xmm2 || 0x7f0ac2d7d96c: vcvtsi2sd %r11d,%xmm2,%xmm2 ; convert r11d to double and store in xmm2 || 0x7f0ac2d7d971: vdivsd %xmm2,%xmm0,%xmm2 ; xmm2 = xmm0 / xmm2 || 0x7f0ac2d7d975: test %r10d,%r10d ; check r10d is zero ||+ 0x7f0ac2d7d978: jne 0x7f0ac2d7d98a ; jump if r10d != 0 (for subtraction) ||| 0x7f0ac2d7d97e: vsubsd %xmm2,%xmm1,%xmm1 ; xmm1 = xmm1 - xmm2 ||| 0x7f0ac2d7d982: mov %r8d,%r11d ; r11d = r8d ||| 0x7f0ac2d7d985: mov %r9d,%r10d ; r10d = r9d |+| 0x7f0ac2d7d988: jmp 0x7f0ac2d7d950 ; end subtract loop) | \ 0x7f0ac2d7d98a: vaddsd %xmm2,%xmm1,%xmm1 ; xmm1 = xmm1 + xmm2 | 0x7f0ac2d7d98e: mov %r8d,%r11d ; r11d = r8d | 0x7f0ac2d7d991: mov %r9d,%r10d ; r10d = r9d + 0x7f0ac2d7d994: jmp 0x7f0ac2d7d950 ; end addition loop) ; xmm1 stores the result of the post loop GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler cannot completely remove the loops associated with the dead store method calls; hence, they persist as dead loops. Dead loop (appears four times; i.e., equivalent to the number of dead method calls) 0x7f94ab23c48d: mov $0x5,%r10d ; r10 = 5 (loop counter) ... / 0x7f94ab23c4a0: lea 0x2(%r10),%r10d ; r10d = r10 + 2 (increment by loop stride) | 0x7f94ab23c4a4: cmp $0x3e8,%r10d ; compare against 1000 + 0x7f94ab23c4ab: jl 0x7f94ab23c4a0 ; loop back if less than 1000 Subsequently, the loop corresponding to the non-dead store method call is not unrolled. 0x7f94ab23c4fd: mov $0x1,%r11d ; r11 = 1 0x7f94ab23c503: mov $0x5,%r10d ; r10 = 5 (loop counter) ... // 0x7f94ab23c510: cmp $0x3e8,%r10d ; compare against 1000 || 0x7f94ab23c517: jge 0x7f94ab23c54c ; exit loop if greater or equal || 0x7f94ab23c51d: vcvtsi2sd %r10d,%xmm2,%xmm2 ; convert r10d to double and store in xmm2 || 0x7f94ab23c522: vdivsd %xmm2,%xmm0,%xmm2 ; xmm2 = xmm0 / xmm2 || 0x7f94ab23c526: mov %r11d,%r8d ; r8 = r11 || 0x7f94ab23c529: xor $0x1,%r8d ; r8 = r8 XOR 1 (toggle the least significant bit of r8) || 0x7f94ab23c52d: lea 0x2(%r10),%r10d ; r10d = r10 + 2 (increment by loop stride) || 0x7f94ab23c531: test %r11d,%r11d ; check r11d is zero ||+ 0x7f94ab23c534: jne 0x7f94ab23c543 ; jump if r11d != 0 (for subtraction) ||| 0x7f94ab23c53a: vsubsd %xmm2,%xmm1,%xmm1 ; xmm1 = xmm1 - xmm2 ||| 0x7f94ab23c53e: mov %r8d,%r11d |+| 0x7f94ab23c541: jmp 0x7f94ab23c510 ; end subtract loop | \ 0x7f94ab23c543: vaddsd %xmm1,%xmm2,%xmm1 ; xmm1 = xmm1 + xmm2 | 0x7f94ab23c547: mov %r8d,%r11d + 0x7f94ab23c54a: jmp 0x7f94ab23c510 ; end addition loop ; xmm1 stores the result of the loop Conclusions In this scenario, the GraalVM CE JIT exibits suboptimal optimizations, lacking loop unrolling and unable to eliminate loops related to dead method calls. Oracle GraalVM JIT successfully eliminates the dead method calls and triggers loop unrolling by a factor of 8, handling the remaining elements in a post loop without unrolling. C2 JIT also eliminates dead method calls, performing loop unrolling by a factor of 16 for the main loop and handling the remaining elements in a post loop without unrolling. Despite employing a more aggressive unrolling approach, C2 JIT does not necessarily outperform Oracle GraalVM JIT. Even though both JITs rely on double-precision scalar floating-point instructions with SIMD capabilities via SSE/AVX extensions, Oracle GraalVM JIT appears to issue more compact and predictable instructions for the hardware we used. EnumValuesLookupBenchmark This benchmark iterates through the enum values list and returns the enum constant matching a lookup value. It emphasizes the cost of calling the values() method on an eum versus caching the values and using the cached version. This pattern is often seen in real business applications where, for example, the microservices RESTful APIs defined in OpenAPI/Swagger use enums. The input request parameters are deserialized and wrapped to enum values. In order to match the input parameter to the enum value, String.equals() comparison is used. private static final Car[] cachedCars = Car.values(); @Benchmark public Car cached_enum_values() { return Car.fromCachedValues(lookUpValue); } @Benchmark public Car enum_values() { return Car.fromValues(lookUpValue); } public enum Car { private String carValue; // ... } public static Car[] cachedValues() { return cachedCars; } public static Car fromValues(String targetValue) { for (Car b : Car.values()) { if (b.carValue.equals(targetValue)) { return b; } } throw new IllegalArgumentException("Unexpected value '" + targetValue + "'"); } public static Car fromCachedValues(String targetValue) { for (Car b : Car.cachedValues()) { if (b.carValue.equals(targetValue)) { return b; } } throw new IllegalArgumentException("Unexpected value '" + targetValue + "'"); } Source code: EnumValuesLookupBenchmark.java EnumValuesLookupBenchmark.svg Analysis of cached_enum_values The analysis below pertains to the cached_enum_values method, which is the primary focus of the benchmark. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler iterates through the array of cached enum values, attempting to find a match for the lookUpValue. It employs loop peeling for the first two iterations, then checks for object reference equality, String coder equality, and String byte arrays length equality. Finally, the compiler utilizes AVX instructions to perform Strings byte array comparison. 0x07fa1a84f7cda: movabs $0x7ff03b178,%rdx ; load the enum values array address into register rdx ; {oop(a 'EnumValuesLookupBenchmark$Car'[41] {0x00007ff03b178})} 0x07fa1a84f7ced: mov 0x14(%rsi),%r11d ; load 'lookUpValue' 0x07fa1a84f7d09: movsbl 0x10(%r12,%r11,8),%r9d ; load 'coder' field (i.e., byte) of 'lookUpValue' 0x07fa1a84f7d18: mov 0x14(%r12,%r11,8),%ebx ; load 'value' field (i.e., byte[]) of 'lookUpValue' 0x07fa1a84f7d22: mov 0xc(%r12,%rbx,8),%r8d ; load the byte[] length of 'lookUpValue' ... <-- loop peeling for the first two iterations --> ... 0x07fa1a84f7f13: mov $0x2,%r10d ; initialize loop counter r10d = 2 + 0x07fa1a84f7f19: jmp 0x07fa1a84f7f2d | | // 0x07fa1a84f7f20: inc %r10d ; increment loop counter | || 0x07fa1a84f7f23: cmp $0x29,%r10d ; compare against 41 (i.e., enum values array length) | || 0x07fa1a84f7f27: jge 0x07fa1a84f8088 ; jump if greater than or equal to exit loop \ || 0x07fa1a84f7f2d: mov 0x10(%rdx,%r10,4),%ebx ; load Car object from enum values array at index [rdx + r10 * 4 + 16] || 0x07fa1a84f7f32: mov 0x18(%r12,%rbx,8),%edi ; load 'carValue' field from the Car object at offset 0x18 || 0x07fa1a84f7f40: movsbl 0x10(%r12,%rdi,8),%ecx ; load 'coder' field (i.e., byte) of 'carValue' || 0x07fa1a84f7f46: lea (%r12,%rbx,8),%r13 ; load the Car object || 0x07fa1a84f7f4a: cmp %r11d,%edi ; compare if the 'carValue' is the same as 'lookUpValue' + || 0x07fa1a84f7f4d: je 0x07fa1a84f8035 ; jump if they are equal | || ; - java.lang.String::equals@2 (line 1858) | || 0x07fa1a84f7f53: cmp %r9d,%ecx ; compare coders of 'carValue' (ecx) and 'lookUpValue' (r9d) |+|| 0x07fa1a84f7f56: jne 0x07fa1a84f8054 ; jump if are not equal |||| ; - java.lang.String::equals@33 (line 1861) |||| 0x07fa1a84f7f5c: mov 0x14(%r12,%rdi,8),%ebx ; load 'value' field (i.e., byte[]) of 'carValue' |||| ; - java.lang.String::equals@37 (line 1861) |||| 0x07fa1a84f7f61: mov 0xc(%r12,%rbx,8),%ecx ; load the 'value' length (i.e., byte[]) of 'carValue' |||| 0x07fa1a84f7f66: cmp %r8d,%ecx ; compare 'carValue' value length against 'lookUpValue' value length ||+| 0x07fa1a84f7f69: jne 0x07fa1a84f7f20 ; jump back if not equal || | ; - java.lang.String::equals@44 (line 1863) || | 0x07fa1a84f7f6b: lea (%r12,%rbx,8),%rdi ; load 'value' field (i.e., byte[]) of Car object || | ; - java.lang.String::equals@37 (line 1861) || | 0x07fa1a84f7f6f: lea 0x10(%r12,%rbx,8),%rdi ; load byte[] content of Car object || | ... || | <--- Vectorized operations using YMM registers for byte array comparison ---> || | ... ; - java.lang.String::equals@44 (line 1863) || | 0x07fa1a84f802d: test %eax,%eax || + 0x07fa1a84f802f: je 0x07fa1a84f7f20 ; jump back \| 0x07fa1a84f8035: mov %r13,%rax | ... | 0x07fa1a84f804d: ret | 0x07fa1a84f804e: mov $0x1,%r10d \ 0x07fa1a84f8054: mov %r13,%rbp + 0x07fa1a84f8057: jmp 0x07fa1a84f805f | ... \ 0x07fa1a84f805f: mov $0xffffff45,%esi ... Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT iterates through the array of cached enum values. When attempting to compare the lookUpValue value against the enum values (i.e., String comparisons), it utilizes an intrinsic candidate (e.g., IntrinsicStubsGen.arrayRegionEqualsS1S1) for the byte array values. Unlike C2 JIT Compiler, it does not perform loop peeling, has a slightly reduced number of branch conditional jumps, and, for example, to compare the String coders, it uses a byte register (cmp %r13b,%cl) instead of a 32-bit register. 0x7fa3aada2303: movabs $0x7fed3af88,%rbx ; load the enum values array address into register rbx ; {oop(a 'EnumValuesLookupBenchmark$Car'[41] {0x7fed3af88})} 0x7fa3aada2316: mov 0x14(,%r11,8),%edx ; load 'value' field (i.e., byte[]) of 'lookUpValue' 0x7fa3aada231e: mov 0xc(,%rdx,8),%ebp ; load the byte[] length of 'lookUpValue' 0x7fa3aada2325: movsbl 0x10(,%r11,8),%r13d ; load 'coder' field (i.e., byte) of 'lookUpValue' ... 0x7fa3aada2348: shl $0x3,%rdx ;* unwind (locked if synchronized) ; - java.lang.String::equals@-3 0x7fa3aada2351: mov $0x0,%r10d ; initialize loop counter r10d / 0x7fa3aada2360: cmp $0x29,%r10d ; compare against 41 (enum values array length) | 0x7fa3aada2364: jae 0x7fa3aada24ac ; jump if greater than or equal to 41 (exit the loop) | 0x7fa3aada236a: mov 0x10(%rbx,%r10,4),%edi ; load Car object from enum values array at index [rbx + r10 * 4 + 0x10] | 0x7fa3aada236f: mov 0x18(,%rdi,8),%esi ; load 'carValue' field from the Car object at offset 0x18 | 0x7fa3aada2376: movsbl 0x10(,%rsi,8),%ecx ; extract the 'carValue' coder at offset 0x10 | 0x7fa3aada237e: mov 0x14(,%rsi,8),%r8d ; get the 'carValue' byte[] at offset 0x14 | 0x7fa3aada2386: cmp %r11d,%esi ; compare if the 'carValue' is the same as 'lookUpValue' | 0x7fa3aada2389: je 0x7fa3aada2431 ; jump if they are equal | ; - java.lang.String::equals@-3 | 0x7fa3aada238f: mov %r10d,%eax | 0x7fa3aada2392: inc %eax ; increment loop counter | 0x7fa3aada2394: cmp %r13b,%cl ; compare coders of 'carValue' (low byte of the rcx) and 'lookUpValue' (low byte of register r13) | 0x7fa3aada2397: jne 0x7fa3aada23f5 ; jump if coders are not equal | ... | 0x7fa3aada23a9: cmp 0xc(,%r8,8),%ebp ; compare the byte array lengths +| 0x7fa3aada23b1: jne 0x7fa3aada23fd ; jump if lengths are not the same || ... || <--- Trigger the comparison of two byte array regions using an intrinsic stub --> || 0x7fa3aada23d9: call 0x7fa3aa912000 ; call the runtime function for byte array region comparison || ; {runtime_call Stub<IntrinsicStubsGen.arrayRegionEqualsS1S1>} || ... || 0x7fa3aada23e0: test %eax,%eax ; test the result of the byte array region comparison +|| 0x7fa3aada23e2: jne 0x7fa3aada2405 ; jump if ZF is not set (i.e., arrays are equal) ||| ... |\| 0x7fa3aada23fd: mov %eax,%r10d ; r10d = eax | + 0x7fa3aada2400: jmp 0x7fa3aada2360 ; loop back if arrays are not equal \ 0x7fa3aada2405: mov 0x4(%rsp),%edi : load Car object from stack 0x7fa3aada2409: shl $0x3,%rdi 0x7fa3aada240d: mov %rdi,%rax ... 0x7fa3aada2430: ret GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler performs loop peeling for the first iteration but, other than that, employs a very similar approach to the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler for comparing Strings. It utilizes the same intrinsic stub (e.g., IntrinsicStubsGen.arrayRegionEqualsS1S1). Analysis of enum_values Regarding the other enum_values benchmark, it is impacted by the object allocations triggered by the Enum::values call that is an invoke virtual the to clone() method. The following snapshot is from the C2 JIT compiler output, although the same pattern occurs for the GraalVM compilers (Oracle GraalVM JIT and GraalVM CE JIT). ; <--- (TLAB) Allocation (and initialization) 0x07f77984f8d83: mov 0x1b8(%r15),%r13 ; r13 = r15 + 0x1b8 (offset calculation) 0x07f77984f8d8a: mov %r13,%r10 ; r10 = r13 (store calculated offset) 0x07f77984f8d8d: add $0xb8,%r10 ; r10 = r10 + 0xb8 (offset for comparison) 0x07f77984f8da0: cmp 0x1c8(%r15),%r10 ; compare r10 with r15 + 0x1c8 0x07f77984f8da7: jae 0x07f77984f9091 ; jump if above or equal, indicating no more space for allocation 0x07f77984f8dad: mov %r10,0x1b8(%r15) ; store the offset back into memory for future allocations 0x07f77984f8db4: prefetchw 0xc0(%r10) ; prefetch memory 0x07f77984f8dbc: movq $0x1,0x0(%r13) ; store mark word header (initializing object) 0x07f77984f8dc4: prefetchw 0x100(%r10) ; prefetch memory 0x07f77984f8dcc: movl $0x10299f0,0x8(%r13) ; store klass word header (initializing object) ; {metadata('EnumValuesLookupBenchmark$Car'[])} 0x07f77984f8dd4: prefetchw 0x140(%r10) ; prefetch memory for future use 0x07f77984f8ddc: movl $0x29,0xc(%r13) ; store the enum values array length 0x07f77984f8de4: prefetchw 0x180(%r10) ; prefetch memory ; <--- (TLAB) Allocation end ... 0x07f77984f8dec: mov %r13,%rsi 0x07f77984f8def: add $0x10,%rsi 0x07f77984f8df3: mov $0x15,%edx 0x07f77984f8df8: movabs $0x62ae275c0,%r10 ; load the enum values array address into register r10 ; {oop(a 'EnumValuesLookupBenchmark$Car'[41] {0x062ae275c0})} 0x07f77984f8e02: movabs $0x62ae275c0,%rbx ; load the enum values array address into register rbx ; {oop(a 'EnumValuesLookupBenchmark$Car'[41] {0x062ae275c0})} 0x07f77984f8e0c: add $0x10,%rbx 0x07f77984f8e10: mov %rbx,%rdi 0x07f77984f8e16: movabs $0x7f7797f6a400,%r10 0x07f77984f8e20: call *%r10 ; function call to handle enum values 0x07f77984f8e2b: mov (%rbx),%r11d ; invokevirtual clone ; - EnumValuesLookupBenchmark$Car::values The hottest regions in the report shows the StubRoutines::jlong_disjoint_arraycopy, which is the stub generator for copying long arrays when the source and destination arrays do not overlap. This routine is a result of an Enum::values call. ....[Hottest Regions]............................................................................... 62.25% c2, level 4 EnumValuesLookupBenchmark::enum_values, version 2, compile id 643 13.47% c2, level 4 EnumValuesLookupBenchmark::enum_values, version 2, compile id 643 9.31% runtime stub StubRoutines::jlong_disjoint_arraycopy 3.94% c2, level 4 EnumValuesLookupBenchmark::enum_values, version 2, compile id 643 Conclusions Try to avoid calling Enum::values, especially within a loop, as it allocates a new array and assigns references to the enum values as elements. This can potentially generate a considerable amount of garbage. For the cached_enum_values scenario, the Oracle GraalVM JIT slightly outperforms the C2 JIT compiler in this benchmark. Although GraalVM compilers utilize an intrinsic method that enables checking if two strings are equal within a defined region specified by a codepoint-based offset and length (for more details, see TruffleStrings: a Highly Optimized Cross-Language String Implementation), in our benchmark, since the entire string is compared, this may not provide significant benefits compared to the method used by the C2 compiler (e.g., vectorized operations using YMM registers for byte array comparison). IfConditionalBranchBenchmark This benchmark tests the conditional branch optimizations within a loop using: * a predictable branch pattern * an unpredictable branch pattern * no branch at all // All array[] values are randomly generated within [0, THRESHOLD) @Benchmark public int no_if_branch() { int sum = 0; for (final int value : array) { sum += value; } return sum; } @Benchmark public int predictable_if_branch() { int sum = 0; // all values are less than the 'THRESHOLD', // therefore the condition is true and the branch is always taken for (final int value : array) { if (value < THRESHOLD) { sum += value; } } return sum; } @Benchmark public int unpredictable_if_branch() { int sum = 0; // some values are bigger and some are smaller than 'THRESHOLD / 2', // making this condition unpredictable for (final int value : array) { if (value <= (THRESHOLD / 2)) { sum += value; } } return sum; } Source code: IfConditionalBranchBenchmark.java IfConditionalBranchBenchmark.svg Analysis of no_if_branch C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler unrolls the main loop by a factor of 16, thereby handling 16 additions per unrolled loop cycle. // Main loop 0x7f374863acda: mov 0x18(%rsi),%ebp ; get the array pointer 0x7f374863ace0: mov 0xc(%r12,%rbp,8),%r11d ; get the array length 0x7f374863ad06: mov 0x10(%r12,%rbp,8),%eax ; load the value of the first element 0x7f374863ad0b: lea (%r12,%rbp,8),%r8 ; get the array address 0x7f374863ad13: mov $0x1,%ecx ; initialize loop counter 0x7f374863ad2f: mov %r11d,%edx ; store array length ... / 0x7f374863ad50: add 0x10(%r8,%rcx,4),%eax ; add the value of the 1st element | 0x7f374863ad55: add 0x14(%r8,%rcx,4),%eax ; add the value of the 2nd element | ... | <--- additional lines for adding other elements --> | ... | 0x7f374863ad96: add 0x48(%r8,%rcx,4),%eax ; add the value of the 15th element | 0x7f374863ad9b: add 0x4c(%r8,%rcx,4),%eax ; add the value of the 16th element | 0x7f374863ada0: add $0x10,%ecx ; increment loop counter by 16 | 0x7f374863ada3: cmp %edx,%ecx ; compare loop counter with array length + 0x7f374863ada5: jl 0x7f374863ad50 ; loop back if less ; eax stores the result of the main loop The post-loop processes the remaining elements individually, without unrolling: // Post loop / 0x7f374863adc0: add 0x10(%r8,%rcx,4),%eax ; add value of an element to eax | 0x7f374863adc5: inc %ecx ; increment loop counter | 0x7f374863adc7: cmp %r11d,%ecx ; compare loop counter with array length + 0x7f374863adca: jl 0x7f374863adc0 ; loop back if less ; eax stores the result of the post loop Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler does to sum of elements array using vectorized instructions that operate on 256-bit wide AVX (Advanced Vector Extensions) registers, thereby handling 8 additions per unrolled loop cycle. // Main loop 0x7fa68ad81b3f: mov 0x18(%rsi),%eax ; get the array pointer 0x7fa68ad81b42: mov 0xc(,%rax,8),%r10d ; get the array length 0x7fa68ad81b53: shl $0x3,%rax ; compressed oops (shift left by 3 for addressing) 0x7fa68ad81b57: lea 0x10(%rax),%rax ; get the address of the array 0x7fa68ad81b6a: lea -0x8(%r10),%r11 ; calculate (array length - 8) 0x7fa68ad81b6e: mov $0x0,%r8 ; initialize loop counter ... / 0x7fa68ad81b80: vmovdqu (%rax,%r8,4),%ymm1 ; load 256 bits (8 integers) into %ymm1 | 0x7fa68ad81b86: vpaddd %ymm1,%ymm0,%ymm0 ; packed integer addition: ymm0 = ymm0 + ymm1 | 0x7fa68ad81b8a: lea 0x8(%r8),%r8 ; increment loop counter by 8 | 0x7fa68ad81b8e: cmp %r11,%r8 ; compare loop counter with (array length - 8) + 0x7fa68ad81b91: jle 0x7fa68ad81b80 ; jump loop back if less ; ymm0 stores the result of the main loop The post-loop processes the remaining elements individually, without unrolling. // Post loop ... <-- transfers data from ymm0 (256-bit AVX register) into r11d (32-bit register) --> ... / 0x7fa68ad81bc0: add (%rax,%r8,4),%r11d ; add the value of an element to r11d | 0x7fa68ad81bc4: inc %r8 ; increment the loop counter | 0x7fa68ad81bc7: cmp %r10,%r8 ; compare the loop counter with the array length + 0x7fa68ad81bca: jle 0x7fa68ad81bc0 ; jump back if less ; r11d stores the result of the post loop GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler optimizes the main loop by unrolling it with a factor of 16, enabling 16 additions to be processed per unrolled loop cycle. However, some registers are spilled onto the stack. // Main loop 0x7f22eb23d83f: mov 0x18(%rsi),%eax ; get the array pointer 0x7f22eb23d842: mov 0xc(,%rax,8),%r10d ; get the array length 0x7f22eb23d85c: mov %r10d,%r8d ; copy array length to r8d 0x7f22eb23d889: shl $0x3,%rax ; compressed oops (shift left by 3 for addressing) ... 0x7f22eb23d890: mov $0x1,%r11d ; initialize r11d for loop count <--- Loop peeling --> 0x7f22eb23d8a5: inc %r11d ; increment loop counter (r11d) ... 0x7f22eb23d8c0: mov %r11d,%r9d ; initialize loop counter r9d from r11d ... / 0x7f22eb23d8e0: add 0x10(%rax,%r9,4),%r11d ; add value of the 1st element to r11d | 0x7f22eb23d8e5: movslq %r9d,%rcx ; sign-extend r9d to rcx for addressing | 0x7f22eb23d8e8: mov 0x14(%rax,%rcx,4),%ebx ; store the value of the 2nd element in ebx | 0x7f22eb23d8ec: mov 0x18(%rax,%rcx,4),%edi ; store the value of the 3rd element in edi | ... | 0x7f22eb23d910: mov %r9d,0x1c(%rsp) ; spill r9d (the loop counter) onto the stack | 0x7f22eb23d915: mov 0x38(%rax,%rcx,4),%r9d ; store the value of the 11th element in r9d | 0x7f22eb23d91a: mov %r9d,0x18(%rsp) ; spill the 11th element (r9d) onto the stack | 0x7f22eb23d91f: mov 0x3c(%rax,%rcx,4),%r9d ; store the value of the 12th element in r9d | 0x7f22eb23d924: mov %r9d,0x14(%rsp) ; spill the 12th element (r9d) onto the stack | ... | 0x7f22eb23d93d: mov 0x48(%rax,%rcx,4),%r9d ; store the value of the 15th element in r9d | 0x7f22eb23d942: add %ebx,%r11d ; add the 2nd element to r11d | 0x7f22eb23d945: add %edi,%r11d ; add the 3rd element to the previous sum (r11d) | ... | 0x7f22eb23d95d: add 0x18(%rsp),%r11d ; load the 11th element from stack and add to r11d | 0x7f22eb23d962: add 0x14(%rsp),%r11d ; load the 12th element from stack and add to r11d | ... | 0x7f22eb23d971: add %r9d,%r11d ; add the 15th element to the sum (r11d) | 0x7f22eb23d974: add 0x4c(%rax,%rcx,4),%r11d ; add the 16th element to the sum (r11d) | 0x7f22eb23d979: mov 0x1c(%rsp),%r9d ; restore the loop counter from the stack | 0x7f22eb23d97e: lea 0x10(%r9),%r9d ; increment loop counter by 16 | 0x7f22eb23d982: mov 0x20(%rsp),%r8d ; move saved value (i.e., array length) from stack to r8d | 0x7f22eb23d987: cmp %r9d,%r8d ; compare loop counter with saved value + 0x7f22eb23d98a: jg 0x7f22eb23d8e0 ; jump loop back if greater ; r11d stores the result of the main loop The post-loop processes the remaining elements individually, without unrolling. // Post loop / 0x7f22eb23d9a0: add 0x10(%rax,%r9,4),%r11d ; add the value of an element to r11d | 0x7f22eb23d9a5: inc %r9d ; increment the loop counter | 0x7f22eb23d9a8: cmp %r9d,%r10d ; compare the loop counter with the array length + 0x7f22eb23d9ab: jg 0x7f22eb23d9a0 ; jump loop back if greater ; r11d stores the result of the main loop Analysis of unpredictable_if_branch C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler unrolls the main loop by a factor of 8, effectively handling 8 additions per unrolled loop cycle. To manage comparisons against a specified threshold value, the compiler employs the cmovle instruction. // Main loop 0x7f510463a25a: mov 0x18(%rsi),%ebp ; get the array pointer 0x7f510463a260: mov 0xc(%r12,%rbp,8),%ecx ; get the array length 0x7f510463a281: lea (%r12,%rbp,8),%r14 ; get the array address ... 0x7f510463a2b4: mov %ecx,%r13d ; move the array length to r13d ... / 0x7f510463a2f0: mov 0x10(%r14,%rbp,4),%r10d ; load the value of the 1st element into r10d | ... | 0x7f510463a318: lea (%rax,%r10,1),%edx ; calculate an address offset | 0x7f510463a31c: cmp $0x800,%r10d ; compare against 2048 (THRESHOLD / 2) | 0x7f510463a323: cmovle %edx,%eax ; conditional move: move the value to eax if less than or equal | ... | <--- similar for the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th elements --> | ... | 0x7f510463a38a: add $0x8,%ebp ; increment the loop counter | 0x7f510463a38d: cmp %r13d,%ebp ; compare the loop counter with the array length + 0x7f510463a390: jl 0x7f510463a2f0 ; jump loop back if less ; eax stores the result of the main loop The post-loop handles the remaining elements individually, without loop unrolling, employing the conditional move (cmovle) instruction to evaluate if the array values exceed the specified threshold. Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler uses vectorized instructions to perform the sum of elements in an array. It operates on 256-bit wide AVX (Advanced Vector Extensions) registers, allowing for 8 additions per unrolled loop cycle. This enables parallel handling of additions per unrolled loop iteration, leading to faster execution. // Main loop 0x7fd01ad7e9df: mov 0x18(%rsi),%eax ; get the array pointer 0x7fd01ad7e9e2: mov 0xc(,%rax,8),%r10d ; get the array length 0x7fd01ad7e9f3: shl $0x3,%rax ; compressed oops (shift left by 3 for addressing) 0x7fd01ad7e9f7: lea 0x10(%rax),%rax ; get the array address ... 0x7fd01ad7ea0e: vmovdqa -0x96(%rip),%ymm1 ; load the value 'threshold' 0x7fd01ad7ea16: mov $0x0,%r8 ; initialize loop counter r8 to 0x0 ... / 0x7fd01ad7ea20: vmovdqu (%rax,%r8,4),%ymm2 ; load 256 bits (8 integers) into ymm2 | 0x7fd01ad7ea26: vpaddd %ymm2,%ymm0,%ymm3 ; packed integer addition ymm3 = ymm0 + ymm2 | 0x7fd01ad7ea2a: vpcmpgtd %ymm2,%ymm1,%ymm2 ; compare elements against 'threshold', setting 1s for greater elements in ymm2 | 0x7fd01ad7ea2e: vpblendvb %ymm2,%ymm3,%ymm0,%ymm0 ; blend bytes based on ymm0 mask using ymm2 and ymm3, result in ymm0 | 0x7fd01ad7ea34: lea 0x8(%r8),%r8 ; increment loop counter by 8 | 0x7fd01ad7ea38: cmp %r11,%r8 ; compare the loop counter with the array length + 0x7fd01ad7ea3b: jle 0x7fd01ad7ea20 ; <--- loop end (jump loop back if less or equal) ; ymm0 stores the result of the main loop GraalVM CE JIT The GraalVM CE JIT compiler processes elements individually without loop unrolling, utilizing comparison and jump instructions to assess whether the array values surpass the predefined threshold. 0x7f91d723d773: mov 0x10(,%rax,8),%r11d ; load the value of the first element 0x7f91d723d77b: cmp $0x801,%r11d ; compare the first element against the 'threshold' 0x7f91d723d782: mov $0x0,%r8d ; if greater, set r8d (i.e., the sum) to 0x0 0x7f91d723d788: cmovl %r11d,%r8d ; if less, set r8d to the first element 0x7f91d723d78c: shl $0x3,%rax ; compressed oops (shift left by 3 for addressing) 0x7f91d723d790: mov $0x1,%r11d ; initialize loop counter ... // 0x7f91d723d7a0: cmp %r11d,%r10d ; compare loop counter with the array length || 0x7f91d723d7a3: jle 0x7f91d723d7c2 ; jump outside if less or equal || 0x7f91d723d7a9: mov 0x10(%rax,%r11,4),%r9d ; load the value of an element in r9d || 0x7f91d723d7ae: inc %r11d ; increment loop counter || 0x7f91d723d7b1: cmp $0x801,%r9d ; compare against 'threshold' |+ 0x7f91d723d7b8: jge 0x7f91d723d7a0 ; jump loop back if greater or equal | 0x7f91d723d7ba: add %r8d,%r9d ; add the element to the sum (r9d) | 0x7f91d723d7bd: mov %r9d,%r8d ; move the sum back to r8d + 0x7f91d723d7c0: jmp 0x7f91d723d7a0 ; jump loop back ; r8d stores the result of the loop Conclusions Oracle GraalVM's JIT compiler utilizes vectorized instructions, leveraging 256-bit wide AVX (Advanced Vector Extensions) registers for efficiently summing array elements. The C2 JIT compiler unrolls the main loop by a factor of 16 (no_if_branch scenario) or by a factor of 8 (unpredictable_if_branch scenario). However, due to its use of scalar operations instead of vectorized instructions, it does not achieve the performance of the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler. The GraalVM CE JIT compiler exhibits suboptimal behavior in these specific cases. For instance, it experiences register spills during the unrolling of the main loop by a factor of 16 (no_if_branch scenario). Alternatively, it may refrain from unrolling altogether (unpredictable_if_branch scenario) due to conditional comparisons within the loop body. LockCoarseningBenchmark This benchmark tests how the compiler coarsens or merges several adjacent synchronized blocks into one synchronized block, which can potentially reduce the locking overhead. This optimization can be applied when the same lock object is used by multiple methods. However, it's important to note that while compilers can assist in coarsening or merging locks, it's not always guaranteed. Note: This benchmark operates on uncontended code-paths due to only one thread executing the benchmark methods. Consequently, the locks are never inflated to a full monitor. Similar scenarios may occur when utilizing older synchronized Java APIs (e.g., Vector, Stack, Hashtable, StringBuffer, etc.), or equivalents. @Benchmark public int nested_synchronized() { int result = defaultValue << 1; synchronized (this) { // 1st synchronized result += incrementValue; synchronized (this) { // 2nd synchronized result += incrementValue; ... synchronized (this) { // 8th synchronized result += incrementValue; } ... } } return result; } @Benchmark public int conditional_nested_method_calls() { int result = defaultValue << 1; // all conditionals are evaluated to "true" if (result > 1 << 5) { result = sum(result); // 1st synchronized if (result > 1 << 5) { result = sum(result); // 2nd synchronized ... if (result > 1 << 5) { result = sum(result); // 8th synchronized } ... } } return result; } public synchronized int sum(int aValue) { return aValue + incrementValue; } Source code: LockCoarseningBenchmark.java LockCoarseningBenchmark.svg Analysis of nested_synchronized The analysis below pertains to the nested_synchronized method, which is more interesting due to the highest differences in performance. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler fails to reduce the deoptimization rate and hits a recompilation limit. Consequently, the method is abandoned (i.e., the compilation is disabled), falling back to the Template Interpreter. The breakdown of the hottest regions by source indicates that the Interpreter dominates the execution. ....[Distribution by Source]........................................................................ 91.17% interpreter 3.47% kernel 2.94% perf-6990.map 1.31% libjvm.so 0.90% c2, level 4 0.14% libc.so.6 0.03% hsdis-amd64.so 0.03% ld-linux-x86-64.so.2 ... Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler optimizes code by performing lock coarsening, which involves eliminating redundant locks and aggregating the nested locks into a single synchronized block. 0x7f994ad7c83f: mov %rsi,%r11 0x7f994ad7c845: mov 0x10(%r11),%eax ; load the field 'defaultValue' into eax ... 0x7f994ad7c84d: mov %eax,%r9d ; copy the value of eax to r9d (i.e., defaultValue) 0x7f994ad7c850: shl %r9d ; perform a left shift on the value in r9d by 1 <--- coarsened section (i.e., the monitor is not inflated; stack/fast-locking) ---> ... 0x7f994ad7c886: mov 0x14(%r11),%r8d ; load the field 'incrementValue' ... 0x7f994ad7c8c2: shl $0x3,%r8d ; perform a left shift on the value in r8d by 0x3 0x7f994ad7c8c6: add %r8d,%r9d ; add the values in r8d and r9d and store the result in r9d 0x7f994ad7c8c9: mov %r9d,%eax ; move the value in r9d to eax ; eax stores the result <--- end of coarsened section ---> GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler is able to compile the entire method, nevertheless it does not merge the locks. 0x7f096323c87f: mov %rsi,%r11 0x7f096323c885: mov 0x10(%r11),%eax ; load the field 'defaultValue' into eax 0x7f096323c88e: mov %eax,%r9d ; copy the value of %eax to %r9d (i.e., defaultValue) 0x7f096323c891: shl %r9d ; perform a left shift on the value in %r9d by 1 <--- 1st synchronized section (i.e., the monitor is not inflated; stack/fast-locking) ---> ... 0x7f096323c8d3: add 0x14(%r11),%r9d ; add the field 'incrementValue' to %r9d <--- 2nd synchronized section (i.e., the monitor is not inflated; stack/fast-locking) ---> ... 0x7f096323c913: add 0x14(%r11),%r9d ; add the field 'incrementValue' to r9d <--- 3rd synchronized section (i.e., the monitor is not inflated; stack/fast-locking) ---> ... 0x7f096323c913: add 0x14(%r11),%r9d ; add the field 'incrementValue' to r9d <--- 4th synchronized section (i.e., the monitor is not inflated; stack/fast-locking) ---> ... 0x7f096323c913: add 0x14(%r11),%r9d ; add the field 'incrementValue' to r9d <--- 5th synchronized section (i.e., the monitor is not inflated; stack/fast-locking) ---> ... 0x7f096323c913: add 0x14(%r11),%r9d ; add the field 'incrementValue' to r9d <--- 6th synchronized section (i.e., the monitor is not inflated; stack/fast-locking) ---> ... 0x7f096323c913: add 0x14(%r11),%r9d ; add the field 'incrementValue' to r9d <--- 7th synchronized section (i.e., the monitor is not inflated; stack/fast-locking) ---> ... 0x7f096323c913: add 0x14(%r11),%r9d ; add the field 'incrementValue' to r9d <--- 8th synchronized section (i.e., the monitor is not inflated; stack/fast-locking) ---> ... 0x7f096323c913: add 0x14(%r11),%r9d ; add the field 'incrementValue' to r9d ; r9d stores the result Analysis of conditional_nested_method_calls The analysis below pertains to the conditional_nested_method_calls method. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler successfully inlines the sum methods in the caller and compiles the entire method. However, it does not merge certain locks within the compiled code. 0x7fd3804f941d: mov 0x10(%rsi),%r13d ; load the 'defaultValue' field into r13d 0x7fd3804f9421: shl %r13d ; left shift the value in r13d by 1 0x7fd3804f9424: cmp $0x20,%r13d ; compare r13d against the value '1 << 5' 0x7fd3804f9428: jle 0x7fd3804f9f37 ; jump if r13d is less than or equal to '1 << 5' ... <--- caller 'sum' method inlined ---> <--- 1st synchronized section (i.e., the monitor is not inflated; stack/fast-locking) ---> 0x7fd3804f9496: add 0x14(%rbp),%r13d ; add the 'incrementValue' field to r13d ... 0x7fd3804f9534: cmp $0x20,%r13d 0x7fd3804f9538: jle 0x7fd3804f9f50 ; jump if r13d is less than or equal to '1 << 5' <--- caller 'sum' method inlined ---> <--- 2nd synchronized section (i.e., the monitor is not inflated; stack/fast-locking) ---> 0x7fd3804f95a8: add 0x14(%rbp),%r13d ; add the 'incrementValue' field to r13d ... <--- similar pattern for the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th synchronized sections --> ... ; r13d stores the result of the main loop 0x7fd3804f9cc6: mov %r13d,%eax ; move the sum result into eax As a side note, the default settings in -prof perfasm display the hottest regions around the lock cmpxchg (compare-and-set) instructions, but this may not assemble the entire compiled method. By running -prof perfasm:mergeMargin=1024 (default value is 32), all hot regions can be aggregated to provide a comprehensive view. Here are further details about the mergeMargin option. Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler inlines the sum method calls and coarsens the locks. 0x7ffa1ad7dc3f: mov %rsi,%r11 0x7ffa1ad7dc42: mov 0x10(%r11),%eax ; load the field 'defaultValue' into eax ... 0x7ffa1ad7dc46: mov %eax,%r8d ; copy the value of eax to r8d (i.e., 'defaultValue') 0x7ffa1ad7dc49: shl %r8d ; perform a left shift on the value in r8d by 1 <--- coarsened section ---> 0x7ffa1ad7dc4c: cmp $0x21,%r8d ; compare r8d against value '1 << 5 + 1' 0x7ffa1ad7dc50: jl 0x7ffa1ad7deed ; jump if r8d is less ... 0x7ffa1ad7dc90: mov 0x14(%r11),%r10d ; get field 'incrementValue' 0x7ffa1ad7dc94: mov %r8d,%eax ; eax = 'defaultValue' 0x7ffa1ad7dc97: add %r10d,%eax ; eax = eax + r10d ... 0x7ffa1ad7dca0: cmp $0x21,%eax ; compare eax against value '1 << 5 + 1' 0x7ffa1ad7dca3: jl 0x7ffa1ad7dec7 ; jump if eax is less 0x7ffa1ad7dca9: add %r10d,%eax ; eax = eax + r10d <--- similar pattern for the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th additions --> ; eax stores the result ... <--- end of coarsened section ---> GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler utilizes a similar approach to the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler in this benchmark. Conclusions The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler triggers lock coarsening and eliminates redundant locks, including the inlining of target method invocations. These optimizations lead to the shortest overall execution time. The C2 JIT compiler exhibits limitations in the nested_synchronized scenario, leading it to bail out to the Template Interpreter. Within the conditional_nested_method_calls, although the callee method is inlined at various call sites, the failure to merge the locks remains an issue. Consequently, its performance tends to be lower even than the GraalVM CE JIT compiler, in this benchmark. LockElisionBenchmark Test how the compiler can elide/remove several adjacent locking blocks on non-shared objects, thus reducing the locking overhead. Synchronization on non-shared objects is pointless, and the runtime does not have to do anything in such cases. private final int DEPTH = 8; @Benchmark public int nested_synchronized() { int result = defaultValue << 1; Object lock = new Object(); synchronized (lock) { // 1st synchronized result += incrementValue; synchronized (lock) { // 1st synchronized result += incrementValue; ... synchronized (lock) { // 8th synchronized result += incrementValue; } ... } } return result; } @Benchmark public int recursive_method_calls() { int result = defaultValue << 1; result = recursiveSum(result, DEPTH); return result; } public int recursiveSum(int aValue, int depth) { Object lock = new Object(); synchronized (lock) { if (depth == 0) { return aValue; } return incrementValue + recursiveSum(aValue, depth - 1); } } Source code: LockElisionBenchmark.java LockElisionBenchmark.svg Analysis Analysis of nested_synchronized The analysis below pertains to the nested_synchronized method, which is more interesting due to the highest differences in performance. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler fails to reduce the deoptimization rate and hits a recompilation limit. Consequently, the method is abandoned (i.e., the compilation is disabled), falling back to the Template Interpreter. This is the same limitation as in the case of LockCoarseningBenchmark. The breakdown of the hottest regions by source indicates that the Interpreter dominates the execution. ....[Distribution by Source]........................................................................ 89.45% interpreter 4.18% perf-7796.map 3.69% kernel 1.22% c2, level 4 1.17% libjvm.so 0.21% libc.so.6 0.04% hsdis-amd64.so 0.01% ld-linux-x86-64.so.2 ... Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler optimizes code by removing the locks, and further optimizing the additions using shift operations, thereby performing strength reduction optimizations. 0x7f9816d7e73a: mov 0x10(%rsi),%eax ; load the value of the 'defaultValue' field into eax 0x7f9816d7e73d: mov 0x14(%rsi),%r10d ; load the value of the 'incrementValue' field into r10d 0x7f9816d7e741: shl %eax ; perform a left shift on the value in eax by 1 (eax = eax << 1) 0x7f9816d7e743: shl $0x3,%r10d ; perform a left shift on the value in r10d by 3 (r10d = r10d << 3) 0x7f9816d7e747: add %r10d,%eax ; add the value in r10d to eax (eax = eax + r10d) ; eax stores the result GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler utilizes a similar approach to the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler in this benchmark. Analysis of recursive_method_calls C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler is capable of devirtualizing recursiveSum virtual calls and performs partial inlining up to a depth of 2. 0x7f1290636b5a: mov 0x14(%rsi),%ebp ; load the value of the 'incrementValue' field into ebp 0x7f1290636b5d: mov 0x10(%rsi),%edx ; load the value of the 'defaultValue' field into edx 0x7f1290636b60: shl %edx ; perform a left shift on the value in edx by 1 (edx = 'defaultValue' << 1) 0x7f1290636b62: mov $0x6,%ecx ; move the value 0x6 into ecx 0x7f1290636b67: call 0x7f1290636740 ; <--- call to recursiveSum two layers deep ; parameters passed: edx (result), ecx (stack depth) ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursive_method_calls@11 (line 108) ; {optimized virtual_call} 0x7f1290636b74: add %ebp,%eax ; add 'incrementValue' to eax 0x7f1290636b76: add %ebp,%eax ; add 'incrementValue' to eax ; eax stores the final result The recursiveSum is partially inlined along with a recursive call to itself, to manage certain recursive depth scenarios. recursiveSum() / 0x7f1290636740: mov %eax,-0x14000(%rsp) | 0x7f129063675e: mov 0x14(%rsi),%ebp ; load the value of the 'incrementValue' field into ebp | 0x7f1290636761: cmp $0x1,%ecx ; compare the value in ecx with 0x1 +| 0x7f1290636764: je 0x7f1290636793 ; jump to 0x7f1290636793 if equal || 0x7f1290636766: add $0xfffffffe,%ecx ; add -2 (in two's complement) to ecx, effectively decrementing it by 2 |+ 0x7f129063676b: call 0x7f1290636740 ; <--- recursive call to itself | ; invokevirtual recursiveSum | ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) | ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) | ; {optimized virtual_call} | 0x7f1290636778: add %ebp,%eax ; add 'incrementValue' to eax |/ 0x7f129063677a: add %ebp,%eax ; add 'incrementValue' to eax || ... || 0x7f129063678e: ret ; return from the function || ... \| 0x7f1290636793: mov %edx,%eax ; move 'defaultValue' into eax + 0x7f1290636795: jmp 0x7f129063677a ; jump to 0x7f129063677a (continuation) Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler eliminates all the virtual calls and further optimizes the code by eliminating locks and performing strength reduction optimizations to calculate the final result. 0x7fa406d7c5ba: mov 0x10(%rsi),%eax ; load the value of the 'defaultValue' field into eax 0x7fa406d7c5bd: mov 0x14(%rsi),%r10d ; load the value of the 'incrementValue' field into r10d 0x7fa406d7c5c1: shl %eax ; perform a left shift on the value in eax by 1 (eax = eax << 1) 0x7fa406d7c5c3: shl $0x3,%r10d ; perform a left shift on the value in r10d by 3 (r10d = r10d << 3) 0x7fa406d7c5c7: add %r10d,%eax ; add the value in r10d to eax (eax = eax + r10d) ; eax stores the result GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT is capable of devirtualizing recursiveSum virtual calls and performs partial inlining up to a depth of 6. 0x7f977318f6df: mov 0x10(%rsi),%edx ; load the value of the 'defaultValue' field into edx 0x7f977318f6e2: mov 0x14(%rsi),%r10d ; load the value of the 'incrementValue' field into r10d 0x7f977318f6e6: shl %edx ; perform a left shift on the value in edx by 1 (edx = 'defaultValue' << 1) 0x7f977318f6e8: mov $0x2,%ecx ; move the value 0x2 into ecx 0x7f977318f6ed: mov %r10d,0x4(%rsp) ; store %r10d (i.e., 'incrementValue') at stack address + 0x4 0x7f977318f6f3: call 0x7f977318ee40 ; <--- call to recursiveSum six layers deep ; invokevirtual recursiveSum ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursive_method_calls@11 (line 108) ; {optimized virtual_call} 0x7f977318f700: mov 0x4(%rsp),%r10d ; get back the r10d (i.e., 'incrementValue') from the stack + 0x4 address 0x7f977318f705: mov %r10d,%r11d ; r11d = 'incrementValue' 0x7f977318f708: shl $0x2,%r11d ; r11d = 'incrementValue' << 2 0x7f977318f70c: shl %r10d ; r10d = 'incrementValue' << 1 0x7f977318f70f: add %r10d,%r11d ; r11d = r10d + r11d 0x7f977318f712: add %r11d,%eax ; eax = eax + r11d ; eax stores the result The recursiveSum is partially inlined along with a recursive call to itself, to manage certain recursive depth scenarios. recursiveSum() / 0x7f977318ee40: mov %eax,-0x14000(%rsp) | 0x7f977318ee5f: mov 0x14(%rsi),%r10d ; load 'incrementValue' field into %r10d | ... | 0x7f977318ee6c: cmp $0x2,%ecx ; compare %ecx with 0x2 +| 0x7f977318ee6f: jge 0x7f977318ef14 ; jump if greater or equal || ... || 0x7f977318eea7: jmp 0x7f977318ef26 || 0x7f977318eeac: mov %r10d,0x4(%rsp) ; store %r10d (i.e., 'incrementValue') at stack address + 0x4 || ... |+ 0x7f977318eeb7: call 0x7f977318ee40 ; <--- recursive call to itself | ; invokevirtual recursiveSum | ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) | ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) | ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) | ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) | ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) | ; - LockElisionBenchmark::recursiveSum@31 (line 227) | ; {optimized virtual_call} | ... |/ 0x7f977318eed4: add 0x4(%rsp),%eax ; add 'incrementValue' to %eax || 0x7f977318eed8: mov 0x4(%rsp),%r10d ; move 'incrementValue' to %r10d || 0x7f977318eedd: add %r10d,%eax ; eax = eax + r10d || ... || 0x7f977318eef6: ret || ... \| 0x7f977318ef14: mov %edx,%eax ; move 'defaultValue' into %eax | 0x7f977318ef16: mov %r10d,0x4(%rsp) ; store 'incrementValue' at stack + 0x4 + 0x7f977318ef1b: jmp 0x7f977318eed4 ; jump to the start of the addition block ... Conclusions The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler removes the locks and inlines the target method invocations. These optimizations lead to the shortest overall execution time. The C2 JIT compiler exhibits limitations in the nested_synchronized scenario, leading it to bail out to the Template Interpreter. Within the recursive_method_calls, although the recursive callee method is partially inlined, its performance tends to be slower even than the GraalVM CE JIT compiler that does a better job of inlining the callee recursive calls. LoopFissionBenchmark Loop fission breaks a larger loop body into smaller loops. Benefits of loop fission: * enable vectorization: if one loop is not vectorizable, splitting the loop into two loops, one of which is vectorizable and the other which is not can help the performance * avoid register spilling: in case of large loops with many variables, loop distribution can be used to avoid register spilling * better utilization of data locality (if by splitting one of the loops becomes also interchangeable) * This optimization is most efficient in multicore processors that can split a task into multiple tasks for each processor. Loop fission is the opposite of loop fusion. Although loop fusion is useful to reduce memory loads, it can be counter-productive to have unrelated operations jammed together into a single loop nest. @Benchmark public void initial_loop() { // Initial loop with explicit broken loop vectorization (i.e., read-after-write) for (int i = 1; i < size; i++) { A[i] = A[i - 1] + C[i]; B[i] = A[i] + C[i]; } } @Benchmark public void manual_loop_fission() { // Loop 1: Breaks loop vectorization (i.e., read-after-write) for (int i = 1; i < size; i++) { // loop 1 A[i] = A[i - 1] + C[i]; } // Loop 2: Able to be vectorized for (int i = 1; i < size; i++) { // loop 2 B[i] = A[i] + C[i]; } } Source code: LoopFissionBenchmark.java LoopFissionBenchmark.svg Analysis of manual_loop_fission The analysis below pertains to the manual_loop_fission method, which is more interesting due to the differences in performance. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler unrolls loop 1 by a factor of 8 using scalar instructions, handling 8 additions per loop cycle within the main loop 1: ... 0x7f820c4f9c0f: mov $0x2,%ebx ; initialize loop counter ... Main loop 1 (A[i] = A[i - 1] + C[i]) / 0x7f820c4f9c40: mov 0x10(%r8,%rbx,4),%edx ; load 'C[i]' into register edx | 0x7f820c4f9c45: add 0xc(%r9,%rbx,4),%edx ; add 'A[i-1]' to register edx | 0x7f820c4f9c4a: mov %edx,0x10(%r9,%rbx,4) ; store edx ('A[i-1] + C[i]') into 'A[i]' | 0x7f820c4f9c4f: add 0x14(%r8,%rbx,4),%edx ; add 'C[i+1]' to register edx | 0x7f820c4f9c54: mov %edx,0x14(%r9,%rbx,4) ; store edx ('A[i-1] + C[i] + C[i+1]') into 'A[i+1]' | 0x7f820c4f9c59: add 0x18(%r8,%rbx,4),%edx ; add 'C[i+2]' to register edx | 0x7f820c4f9c5e: mov %edx,0x18(%r9,%rbx,4) ; store edx ('A[i-1] + C[i] + C[i+1] + C[i+2]') into 'A[i+2]' | ... | <-- Similar pattern for processing the next elements --> | ... | 0x7f820c4f9c95: add $0x8,%ebx ; increment loop counter by 8 | 0x7f820c4f9c98: cmp %esi,%ebx ; compare counter against loop limit + 0x7f820c4f9c9a: jl 0x7f820c4f9c40 ; jump back if less <-- the post loop 1 processes the remaining elements individually --> And for loop 2 the C2 JIT compiler employs vectorized instructions that operate on 256-bit wide AVX (Advanced Vector Extensions) registers. It handles 64 additions per loop cycle within the main loop 2: // Main loop 2 (B[i] = A[i] + C[i]) / 0x7f820c4f9d70: vmovdqu 0x10(%r8,%rbx,4),%ymm0 ; load 8 integers from array 'C' into ymm0 | 0x7f820c4f9d77: vpaddd 0x10(%r9,%rbx,4),%ymm0,%ymm0 ; add 8 integers from array 'A' to ymm0 | 0x7f820c4f9d7e: vmovdqu %ymm0,0x10(%r11,%rbx,4) ; store the result in 'B' | ... | <-- similar pattern for processing the next elements --> | ... | 0x7f820c4f9e3c: add $0x40,%ebx ; increment loop counter by 0x40 (processing 64 integers) | 0x7f820c4f9e40: cmp %ecx,%ebx ; compare counter against loop limit + 0x7f820c4f9e42: jl 0x7f820c4f9d70 ; jump back if the loop counter is less than the limit <-- the first post loop 2 uses vectorized instructions to process 8 elements per loop cycle --> <-- the second post loop 2 processes the remaining elements individually --> Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler employs almost identical optimization patterns to the C2 JIT compiler for this scenario. The only minor difference is that it handles 8 additions per loop cycle within the main loop 2, as opposed to 64. // Main loop 2 (B[i] = A[i] + C[i]) / 0x7fd86ad9d040: vmovdqu (%r9,%rbx,4),%ymm0 ; load 8 integers from array 'A' into ymm0 | 0x7fd86ad9d046: vmovdqu (%r10,%rbx,4),%ymm1 ; load 8 integers from array 'C' into ymm1 | 0x7fd86ad9d04c: vpaddd %ymm1,%ymm0,%ymm0 ; add 8 integers to ymm0 | 0x7fd86ad9d050: vmovdqu %ymm0,(%r11,%rbx,4) ; store the result in 'B' | 0x7fd86ad9d056: lea 0x8(%rbx),%rbx ; increment loop counter by 8 (processing 8 integers) | 0x7fd86ad9d05a: cmp %rcx,%rbx ; compare counter against loop limit + 0x7fd86ad9d05d: jle 0x7fd86ad9d040 ; jump back if the loop counter is less than the limit GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler unrolls the main loop 2 by a factor of 8, but it abstains from using any vectorized instructions. // Main loop 2 (B[i] = A[i] + C[i]) / 0x7ff4c319d840: mov 0x10(%rcx,%r11,4),%r8d ; load 'C[i]' into register r8d | 0x7ff4c319d845: add 0x10(%r9,%r11,4),%r8d ; add 'A[i]' into register r8d | 0x7ff4c319d84a: mov %r8d,0x10(%r13,%r11,4) ; store the result ('A[i] + C[i]') in 'B[i]' | 0x7ff4c319d84f: movslq %r11d,%r8 ; extend loop counter to 64-bit in r8 | 0x7ff4c319d852: mov 0x14(%rcx,%r8,4),%edi ; load 'C[i+1]' into register edi | 0x7ff4c319d857: add 0x14(%r9,%r8,4),%edi ; add 'A[i+1]' into register edi | 0x7ff4c319d85c: mov %edi,0x14(%r13,%r8,4) ; store the result ('A[i+1] + C[i+1]') in 'B[i+1]' | ... | 0x7ff4c319d8bb: lea 0x8(%r11),%r11d ; increment loop counter by 8 (processing 8 integers) | 0x7ff4c319d8c0: cmp %r11d,%ebx ; compare loop counter against loop limit + 0x7ff4c319d8c3: jg 0x7ff4c319d840 ; jump back if loop counter is greater than loop limit Conclusions None of the compilers implement this optimization. Moreover, in this benchmark, it appears that manual_loop_fission brings significant benefits as opposed to the default initial_loop since the loop 2 becomes vectorizable. This is also a useful pattern to apply in normal application code. The C2 JIT compiler and Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler demonstrate similar performance characteristics. However, the GraalVM CE JIT compiler does not vectorize the second loop (when no data dependencies are present), resulting in lower performance than the other two compilers. LoopFusionBenchmark The benchmark assesses if the compiler triggers loop fusion, an optimization aimed to merge the adjacent loops into one loop to reduce the loop overhead and improve run-time performance. @Benchmark public void initial_loops() { for (int i = 1; i < size; i++) { A[i] = A[i - 1] + B[i]; } for (int i = 1; i < size; i++) { B[i] = B[i - 1] + A[i]; } } @Benchmark public void manual_loops_fusion() { for (int i = 1; i < size; i++) { A[i] = A[i - 1] + B[i]; B[i] = B[i - 1] + A[i]; } } Source code: LoopFusionBenchmark.java LoopFusionBenchmark.svg Analysis of initial_loops The analysis below pertains to the initial_loops method, which is more interesting due to the differences in performance. C2 JIT Compiler and GraalVM CE JIT Compiler Both the C2 JIT and Oracle GraalVM JIT compilers unroll the main loop by a factor of 8 and handle the dependent load/store operations in a comparable manner. For instance, the following code snippet illustrates a main loop optimized by the C2 JIT: // Main loop 0x7f1534637522: mov $0x2,%esi ; initialize loop counter ... / 0x7f1534637541: mov 0x10(%r8,%rsi,4),%r10d ; load array2[i] into register r10d | 0x7f1534637546: add 0xc(%r9,%rsi,4),%r10d ; add array1[i - 1] to register r10d | 0x7f153463754b: mov %r10d,0x10(%r9,%rsi,4) ; store r10d (array1[i - 1] + array2[i]) into array1[i] | 0x7f1534637550: add 0x14(%r8,%rsi,4),%r10d ; add array2[i + 1] to register r10d | 0x7f1534637555: mov %r10d,0x14(%r9,%rsi,4) ; store r10d (array1[i - 1] + array2[i] + array2[i + 1]) into array1[i + 1] | ... | 0x7f1534637596: add $0x8,%esi ; increment loop counter by 8 | 0x7f1534637599: cmp %eax,%esi ; compare loop counter against eax + 0x7f153463759b: jl 0x7f1534637541 ; jump back to loop if less GraalVM CE JIT Compiler Despite using an unrolling factor of 8, akin to the C2 JIT or Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler, the GraalVM CE JIT compiler produces less optimal code due to the additional load instructions. // Main loop 0x7f96ef24270a: mov $0x2,%r11d ; initialize loop counter ... / 0x7f96ef242720: mov 0x10(%r9,%r11,4),%r8d ; load array2[i] into register r8d | 0x7f96ef242725: movslq %r11d,%rdi ; sign-extend loop counter to rdi | 0x7f96ef242728: add 0xc(%rcx,%rdi,4),%r8d ; load array1[i - 1] into register r8d | 0x7f96ef24272d: mov %r8d,0x10(%rcx,%r11,4) ; store array1[i] = array1[i - 1] + array2[i] | 0x7f96ef242732: mov 0x14(%r9,%rdi,4),%r8d ; load array2[i + 1] into register r8d | 0x7f96ef242737: add 0x10(%rcx,%r11,4),%r8d ; load array1[i] into register r8d | 0x7f96ef24273c: mov %r8d,0x14(%rcx,%rdi,4) ; store array1[i + 1] = array1[i] + array2[i + 1] | 0x7f96ef242741: mov 0x18(%r9,%rdi,4),%r8d ; load array2[i + 2] into register r8d | 0x7f96ef242746: add 0x14(%rcx,%rdi,4),%r8d ; load array1[i + 1] into register r8d | 0x7f96ef24274b: mov %r8d,0x18(%rcx,%rdi,4) ; store array1[i + 2] = array1[i + 1] + array2[i + 2] | ... | 0x7f96ef24279b: lea 0x8(%r11),%r11d ; increment loop counter by 8 | 0x7f96ef2427a0: cmp %r11d,%ebx ; compare ebx against loop counter + 0x7f96ef2427a3: jg 0x7f96ef242720 ; jump loop back if greater Conclusions None of the compilers has implemented this optimization. Moreover, in this benchmark, it appears that manual_loops_fusion does not yield significant benefits. In fact, due to the data dependency between array elements within a loop cycle, manual_loops_fusion becomes less optimal rather than improving performance, as opposed to the previous LoopFissionBenchmark (where there are data dependencies within the loop cycles). The C2 JIT compiler and Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler demonstrate similar performance characteristics. However, the GraalVM CE JIT compiler tends to generate less optimal code, resulting in more frequent load and store instructions. LoopReductionBenchmark Loop reduction (or loop reduce) benchmark tests if a loop could be reduced by the number of additions within that loop. This optimization is based on the induction variable to strength the additions. Note: From a compiler point of view, this benchmark is the same as CanonicalizeInductionVariableBenchmark. @Param({"1048576"}) private int iterations; @Param({"128"}) private int offset; @Benchmark public void initial_loop() { auto_reduction(iterations, offset); } @CompilerControl(CompilerControl.Mode.DONT_INLINE) private int auto_reduction(final int iterations, int accumulator) { for (int i = 0; i < iterations; ++i) { accumulator++; } return accumulator; } Source code: LoopReductionBenchmark.java LoopReductionBenchmark.svg Analysis of initial_loop The analysis below pertains to the initial_loop method, which is more interesting due to the differences in performance. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler devirtualizes the auto_reduction call and performs loop reduction. initial_loop() 0x7fede06381da: mov 0xc(%rsi),%edx ; load the 'iterations' value into edx 0x7fede06381dd: mov 0x10(%rsi),%ecx ; load the 'offset' value into ecx 0x7fede06381e3: call 0x7fede0637ea0 ; invokevirtual auto_reduction ; - LoopReductionBenchmark::initial_loop@9 (line 64) ; {optimized virtual_call} auto_reduction() w/ loop reduction 0x7fede0637eba: test %edx,%edx ; check if edx ('iterations') is zero + 0x7fede0637ebc: jle 0x7fede0637ee6 ; jump if edx ('iterations') is less than or equal to zero | 0x7fede0637ebe: mov $0x1,%r10d ; load 0x1 into r10d | 0x7fede0637ec4: cmp %edx,%r10d ; compare r10d (0x1) with edx ('iterations') |+ 0x7fede0637ec7: jge 0x7fede0637ee0 ; jump if greater than or equal || 0x7fede0637ec9: add %ecx,%edx ; add ecx ('offset') to edx ('iterations') ||/ 0x7fede0637ecb: mov %edx,%eax ; move the result to eax ||| ... |||/ 0x7fede0637ecd: ret |||| ... |\|| 0x7fede0637ee0: mov %ecx,%edx ; move ecx ('offset') into edx | || 0x7fede0637ee2: inc %edx ; increment edx ('offset') | +| 0x7fede0637ee4: jmp 0x7fede0637ecb \ | 0x7fede0637ee6: mov %ecx,%eax ; move ecx ('offset') into eax + 0x7fede0637ee8: jmp 0x7fede0637ecd ; jump to return Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler Similarly, the Oracle GraalVM JIT devirtualizes the auto_reduction call and performs loop reduction but with less jumps instructions than C2 JIT compiler. initial_loop() 0x7f4d82d7fb5f: mov 0x10(%rsi),%ecx ; load the 'offset' value into ecx 0x7f4d82d7fb62: mov 0xc(%rsi),%edx ; load the 'iterations' value into edx 0x7f4d82d7fb67: call 0x7f4d82d7f820 ; invokevirtual auto_reduction ; - LoopReductionBenchmark::initial_loop@9 (line 64) ; {optimized virtual_call} auto_reduction() w/ loop reduction 0x7f4d82d7f83a: test %edx,%edx ; check if edx ('iterations') is zero 0x7f4d82d7f83c: mov $0x0,%eax ; eax = 0x0 0x7f4d82d7f841: cmovl %eax,%edx ; move eax (0x0) to edx if 'iterations' is zero 0x7f4d82d7f844: add %edx,%ecx ; add edx to ecx ('offset') 0x7f4d82d7f846: mov %ecx,%eax ; move the result to eax ... 0x7f4d82d7f859: ret GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The auto_reduction generated code by the GraalVM CE JIT is abysmal. auto_reduction() 0x7f16c31979c0: cmp $0x1,%edx ; compare edx ('iterations') against 0x1 + 0x7f16c31979c3: jl 0x7f16c3197a6e ; jump if edx ('iterations') is less than 0x1 | ... |+ 0x7f16c31979e0: jmp 0x7f16c3197a05 ||/ 0x7f16c3197a00: inc %ecx ; increment ecx ('offset') ||| 0x7f16c3197a02: inc %r10d ; increment loop counter |\| 0x7f16c3197a05: cmp %r10d,%eax ; compare against eax ('iterations' or 0x2) | + 0x7f16c3197a08: jg 0x7f16c3197a00 ; jump back if greater | ... |+ 0x7f16c3197a13: jmp 0x7f16c3197a28 ||/ 0x7f16c3197a20: lea 0x10(%r11),%r11d ||| 0x7f16c3197a24: lea 0x10(%r10),%r10d |\| 0x7f16c3197a28: cmp %r11d,%eax | + 0x7f16c3197a2b: jg 0x7f16c3197a20 | ... |+ 0x7f16c3197a2d: jmp 0x7f16c3197a50 ||/ 0x7f16c3197a40: inc %r11d ; increment r11d ||| 0x7f16c3197a43: inc %r10d ; increment r10d |\| 0x7f16c3197a50: cmp %r11d,%edx ; compare edx ('iterations') against r11d | + 0x7f16c3197a53: jg 0x7f16c3197a40 ; jump back if greater |/ 0x7f16c3197a55: mov %r10d,%eax ; move r10d to eax || ... || 0x7f16c3197a6d: ret || ... \| 0x7f16c3197a6e: mov %ecx,%r10d ; move ecx ('offset') to r10d + 0x7f16c3197a71: jmp 0x7f16c3197a55 ; jump back Conclusions The C2 JIT compiler and the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler offer similar optimization patterns, hence achieving similar response times. The GraalVM CE JIT compiler exhibits lower performance (i.e., poor optimizations) in this benchmark. MandelbrotVectorApiBenchmark This benchmark tests the performance of Project Panama's Vector API when used to compute the Mandelbrot set. The baseline benchmark uses single element computations and the JIT compilers might decide to auto-vectorize. The vectorized benchmark uses the Vector API to perform the equivalent computation. @Benchmark public Object vectorized() { double threshold = 4; for (int row = 0; row < DOUBLE_VECTOR_SPECIES.loopBound(size); row += DOUBLE_VECTOR_SPECIES.length()) { DoubleVector row_vector = DoubleVector.broadcast(DOUBLE_VECTOR_SPECIES, (double) row); for (int col = 0; col < DOUBLE_VECTOR_SPECIES.loopBound(size); col += DOUBLE_VECTOR_SPECIES.length()) { DoubleVector col_vector = DoubleVector.broadcast(DOUBLE_VECTOR_SPECIES, (double) col).add(increments); DoubleVector c_re = col_vector.sub(size / 2.0).mul(4.0 / size); DoubleVector c_im = row_vector.sub(size / 2.0).mul(4.0 / size); DoubleVector x = DoubleVector.zero(DOUBLE_VECTOR_SPECIES); DoubleVector y = DoubleVector.zero(DOUBLE_VECTOR_SPECIES); DoubleVector x_square = x.mul(x); DoubleVector y_square = y.mul(y); DoubleVector iter_vector = DoubleVector.zero(DOUBLE_VECTOR_SPECIES); int iter = 0; while (iter < iterations) { DoubleVector x_new = x_square.sub(y_square).add(c_re); y = x.add(x).mul(y).add(c_im); x = x_new; x_square = x.mul(x); y_square = y.mul(y); VectorMask comp_res = x_square.add(y_square).compare(VectorOperators.LE, threshold); iter_vector = iter_vector.add(ones, comp_res); if (!comp_res.anyTrue()) { break; } iter++; } DoubleVector res_vector = DoubleVector.zero(DOUBLE_VECTOR_SPECIES) .add(1, iter_vector.compare(VectorOperators.EQ, iterations)); res_vector.intoArray(result, row * size + col); } } return result; } Source code: MandelbrotVectorApiBenchmark.java MandelbrotVectorApiBenchmark.svg Analysis of vectorized The baseline benchmark performs equally well on all three JIT compilers. The vectorized benchmark performs differently between the JIT compilers and the same trend is kept regardless of the number of iterations or used vector size. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler implements all the Vector API compiler intrinsics required to vectorize the benchmark body. It also unrolls the inner while loop of the benchmark by a factor of 4. ... ; more vectorized code above ... 0x7f99386729e9: vblendvps %ymm15,%ymm4,%ymm13,%ymm13 ; vectorized code 0x7f99386729ef: vtestps %ymm15,%ymm15 ; if condition check of the inner while loop 0x7f99386729f4: je 0x7f9938672805 ; break if true. Jump to inner for loop 0x7f99386729fa: add $0x4,%r8d ; add while loop unroll factor 0x7f99386729fe: xchg %ax,%ax ; nop 0x7f9938672a00: cmp %esi,%r8d ; compare against loop bound 0x7f9938672a03: jl 0x7f9938672900 ; jump back to the while loop start if loop condition is true Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler also implements all the Vector API compiler intrinsics required to vectorize the benchmark body and generates similar assembly instructions as the C2 JIT compiler. One difference that could also account for the performance difference is that the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler does not unroll the inner while loop. ... ; more vectorized code above ... 0x7f8626da4400: inc %r14d ; increment the while loop induction variable by one 0x7f8626da4403: cmp %r14d,%r11d ; compare against loop bound 0x7f8626da4406: jle 0x7f8626da4495 ; exit loop if loop condition is false 0x7f8626da440c: vmovupd %ymm13,0x10(%rsp) ; loop body contains vectorized code ... ; more vectorized code below GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler does not implement the Vector API compiler intrinsics required to vectorize the benchmark body and therefore falls back to the Java implementation of the Vector API. This results in a significant performance degradation and can be seen by looking at the hottest methods in the benchmark after inlining. 43.54% jvmci, level 4 jdk.incubator.vector.DoubleVector$$Lambda.0x7f61f80d0e80::apply, version 2, compile id 1265 27.72% jvmci, level 4 jdk.incubator.vector.DoubleVector$$Lambda.0x7f61f80d18d8::apply, version 2, compile id 1266 16.66% jvmci, level 4 MandelbrotVectorApiBenchmark::vectorized, version 5, compile id 1276 Conclusions Both C2 and the Oracle GraalVM JIT compilers are able to vectorize the benchmark body and perform close in performance and better than the baseline benchmark. The GraalVM CE JIT compiler is not (yet) able to vectorize the benchmark body and falls back to the Java implementation of the Vector API. SepiaVectorApiBenchmark This benchmark is similar to the MandelbrotVectorApiBenchmark benchmark in that it tests the performance of Project Panama's Vector API. In this benchmark, the Vector API is used to apply a sepia filter to an input image. In the baseline, the benchmark applies the sepia filter using non-vectorized code (i.e. scalar code that might be auto-vectorized by the JIT compiler). In the vectorized version, the benchmark applies the sepia filter using the Vector API. Source code: SepiaVectorApiBenchmark.java SepiaVectorApiBenchmark.svg Analysis of vectorized All three JIT compilers perform similar in performance in the baseline. The focus of this section will therefore be on the vectorized benchmark. C2 JIT Compiler and Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler and the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler implement the Vector API compiler intrinsics and are able to use 256-bit AVX registers. Therefore, the performance of the benchmark is similar for both JIT compilers. GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler does not implement the Vector API compiler intrinsics. It does therefore fallback to the Java implementation of the Vector API which results in a significant performance degradation. This can be seen by looking at the hottest methods in the benchmark after inlining. ....[Hottest Methods (after inlining)].............................................................. 58.64% jvmci, level 4 SepiaVectorApiBenchmark::vectorized, version 4, compile id 1219 19.45% jvmci, level 4 jdk.internal.vm.vector.VectorSupport::blend, version 2, compile id 1194 19.03% jvmci, level 4 jdk.incubator.vector.FloatVector::lambda$compareTemplate$61, version 2, compile id 1203 Conclusions Both C2 and the Oracle GraalVM JIT compilers are able to vectorize the benchmark body and perform close in performance and better than the baseline benchmark. The GraalVM CE JIT compiler is not able to fully vectorize the benchmark body and falls back to the Java implementation of the Vector API. MegamorphicInterfaceCallBenchmark This benchmark tests the performance of interface calls with a different number of targets. The JIT compiler is expected to optimize interface calls to a single receiver type with an instanceof check followed by a static call to the concrete target method. This benchmark also tests the performance of manually splitting one call site into multiple monomorphic call sites. @Benchmark @OperationsPerInvocation(SIZE) public void virtual_calls_chain() { I[] instances = this.instances; for (I instance : instances) { instance.foo(); } } // Manually split the call site to receive only one target -> monomorphic @Benchmark @OperationsPerInvocation(SIZE) public void devirtualize_to_monomorphic() { byte[] instanceIndex = this.instanceIndex; I[] instances = this.instances; for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) { I instance = instances[i]; switch (instanceIndex[i]) { case 0: instance.foo(); break; // ... same pattern for all of the remaining targets case 6: instance.foo(); break; default: throw new RuntimeException("Should not reach here."); } } } private static class C{1,..,6} implements I {} interface I extends I5 { private void baz() { foo_5(); } default void foo() { baz(); } } interface I5 extends I4 { private void baz_5() { foot_4(); } default void foo_5() { baz_5(); } } // ... same pattern for all of the remaining interface declarations interface I1 { Wrapper wrapper = new Wrapper(); default void baz_1() { wrapper.x++; } private void foo_1() { baz_1(); } Source code: MegamorphicInterfaceCallBenchmark.java MegamorphicInterfaceCallBenchmark.svg Analysis of virtual_calls_chain The virtual_calls_chain benchmark measures the performance of interface calls with a different number of targets at the call site. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler is able to devirtualize and inline through the entire interface call chains at call sites that use up to two different targets. In such cases, it also performs loop unrolling by a factor of 4 on the hot loop. / 0x7fd0d4638090: mov 0x10(%r11,%rcx,4),%eax ; load in %eax the oop from the instances array at offset %rcx | 0x7fd0d4638095: mov 0x8(%r12,%rax,8),%r10d ; load the klass word of the object in %r10d | 0x7fd0d463809a: nopw 0x0(%rax,%rax,1) ; alignment nop | 0x7fd0d46380a0: cmp $0x1084000,%r10d ; compare the klass word with the expected target klass | 0x7fd0d46380a7: jne 0x7fd0d463818d ; jump if not equal to the slow path | ... ; similar checks replicated 3 more times due to unroll factor of 4 | 0x7fd0d4638112: add $0x4,%eax ; add 4 to the wrapper result | 0x7fd0d4638115: mov %eax,0xc(%rbp) ; store the eax result | 0x7fd0d4638118: add $0x4,%ecx ; increment the loop induction variable by 4 | 0x7fd0d463811b: cmp %esi,%ecx ; compare against the loop bound | 0x7fd0d463811d: data16 xchg %ax,%ax ; alignment nop + 0x7fd0d4638120: jl 0x7fd0d4638090 ; jump back to the loop start if loop condition is true For more than three targets, the C2 JIT compiler always uses a series of interface calls to reach the target method. Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler inlines for a number of targets lower or equal to four. If more targets are present (.e.g virtual_calls_chain[MEGAMORPHIC_5] and virtual_calls_chain [MEGAMORPHIC_6]), then it will check for the first four targets. If none of the targets match, then it will use an interface call to reach the target method. 0x7f2092ff8576: mov 0x8(,%rsi,8),%ebx ; load the klass word of the object in %ebx 0x7f2092ff857d: cmp $0x102c000,%ebx ; check if instance of C2 0x7f2092ff8583: je 0x7f2092ff86d3 ; jump to fully inlined C2 method 0x7f2092ff8589: cmp $0x10259f0,%ebx ; check if instance of C1 0x7f2092ff858f: je 0x7f2092ff8709 ; jump to fully inlined C1 method 0x7f2092ff8595: cmp $0x102c2c0,%ebx ; check if instance of C3 0x7f2092ff859b: je 0x7f2092ff86fd ; jump to fully inlined C3 method 0x7f2092ff85a1: cmp $0x102c580,%ebx ; check if instance of C4 0x7f2092ff85a7: je 0x7f2092ff8715 ; jump to fully inlined C4 method 0x7f2092ff85ad: mov %r11d,0xc(%rsp) ; save the loop induction variable to the stack in case of deoptimization 0x7f2092ff85b2: test %eax,0x0(,%rsi,8) ; deopt check 0x7f2092ff85b9: shl $0x3,%rsi ; compute the full address from the oop 0x7f2092ff85bd: movabs $0x7f1fd002cb00,%rax 0x7f2092ff85c7: call 0x7f2092ff63a0 ; perform the interface call to reach the target method If a dominant target is present (e.g. virtual_calls_chain [MEGAMORPHIC_6_DOMINANT_TARGET]), then the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler will devirtualize and inline for the common case and use the interface call for the remaining cases. // High-level pseudo-code of the optmization for a dominant target if (receiver instanceof DominantTarget) { // fast path. DominantTarget.method(); // inlined } else { // slow path. Use an interface call to reach the target method. receiver.method(); } GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler is able to devirtualize (and inline) through the chain of interface calls for all the number of targets used in the benchmark. It does not perform loop unrolling, but uses a series of compare and jump instructions (by checking against the method constant pool) to check if the receiver is an instance of an expected target type. Since in our benchmark all calls resolve to the same target method, the GraalVM CE JIT compiler is able to inline only once the target method. Analysis of devirtualize_to_monomorphic The devirtualize_to_monomorphic benchmark measures the performance and effectiveness of trying to manually split a megamorphic call site into multiple monomorphic call sites. The benchmark uses a switch statement where each case will always resolve to the same target method. C2 JIT Compiler and GraalVM CE JIT Compiler Both the C2 JIT compiler and the GraalVM CE JIT compiler are able to devirtualize and inline through the entire interface chain calls. The same applies when a dominant target is present. / 0x7f21a7242090: cmp $0x1c20,%r11d ; compare the loop induction variable against the loop bound | 0x7f21a7242097: jge 0x7f21a72421bd ; jump out of the loop if the loop condition is false | 0x7f21a724209d: mov 0x10(%r10,%r11,4),%ebx ; load this.instances[i] in %ebx | 0x7f21a72420a2: movsbl 0x10(%r11,%r8,8),%edx ; load this.instanceIndex[i] in %edx | 0x7f21a72420a8: mov %r11d,%esi ; move the loop induction variable in %esi | 0x7f21a72420ab: inc %esi ; increment the loop induction variable by one | 0x7f21a72420ad: inc %r9d ; add 1 to the register containing the wrapper result | 0x7f21a72420b0: cmp $0x3,%edx ; switch logic starts here. Compare the instanceIndex[i] against 3 | 0x7f21a72420b3: jge 0x7f21a72420dd ; ... and through one or more jumps land on the correct case | 0x7f21a72420b9: cmp $0x2,%edx | 0x7f21a72420bc: nopl 0x0(%rax) | 0x7f21a72420c0: jge 0x7f21a724213d | 0x7f21a72420c6: cmp $0x0,%edx | 0x7f21a72420c9: je 0x7f21a72420fd | 0x7f21a72420cf: cmp $0x1,%edx | 0x7f21a72420d2: je 0x7f21a724211d | 0x7f21a72420d8: jmp 0x7f21a7242355 | 0x7f21a72420dd: cmp $0x5,%edx | 0x7f21a72420e0: jg 0x7f21a7242355 | 0x7f21a72420e6: cmp $0x5,%edx | 0x7f21a72420e9: jge 0x7f21a724219d | 0x7f21a72420ef: cmp $0x3,%edx | 0x7f21a72420f2: je 0x7f21a724215d | 0x7f21a72420f8: jmp 0x7f21a724217d ; switch logic ends here. | 0x7f21a72420fd: data16 xchg %ax,%ax ; alignment nop. Case 0 starts here | 0x7f21a7242100: cmpl $0x1080810,0x8(,%rbx,8) ; monomorphic call site check. Compare the klass word of the object in %rbx with the expected target klass | 0x7f21a724210b: jne 0x7f21a724229c ; jump to the slow path if the check fails | 0x7f21a7242111: mov %r9d,0xc(%rdi) ; store the wrapper result in the field | 0x7f21a7242115: mov %esi,%r11d ; move the loop induction variable in %r11d + 0x7f21a7242118: jmp 0x7f21a7242090 ; jump back to the loop beginning ... similar code for the remaining cases below ... Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler is able to is able to devirtualize and inline only for a number of four call sites or less. For the remaining call sites, it will devirtualize up to a certain depth in the interface chain and then use an interface call. 0x7f7152d81f15: shl $0x3,%r9 ; compute the full address from the oop 0x7f7152d81f19: mov %r9,%rsi ; move the full address in %rsi 0x7f7152d81f1c: mov %r9,0x10(%rsp) ; save the full address to the stack 0x7f7152d81f21: xchg %ax,%ax ; nop 0x7f7152d81f23: call 0x7f7152d7fbc0 ; invokeinterface foo_4 ; MegamorphicInterfaceCallBenchmark$I5::baz_5@1 (line 246) ; MegamorphicInterfaceCallBenchmark$I5::foo_5@1 (line 250) ; MegamorphicInterfaceCallBenchmark$I::baz@1 (line 256) ; MegamorphicInterfaceCallBenchmark$I::foo@1 (line 260) ; MegamorphicInterfaceCallBenchmark::devirtualize_to_monomorphic@66 (line 159) ; {optimized virtual_call} Conclusions When it comes to interface calls, GraalVM CE JIT performs best across all the benchmark configurations. It is then closely followed by the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler. The C2 JIT compiler does not perform very well when the number of targets is higher than two. With small exceptions, all compilers perform equally well when manual call site splitting is applied. MegamorphicMethodCallBenchmark This benchmark tests the performance of virtual calls with a different number of targets. The JIT compiler is expected to optimize virtual calls up to a certain number of targets. It also tests the performance of manually splitting one megamorphic call site into multiple monomorphic call sites. The benchmark is structured as follows: @Benchmark @OperationsPerInvocation(SIZE) public void virtual_call() { CMath[] instances = this.instances; for (CMath instance : instances) { instance.compute(); } } @Benchmark @OperationsPerInvocation(SIZE) public void devirtualize_to_monomorphic() { byte[] classIndex = this.classIndex; CMath[] instances = this.instances; for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) { CMath instance = instances[i]; switch (classIndex[i]) { case 0: instance.compute(); break; case 1: instance.compute(); break; case 2: instance.compute(); break; case 3: instance.compute(); break; case 4: instance.compute(); break; case 5: instance.compute(); break; case 6: instance.compute(); break; case 7: instance.compute(); break; default: throw new RuntimeException("Should not reach here."); } } } private abstract static class CMath { int c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6, c7, c8; public abstract int compute(); } private static class Alg1 extends CMath { public int compute() { return ++c1; } } // ... same pattern for all of the remaining classes private static class Alg8 extends CMath { public int compute() { return ++c8; } } In general, the runtime collects receiver-type statistics per call site during the execution of profiled code (in the interpreter or the C1 JIT). These statistics are further used in the optimizing compiler (e.g., C2 JIT). If, for example, one call site object.method() has received only Type1 even though there exists a Type2 in the type hierarchy, the compiler can add a guard that checks the receiver type is Type1 and then call the Type1 method directly. This is called a monomorphic call site: // High-level pseudo-code of the monomorphic call site optimization if (receiver instanceof Type1) { // fast path ((Type1) receiver).method(); } else { // slow path. Will deoptimize and rerun in the interpreter deoptimize(); } A bimorphic call site is a call site that can check for two receivers types: // High-level pseudo-code of the bimorphic call site optimization if (receiver instanceof Type1) { // fast path ((Type1) receiver).method(); } else if (receiver instanceof Type2) { // fast path ((Type2) receiver).method(); } else { // slow path. Will deoptimize and rerun in the interpreter. Next time it JITs, it will use a virtual call deoptimize(); } Once a call site becomes static, the compiler will be able to inline the target method and perform further optimizations. Source code: MegamorphicMethodCallBenchmark.java MegamorphicMethodCallBenchmark.svg Analysis of virtual_call The virtual_call benchmark measures the performance of virtual calls with a different number of targets at the call site. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler is able to devirtualize and inline call sites that use up to two different targets. In such cases, it also performs loop unrolling by a factor of two. 0x7f2cbc758990: incl 0x10(%r11) ; increment the Alg2 counter / 0x7f2cbc758994: add $0x2,%edx ; add 2 to the loop induction variable | 0x7f2cbc758997: cmp %eax,%edx ; compare against the loop bound | 0x7f2cbc758999: jge 0x7f2cbc75895f ; jump out of the loop if the loop condition is false | 0x7f2cbc75899b: mov 0x10(%rsi,%rdx,4),%r10d ; load this.instances[i] in %r10d | 0x7f2cbc7589a0: mov 0x8(%r12,%r10,8),%r8d ; load the klass word of the object in %r8d | 0x7f2cbc7589a5: lea (%r12,%r10,8),%r11 ; load the object address in %r11 | 0x7f2cbc7589a9: cmp $0x1026638,%r8d ; compare the klass word against MegamorphicMethodCallBenchmark$Alg2 | 0x7f2cbc7589b0: je 0x7f2cbc7589c1 ; if equal jump to the inlined method that increments the Alg2 counter | 0x7f2cbc7589b2: cmp $0x1026430,%r8d ; compare the klass word againsst MegamorphicMethodCallBenchmark$Alg1 | 0x7f2cbc7589b9: jne 0x7f2cbc7589ed ; if not equal jump to the slow path which deoptimizes in this case | 0x7f2cbc7589bb: incl 0xc(%r11) ; increment the Alg1 counter | 0x7f2cbc7589bf: jmp 0x7f2cbc7589c5 ; jump past the increment Alg2 counter code | 0x7f2cbc7589c1: incl 0x10(%r11) ; increment the Alg2 counter | 0x7f2cbc7589c5: mov 0x14(%rsi,%rdx,4),%r11d ; load this.instances[i + 1] in %r11d | 0x7f2cbc7589ca: mov 0x8(%r12,%r11,8),%r10d ; load the klass word of the object in %r10d | 0x7f2cbc7589cf: shl $0x3,%r11 ; compute the full address from the oop | 0x7f2cbc7589d3: cmp $0x1026638,%r10d ; compare the klass word against MegamorphicMethodCallBenchmark$Alg2 | 0x7f2cbc7589da: je 0x7f2cbc758990 ; if equal jump to the inlined method that increments the Alg2 counter | 0x7f2cbc7589dc: cmp $0x1026430,%r10d ; compare the klass word against MegamorphicMethodCallBenchmark$Alg1 | 0x7f2cbc7589e3: jne 0x7f2cbc7589eb ; if not equal jump to the slow path which deoptimizes in this case | 0x7f2cbc7589e5: incl 0xc(%r11) ; increment the Alg1 counter + 0x7f2cbc7589e9: jmp 0x7f2cbc758994 ; jump back to the loop beginning If the number of targets is higher than two, the C2 JIT compiler always uses a virtual call to reach the target method. / 0x7f41b8758e80: mov (%rsp),%r11 ; load the instances array base address in %r11 from the stack | 0x7f41b8758e84: mov 0x10(%r11,%rbp,4),%r10d ; load this.instances[i] in %r10d | 0x7f41b8758e89: mov %r11,(%rsp) ; store the instances array base address on the stack | 0x7f41b8758e8d: mov %r10,%rsi ; move the this.instances[i] in %rsi | 0x7f41b8758e90: shl $0x3,%rsi ; compute the full address from the oop | 0x7f41b8758e94: nop ; alignment nop | 0x7f41b8758e95: movabs $0x7f40f8026430,%rax | 0x7f41b8758e9f: call 0x7f41b7fa1e20 ; virtual call to the compute method | 0x7f41b8758ea4: nopl 0x214(%rax,%rax,1) ; more nops | 0x7f41b8758eac: inc %ebp ; increment the loop induction variable by one | 0x7f41b8758eae: cmp 0x8(%rsp),%ebp ; compare against the loop bound + 0x7f41b8758eb2: jl 0x7f41b8758e80 ; jump back to the loop beginning if the loop condition is true Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler devirtualizes and inlines call sites that use up to four different targets. If the number of targets is higher, then the compiler will use a virtual call for the remaining targets. This can be observed either by looking at the generated assembly code or by looking at the hottest methods in the benchmark. Since the assembly code for the virtual_call method is quite large due to a loop unrolling factor of two, the equivalent high-level pseudo-code is shown below: if (receiver instanceof Type1) { // fast path ((Type1) receiver).method(); } else if (receiver instanceof Type2) { // fast path ((Type2) receiver).method(); } else if (receiver instanceof Type3) { // fast path ((Type3) receiver).method(); } else if (receiver instanceof Type4) { // fast path ((Type4) receiver).method(); } else { // slow path. Will not deoptimize, but rather use a virtual call for the remaining targets. receiver.method(); } The hottest methods in the benchmark virtual_call[MEGAMORPHIC_5] are shown below. A single compute method shows up in the list because the remaining methods have been inlined in virtual_call. ....[Hottest Regions]..................................................... 84.82% jvmci, level 4 MegamorphicMethodCallBenchmark::virtual_call 12.24% jvmci, level 4 MegamorphicMethodCallBenchmark$Alg4::compute GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler is able to devirtualize and inline call sites regardless of the number of targets used in benchmark. Note: When generating assembly, we forced the compiler not to inline the benchmark method into the JMH stub. In this case, the virtual_call[MEGAMORPHIC_8] benchmark performed similar in performance to the virtual_call[MEGAMORPHIC_7] benchmark. There can be multiple reasons that can affect the compiler optimizations we expect to see. Some of them are: the size of the generated code, inlining decisions taken for the caller and different profile information collected by the C1 compiler and the interpreter. Below is the assembly code for the virtual_call[MEGAMORPHIC_7] benchmark: // 0x7f9587241de0: cmp %r8d,%r11d ; compare the loop induction variable against the loop bound || 0x7f9587241de3: jle 0x7f9587241edc ; jump out of the loop if the loop condition is false || 0x7f9587241de9: mov 0x10(%r10,%r8,4),%r9d ; load this.instances[i] in %r9 || 0x7f9587241dee: mov 0x8(,%r9,8),%ecx ; load the klass word of this.instances[i] in %ecx || 0x7f9587241df6: movabs $0x7f9507000000,%rbx ; move the metaspace base in %rbx || 0x7f9587241e00: lea (%rbx,%rcx,1),%rcx ; load the address of the klass in %rcx || 0x7f9587241e04: mov %r8d,%ebx ; move the loop induction variable in %ebx || 0x7f9587241e07: inc %ebx ; increment the loop induction variable by one || 0x7f9587241e09: cmp -0x190(%rip),%rcx ; compare the klass against one of the expected targets. || ; the expected klasses are stored in the constant pool || 0x7f9587241e10: je 0x7f9587241e6c ; if equal jump to the inlined method that increments the Alg1 counter || 0x7f9587241e16: cmp -0x195(%rip),%rcx ; compare the klass against one of the expected targets || 0x7f9587241e1d: data16 xchg %ax,%ax ; alignment nop || 0x7f9587241e20: je 0x7f9587241e7c ; if equal jump to the inlined method that increments the Alg2 counter || ... similar code for the remaining targets below ... || 0x7f9587241e67: jmp 0x7f9587241f96 ; if none of the targets match, then jump to the slow path which deoptimizes || 0x7f9587241e6c: incl 0xc(,%r9,8) ; increment the c1 field || 0x7f9587241e74: mov %ebx,%r8d ; move the loop induction variable in %r8d |+ 0x7f9587241e77: jmp 0x7f9587241de0 ; jump back to the loop beginning | 0x7f9587241e7c: incl 0x10(,%r9,8) ; increment the c2 field | 0x7f9587241e84: mov %ebx,%r8d ; move the loop induction variable in %r8d + 0x7f9587241e87: jmp 0x7f9587241de0 ; jump back to the loop beginning ... similar code for the remaining targets below ... 0x7f9587241edc: mov 0x10(%rsp),%rbp 0x7f9587241ee1: add $0x18,%rsp ; pop the stack 0x7f9587241ee5: cmp 0x450(%r15),%rsp ; safepoint poll check 0x7f9587241eec: ja 0x7f958724200f ; jump to safepoint handling if required 0x7f9587241ef2: ret ; return to the caller Analysis of devirtualize_to_monomorphic The devirtualize_to_monomorphic benchmark measures the performance and effectiveness of trying to manually split a megamorphic call site into multiple monomorphic call sites. The benchmark uses a switch statement where each case will always resolve to the same target method. Overall, all JVMs perform the same and are able to devirtualize and inline at the call sites. Below is the assembly code generated by the GraalVM CE JIT compiler for the devirtualize_to_monomorphic [MEGAMORPHIC_8] benchmark: // 0x7fa0032421a0: cmp $0x9d80,%r11d ; compare the loop induction variable against the loop bound || 0x7fa0032421a7: jge 0x7fa003242349 ; jump out of the loop if the loop condition is false || 0x7fa0032421ad: mov 0x10(%r10,%r11,4),%r9d ; load this.instances[i] in %r9d || 0x7fa0032421b2: movsbl 0x10(%r11,%r8,8),%ebx ; load this.classIndex[i] in %ebx || 0x7fa0032421b8: mov %r11d,%edi ; move the loop induction variable in %edi || 0x7fa0032421bb: inc %edi ; increment the loop induction variable by one || 0x7fa0032421bd: cmp $0x5,%ebx ; switch logic starts here. || 0x7fa0032421c0: jge 0x7fa003242205 || 0x7fa0032421c6: cmp $0x3,%ebx || 0x7fa0032421c9: jge 0x7fa0032421f4 || 0x7fa0032421cf: cmp $0x2,%ebx || 0x7fa0032421d2: jge 0x7fa003242327 || 0x7fa0032421d8: cmp $0x0,%ebx || 0x7fa0032421db: nopl 0x0(%rax,%rax,1) || 0x7fa0032421e0: je 0x7fa003242247 || 0x7fa0032421e6: cmp $0x1,%ebx || 0x7fa0032421e9: je 0x7fa003242269 || 0x7fa0032421ef: jmp 0x7fa003242569 || 0x7fa0032421f4: cmp $0x3,%ebx || 0x7fa0032421f7: je 0x7fa00324228b || 0x7fa0032421fd: data16 xchg %ax,%ax || 0x7fa003242200: jmp 0x7fa0032422cf || 0x7fa003242205: cmp $0x7,%ebx || 0x7fa003242208: jg 0x7fa003242569 || 0x7fa00324220e: cmp $0x7,%ebx || 0x7fa003242211: jge 0x7fa003242225 || 0x7fa003242217: cmp $0x5,%ebx || 0x7fa00324221a: je 0x7fa003242305 || 0x7fa003242220: jmp 0x7fa0032422ad ; switch logic ends here. || 0x7fa003242225: cmpl $0x1084a28,0x8(,%r9,8) ; compare the klass word against the Alg8 klass || 0x7fa003242231: jne 0x7fa003242460 ; if not equal jump to the slow path which deoptimizes in this case || 0x7fa003242237: incl 0x28(,%r9,8) ; increment the c8 field || 0x7fa00324223f: mov %edi,%r11d ; move the increment induction variable to %r11d |+ 0x7fa003242242: jmp 0x7fa0032421a0 ; jump back to the loop beginning | 0x7fa003242247: cmpl $0x102bad0,0x8(,%r9,8) ; compare the klass word against the Alg1 klass | 0x7fa003242253: jne 0x7fa00324258d ; jump to the slow path which deoptimizes in this case | 0x7fa003242259: incl 0xc(,%r9,8) ; increment the c1 field | 0x7fa003242261: mov %edi,%r11d ; move the increment induction variable to %r11d + 0x7fa003242264: jmp 0x7fa0032421a0 ; jump back to the loop beginning ... similar code for the remaining cases below ... 0x7fa00324234e: add $0x18,%rsp ; pop the stack 0x7fa003242352: cmp 0x450(%r15),%rsp ; safepoint poll check 0x7fa003242359: ja 0x7fa0032425f9 ; jump to safepoint handling if required 0x7fa00324235f: ret ; return to the caller The only exception in regard to the performance of the benchmark is with the C2 compiler in devirtualize_to_monomorphic[MEGAMORPHIC_8]. The reason the C2 compiler does not perform similar to the other compilers and to the devirtualize_to_monomorphic[MEGAMORPHIC_7] benchmark is that it switches from using binary search over switch ranges (as shown in the above assembly snippet of GraalVM CE JIT compiler) to using a jump table when the number of targets is higher than seven. Below is the relevant snippet of the assembly code generated by the C2 JIT compiler for the devirtualize_to_monomorphic[MEGAMORPHIC_8] benchmark: 0x7f374063c509: movslq %r8d,%r9 ; move the loop induction variable in %r9 0x7f374063c50c: mov 0x10(%rdx,%r9,4),%r11d ; load this.instances[i] in %r11d 0x7f374063c511: movsbl 0x10(%rax,%r9,1),%ecx ; load this.classIndex[i] in %ecx 0x7f374063c517: cmp $0x8,%ecx ; check if the classIndex[i] is greater or equal to 8 0x7f374063c51a: jae 0x7f374063c531 ; if true (i.e. default case) jump to default path of the switch statement which in this case deoptimizes 0x7f374063c51c: movslq %ecx,%r9 ; move the classIndex[i] in %r9 0x7f374063c51f: shl $0x3,%r9 ; compute the full address from the oop 0x7f374063c523: movabs $0x7f374063c300,%rbx ; move the base of the jump table in %rbx 0x7f374063c52d: jmp *(%rbx,%r9,1) ; jump to the relevant entry in the jump table Conclusions In general, the GraalVM CE JIT compiler performs best across all the benchmark configurations, both for megamorphic and manually split monomorphic call sites. It is then closely followed by the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler. The C2 JIT compiler falls back to virtual calls for call sites with more than two targets. All compilers manage to devirtualize and inline when a call site with multiple targets is manually split into monomorphic call sites (i.e. the devirtualize_to_monomorphic benchmark). MethodArgsBusterBenchmark This benchmark is used to test how the JIT compiler handles methods that take a huge number of arguments. Normally, the JIT compiler should be able to inline the method and return a constant value. However, if a method takes a large number of arguments, the JIT may bail out when trying to compile the method. @Benchmark public long method_args_buster() { // returns 204 return tooManyArgsMethod( 0.0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, ..., 6.2, 6.3); } private long tooManyArgsMethod( double d00, double d01, double d02, double d03, ... double d63) { return Math.round(d00) + Math.round(d01) + Math.round(d02) ... + Math.round(d63); } Source code: MethodArgsBusterBenchmark.java MethodArgsBusterBenchmark.svg Analysis of method_args_buster This section analyzes the performance of the method_args_buster benchmark. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler does not compile the tooManyArgsMethod method into the benchmark method. Instead, the final version of this method that is executed is JITed by the C1 compiler. The C1 compiler does not inline the Math::round method into the tooManyArgsMethod method, resulting in a long chain of calls. Below is a snippet of the assembly code generated by the C1 compiler for the tooManyArgsMethod benchmark: ... similar assembly above... 0x7f8afc638ce7: call 0x7f8afc6382a0 ; call the Math::round method 0x7f8afc638cec: nopl 0x20004dc(%rax,%rax,1) ; alignment nops 0x7f8afc638cf4: mov 0x30(%rsp),%rsi ; load the intermediate result from the stack in %rsi 0x7f8afc638cf9: add %rax,%rsi ; add the Math::round result to the intermediate result 0x7f8afc638cfc: vmovsd 0x230(%rsp),%xmm0 ; load the next argument in %xmm0 0x7f8afc638d05: mov %rsi,0x38(%rsp) ; store the intermediate result on the stack 0x7f8afc638d0a: nopl 0x0(%rax,%rax,1) ; alignment nops 0x7f8afc638d0f: call 0x7f8afc6382a0 ; call the Math::round method again ... similar assembly below... The hottest methods in the benchmark are shown below: ....[Hottest Regions]............................................................................... 57.56% c2, level 4 java.lang.Math::round 33.80% c1, level 1 MethodArgsBusterBenchmark::tooManyArgsMethod 5.13% c1, level 1 MethodArgsBusterBenchmark::method_args_buster Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler and GraalVM CE JIT Compiler Both the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler and the GraalVM CE JIT compiler are able to inline the tooManyArgsMethod method and return a constant value. Below is a section of the assembly code generated by the GraalVM CE JIT compiler for the method_args_buster method: 0x7fb65323c2ba: mov $0xcc,%rax ; move 204, the constant result of the method in the return register %rax 0x7fb65323c2c1: add $0x18,%rsp ; pop the stack 0x7fb65323c2c5: cmp 0x450(%r15),%rsp ; check if a safepoint is required 0x7fb65323c2cc: ja 0x7fb65323c2e0 ; jump to safepoint handling if required 0x7fb65323c2d2: ret ; return to the caller Conclusions The C2 JIT compiler fails to compile methods that take a large number of arguments whereas this limit seems higher for the Graal JIT compilers. Thankfully, most IDEs will warn the developer way before this threshold is reached. NpeControlFlowBenchmark This benchmark checks how the JIT compiler handles control flow around null checks. Explicit null pointer checks are done by checking against null. Implicit null pointer checks are done by surrounding the code with a try {} catch (NullPointerException e) {} block. Finally, a third option is done through the Streams API filter method. @Benchmark public int try_npe_catch() { int sum = 0; for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) { try { sum += array[i].x; } catch (NullPointerException ignored) { sink(ignored); } } return sum; } @Benchmark public int if_npe_continue() { int sum = 0; for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) { if (array[i] == null) { continue; } sum += array[i].x; } return sum; } @Benchmark public long stream_filter_npe() { return Arrays.stream(array) .filter(wrapper -> wrapper != null) .map(Wrapper::getX) .reduce(0, Integer::sum); } The size below represents the number of elements in the array. The nullThreshold represents the number of null elements in the array. The null elements are randomly distributed in the array. A nullThreshold of 0 means that the array does not contain any null elements. A nullThreshold of 16 means that the array should have on average half of its elements set to null. Source code: NpeControlFlowBenchmark.java NpeControlFlowBenchmark.svg Analysis of try_npe_catch All three JIT compilers perform similar in all benchmarks configurations apart from the try_npe_catch benchmark. Therefore, the section below will focus on the try_npe_catch benchmark when the nullThreshold is 16. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler is able to optimize and make use of a cached NullPointerException object when the same exception is thrown multiple times. This avoids allocating a new exception object on the iterations of the loop when the NullPointerException is thrown. One side effect is that stack traces are not collected for the cached exception object. This optimization is enabled by default and can be disabled by using the -XX:-OmitStackTraceInFastThrow flag. 0x7f14a463aaa0: add 0xc(%r12,%r10,8),%r14d ; increment the accumulator %r14d with the value of array[i].x / 0x7f14a463aaa5: mov 0x458(%r15),%r10 ; load safepoint poll address in %r10 | 0x7f14a463aaac: mov 0x10(%rbp),%r8d ; load the size filed in %r8d | 0x7f14a463aab0: inc %ebx ; increment the loop induction variable | 0x7f14a463aab2: test %eax,(%r10) ; safepoint poll check | 0x7f14a463aab5: cmp %r8d,%ebx ; compare the loop induction variable against size | 0x7f14a463aab8: jge 0x7f14a463ab2d ; jump to return if the loop condition is false | 0x7f14a463aabe: mov 0x1c(%rbp),%r11d ; load the array field (oop) in %r11d | 0x7f14a463aac2: test %r11d,%r11d ; check if the array field is null | 0x7f14a463aac5: je 0x7f14a463aa74 ; if null jump to the slow path | 0x7f14a463aac7: mov 0xc(%r12,%r11,8),%r8d ; load the array length in %r8d | 0x7f14a463aacc: cmp %r8d,%ebx ; compare the loop induction variable against the array length | 0x7f14a463aacf: jae 0x7f14a463ab43 ; if greater or equal jump to the slow path and throw ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException | 0x7f14a463aad5: lea (%r12,%r11,8),%r10 ; compute the absolute address of the array | 0x7f14a463aad9: mov 0x10(%r10,%rbx,4),%r10d ; load the object (oop) at array[i] in %r10d | 0x7f14a463aade: xchg %ax,%ax ; alignment nop | 0x7f14a463aae0: test %r10d,%r10d ; check if the object is null | 0x7f14a463aae3: jne 0x7f14a463aaa0 ; if not null jump to the accumulator increment | 0x7f14a463aae5: cmpb $0x0,0x40(%r15) | 0x7f14a463aaea: jne 0x7f14a463aba5 | 0x7f14a463aaf0: movabs $0x7ffc01020,%r10 ; load the cached NullPointerException object in %r10 | 0x7f14a463aafa: mov %r12d,0x14(%r10) ; clear the `detailedMessage` field of the cached exception object | 0x7f14a463aafe: mov %ebx,0x4(%rsp) ; store the loop induction variable on the stack | 0x7f14a463ab02: mov %r14d,(%rsp) ; store the accumulator on the stack | 0x7f14a463ab06: mov %rbp,%rsi ; move the `this` pointer in %rsi | 0x7f14a463ab09: movabs $0x7ffc01020,%rdx ; load the cached NullPointerException object in %rdx | 0x7f14a463ab13: call 0x7f14a40c4380 ; call the `sink` method from the benchmark | 0x7f14a463ab18: nopl 0x1000288(%rax,%rax,1) ; alignment nop | 0x7f14a463ab20: mov (%rsp),%r14d ; load the accumulator from the stack in %r14d | 0x7f14a463ab24: mov 0x4(%rsp),%ebx ; load the loop induction variable from the stack in %ebx + 0x7f14a463ab28: jmp 0x7f14a463aaa5 ; jump back to the loop beginning Below, is a flamegraph of the try_npe_catch benchmark when the nullThreshold is 16. The flamegraph is generated using the Async-profiler. NpeControlFlowBenchmark.svg Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler and GraalVM CE JIT Compiler Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler and the GraalVM CE JIT compiler do not make use of a cached NullPointerException object. Instead, both compilers allocate a new exception and fill in the stack trace on each iteration of the loop when the NullPointerException is thrown. This can once again be observed by looking at the generated flamegraph. NpeControlFlowBenchmark.svg Opposed to the C2 JIT compiler, the GraalVM based JIT compilers will spend additional time inside JVMCI and then filling in the stack trace. Conclusions All three JIT compilers perform close in all benchmark configurations apart from the try_npe_catch benchmark. The reason the C2 JIT compiler performs better in this benchmark is because it uses a cached NullPointerException object and avoids filling the stack trace. This optimization is enabled by default and only happens when the same implicit exception is thrown multiple times (e.g. in a hot loop). NpeThrowBenchmark This benchmark tests the implicit vs explicit throw and catch of NullPointerException in a hot loop. The caller method contains a loop that catches the NullPointerException thrown by the callee and the callee is never inlined. An implicit NullPointerException is thrown when the code tries to access a field or invoke a method of a null object. An explicit NullPointerException is thrown when the code explicitly throws a NullPointerException object. @Benchmark public void throw_npe() { for (Wrapper object : A) { try { {implicit, explicit}ThrowNpe(object); } catch (NullPointerException e) { // swallow exception } } } @CompilerControl(CompilerControl.Mode.DONT_INLINE) private int explicitThrowNpe(Wrapper o) { if (o == null) { throw new NullPointerException("Oops!"); } return o.x; } @CompilerControl(CompilerControl.Mode.DONT_INLINE) private int implicitThrowNpe(Wrapper o) { return o.x; } Source code: NpeThrowBenchmark.java NpeThrowBenchmark.svg For threshold:0, there are no null elements in the array. For threshold:0.5, on average, half of the elements in the array are null. For threshold:1, all elements in the array are null. Analysis of implicit_throw_npe All three JIT compilers perform close in performance for all benchmark configurations except for the implicit_throw_npe, especially when the threshold is 0.5 or 1.0. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler, as in the case of the NpeControlFlowBenchmark benchmark, makes use of a cached NullPointerException object and directly calls into the exception handler (OptoRuntime::handle_exception_C). A side effect of this optimization is that the stack trace is not collected. Below is the flamegraph generated by the implicit_throw_npe benchmark when the threshold is 1.0. NpeThrowBenchmark.png Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler and GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler and the GraalVM CE JIT compiler do not make use of a cached NullPointerException object. Instead, both compilers allocate a new exception and fill in the stack trace on each iteration of the loop (when the threshold is 1.0). This can once again be observed by looking at the generated flamegraph. NpeThrowBenchmark.png Conclusions All three JIT compilers perform similar in performance when throwing explicit exceptions. There is an important performance difference however when throwing implicit exceptions. That is, the C2 JIT compiler will avoid allocating a new exception object and filling in the stack trace when the same exception is thrown multiple times in the hot path. RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark The benchmark tests the performance of recursive method calls in classes, interfaces and lambda functions. Additionally, it tests the performance of static vs non-static recursive calls. In this benchmark, the ability to inline recursive calls plays an important role in the performance. private static final Object OBJECT = new Object(); @Param({"256"}) int depth; @Benchmark public Object class_non_static_method() { return cls_non_static(depth); } private Object cls_non_static(int depth) { if (depth == 0) { return OBJECT; } return cls_non_static(depth - 1); } // ... same pattern for the other benchmarks ... Source code: RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark.java RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark.svg Analysis of class_non_static_method The analysis below pertains to the class_non_static_method method, which is interesting due to the differences in performance. The other cases (e.g., interface_non_static_method, interface_static_method, class_static_method) where there is a significant difference in performance rely on similar patterns. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler is capable of devirtualizing cls_non_static calls and performs partial inlining up to a depth of 2. class_non_static_method() 0x7f14704f865a: mov 0xc(%rsi),%edx ; get field 'depth' into edx 0x7f14704f865d: movabs $0x7ff034f48,%rax ; load the OBJECT constant {oop(a 'java/lang/Object'{0x7ff034f48})} into %rax 0x7f14704f8667: test %edx,%edx ; test if edx ('depth') is zero 0x7f14704f8669: je 0x7f14704f8680 ; jump if zero 0x7f14704f866b: cmp $0x1,%edx ; compare edx ('depth') to the value 0x1 0x7f14704f866e: je 0x7f14704f8680 ; jump if edx is equal to 0x1 0x7f14704f8670: add $0xfffffffe,%edx ; add -2 (in two's complement) to edx, effectively decrementing it by 2 0x7f14704f8673: call 0x7f14704f82c0 ; invokevirtual cls_non_static ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::class_non_static_method@5 (line 84) ; {optimized virtual_call} cls_non_static() / 0x7f14704f82c0: mov %eax,-0x14000(%rsp) | 0x7f14704f82da: movabs $0x7ff034f48,%rax ; load the OBJECT constant {oop(a 'java/lang/Object'{0x7ff034f48})} into %rax | 0x7f14704f82e4: test %edx,%edx ; test if edx ('depth') is zero +| 0x7f14704f82e6: je 0x7f14704f8300 ; jump if zero || 0x7f14704f82e8: cmp $0x1,%edx ; compare edx ('depth') to the value 0x1 +|| 0x7f14704f82eb: je 0x7f14704f8300 ; jump if edx is equal to 0x1 ||| 0x7f14704f82ed: add $0xfffffffe,%edx ; add -2 (in two's complement) to edx ('depth'), effectively decrementing it by 2 ||+ 0x7f14704f82f3: call 0x7f14704f82c0 ; <--- recursive call to itself || ; invokevirtual cls_non_static || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; {optimized virtual_call} || ... \\ 0x7f14704f8300: add $0x10,%rsp ... 0x7f14704f8312: ret Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler is capable of devirtualizing cls_non_static virtual calls and performs inlining up to a depth of 8. class_non_static_method() 0x7f017ed9ea5f: mov 0xc(%rsi),%edx ; get field 'depth' into edx ... 0x7f017ed9eacb: call 0x7f017ed9e5c0 ; invokevirtual cls_non_static ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::class_non_static_method@5 (line 84) ; {optimized virtual_call} cls_non_static() / 0x7f017ed9e5c0: mov %eax,-0x14000(%rsp) | ... | 0x7f017ed9e5fa: cmp $0x1,%edx ; compare edx ('depth') against 0x1 + | 0x7f017ed9e600: je 0x7f017ed9e66f ; jump if equal to 0x1 | | ... | | 0x7f017ed9e63d: cmp $0x7,%edx ; compare edx ('depth') against 0x7 |+| 0x7f017ed9e640: je 0x7f017ed9e66f ; jump if equal to 0x7 ||| 0x7f017ed9e646: lea -0x8(%rdx),%edx ; subtract 0x8 from edx ||+ 0x7f017ed9e64b: call 0x7f017ed9e5c0 ; <--- recursive call to itself || ; invokevirtual cls_non_static || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; {optimized virtual_call} || ... || 0x7f017ed9e66e: ret \\ 0x7f017ed9e66f: movabs $0x7fec34d58,%rax ; move the OBJECT constant {oop(a 'java/lang/Object'{0x7fec34d58})} ... 0x7f017ed9e68f: ret GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler is capable of devirtualizing cls_non_static virtual calls and performs partial inlining up to a depth of 6. cls_non_static() / 0x7f46a719cac0: mov %eax,-0x14000(%rsp) | ... | 0x7f46a719cae0: test %edx,%edx ; test if edx ('depth') is zero + | 0x7f46a719cae2: je 0x7f46a719cb57 ; jump if edx is zero | | 0x7f46a719cae8: cmp $0x1,%edx ; compare edx to the value 0x1 |+| 0x7f46a719caeb: je 0x7f46a719cb78 ; jump if edx is equal to 0x1 ||| ... ||| 0x7f46a719cb30: lea -0x6(%rdx),%edx ; subtract 0x6 from edx ||+ 0x7f46a719cb33: call 0x7f46a719cac0 ; <--- recursive call to itself || ; invokevirtual cls_non_static || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; - RecursiveMethodCallBenchmark::cls_non_static@12 (line 109) || ; {optimized virtual_call} ||/ 0x7f46a719cb40: mov 0x10(%rsp),%rbp ||| ... ||| 0x7f46a719cb56: ret \|| 0x7f46a719cb57: movabs $0x7fea347c0,%rax ; move the OBJECT constant {oop(a 'java/lang/Object'{0x7fea347c0})} into rax || ... || 0x7f46a719cb77: ret \| 0x7f46a719cb78: movabs $0x7fea347c0,%r10 ; move the OBJECT constant {oop(a 'java/lang/Object'{0x7fea347c0})} into r10 | 0x7f46a719cb82: mov %r10,%rax ; rax = r10 + 0x7f46a719cb85: jmp 0x7f46a719cb40 ; jump back Conclusions For lambda recursive calls (both lambda_static and lambda_non_static), all three JITs are capable of fully inlining and eliminating the recursive calls. When it comes to recursive calls in classes and interfaces (class_static_method, class_non_static_method, interface_static_method, interface_non_static_method): * The C2 JIT compiler can devirtualize and inline the recursive calls up to a depth of 2. * The GraalVM CE JIT compiler can devirtualize and inline the recursive calls up to a depth of 6. * The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler can devirtualize and inline the recursive calls up to a depth of 8. ScalarEvolutionAndLoopOptimizationBenchmark This benchmark checks if the compiler can recognize the existence of the induction variables and to replace it with simpler computations. This optimization is a special case of strength reduction where all loop iterations are strengthened to a mathematical formula. @Benchmark public int scev_loop() { int sum = 0; for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) { sum += i; } return sum; } @Benchmark public int baseline() { return ((size * (size + 1)) / 2); } Source code: ScalarEvolutionAndLoopOptimizationBenchmark.java ScalarEvolutionAndLoopOptimizationBenchmark.svg Analysis C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler unrolls the main loop by a factor of 16, thereby handling 16 additions per unrolled loop cycle. // Main loop (from 0x1 ... to 0x3e80) 0x7f9ccc4f8dba: mov 0xc(%rsi),%r9d ; load the field 'size' into r9d 0x7f9ccc4f8dd1: mov $0x1,%ebx ; initialize loop counter 0x7f9ccc4f8dca: movslq %r9d,%r10 ; sign-extend r9d ('size') to r10 0x7f9ccc4f8dfd: mov %r10d,%ecx ; ecx = r10d ('size') ... / 0x7f9ccc4f8e20: add %ebx,%eax ; eax = eax + ebx | ... | <-- repeat the same 7 times --> | ... | 0x7f9ccc4f8e30: lea 0x8(%rbx),%edx ; edx = rbx + 0x8 | 0x7f9ccc4f8e33: add %edx,%eax ; eax = eax + edx | ... | <-- repeat the same 5 times --> | ... | 0x7f9ccc4f8e3f: add %ebx,%eax ; eax = eax + ebx | 0x7f9ccc4f8e41: add %ebx,%eax ; eax = eax + ebx | 0x7f9ccc4f8e43: add $0x48,%eax ; eax = eax + 0x48 | 0x7f9ccc4f8e46: add $0x10,%ebx ; increment loop counter by 0x10 | 0x7f9ccc4f8e49: cmp %ecx,%ebx ; compare ebx to loop counter + 0x7f9ccc4f8e4b: jl 0x7f9ccc4f8e20 ; jump back to the loop if less than ; eax stores the result of the main loop The post-loop handles the remaining numbers individually, without loop unrolling. // Post loop / 0x7f9ccc4f8e68: add %ebx,%eax ; eax = eax + ebx | 0x7f9ccc4f8e6a: inc %ebx ; ebx = ebx + 1 | 0x7f9ccc4f8e6c: cmp %r9d,%ebx ; compare ebx to r9d ('size') + 0x7f9ccc4f8e6f: jl 0x7f9ccc4f8e68 ; jump back to the loop if less than ; eax stores the result of the post loop Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler does the sum of numbers using vectorized instructions that operate on 256-bit wide AVX (Advanced Vector Extensions) registers, thereby handling 8 additions per unrolled loop cycle. // Main loop 0x7f63a6d9db7a: mov 0xc(%rsi),%eax ; load the field 'size' into eax 0x7f63a6d9dbaa: lea -0x8(%rax),%r10 ; r10 = rax - 0x8 0x7f63a6d9dbae: vmovdqa -0xb6(%rip),%ymm1 0x7f63a6d9dbb6: vmovdqa -0x9e(%rip),%ymm2 0x7f63a6d9dbbe: mov $0x0,%r11 ; initialize loop counter ... / 0x7f63a6d9dbe0: vmovdqu %ymm3,%ymm0 ; ymm3 = ymm0 | 0x7f63a6d9dbe4: vpaddd %ymm1,%ymm0,%ymm3 ; packed integer addition: ymm3 = ymm0 + ymm1 | 0x7f63a6d9dbe8: vpaddd %ymm0,%ymm2,%ymm2 ; packed integer addition: ymm2 = ymm2 + ymm0 | 0x7f63a6d9dbec: lea 0x8(%r11),%r11 ; increment r11 (loop counter) by 8 | 0x7f63a6d9dbf0: cmp %r10,%r11 ; compare counter against loop counter + 0x7f63a6d9dbf3: jle 0x7f63a6d9dbe0 ; jump back if less equal ; ymm2 stores the result of the main loop The post-loop handles the remaining numbers individually, without loop unrolling. // Post loop ... <--- transfers data from ymm2 (256-bit AVX register) into r8d (32-bit register) --> ... / 0x7f63a6d9dc40: mov %r10d,%r9d | 0x7f63a6d9dc43: inc %r9d | 0x7f63a6d9dc46: add %r10d,%r8d | 0x7f63a6d9dc49: inc %r11 ; increment loop counter | 0x7f63a6d9dc4c: mov %r9d,%r10d | 0x7f63a6d9dc4f: cmp %rax,%r11 ; compare r11 to rax ('size') + 0x7f63a6d9dc52: jle 0x7f63a6d9dc40 ; jump back if less equal ; r8d stores the result of the post loop GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler expands the main loop by a factor of 16, allowing it to process 16 additions during each iteration of the unrolled loop. The method used for calculating the sum of consecutive numbers within the primary loop demonstrates notable efficiency. Each iteration of the unrolled loop computes the sum of every 16 consecutive numbers, such as [1...16], [17...32], [33...48], [49...64], and so on. Within each unrolled loop iteration: * The initial number in the sequence (e.g., 1, 17, 33, 49, etc.) is shifted left by 4 bits, * Subsequently, 0x78 (e.g., 120) is added. This value represents the disparity between the sums of every 16 consecutive numbers within each sequence. In essence, the sum within a single unrolled loop iteration is expressed as seq(Ti) << 4 + 0x78, where seq(Ti) is the initial element from the sequence. // Main loop 0x7fe8bb19963a: mov 0xc(%rsi),%eax ; load the field 'size' into eax 0x7fe8bb199656: mov $0x0,%r8d ; initialize loop counter 0x7fe8bb19968b: lea -0x10(%rax),%r10d ; r10d = rax - 0x10 0x7fe8bb19968f: mov %r8d,0x4(%rsp) 0x7fe8bb199694: mov %r11d,%r8d 0x7fe8bb199697: mov 0x4(%rsp),%r11d ; r11d = value stored previously in r8d / 0x7fe8bb1996c0: lea 0x10(%r8),%r9d ; r9d = r8 + 0x10 | 0x7fe8bb1996c4: shl $0x4,%r8d ; r8d = r8d << 0x4 (shift left by 4 bits) | 0x7fe8bb1996c8: add %r8d,%r11d | 0x7fe8bb1996cb: lea 0x78(%r11),%r11d ; r11d = r11d + 0x78 (120) | 0x7fe8bb1996cf: mov %r9d,%r8d | 0x7fe8bb1996d2: cmp %r8d,%r10d ; compare r10d against r8d (loop counter) + 0x7fe8bb1996d5: jg 0x7fe8bb1996c0 ; jump if greater ; r11d stores the result of the main loop The post-loop handles the remaining numbers individually, without loop unrolling // Post loop / 0x7fe8bb1996e0: mov %r8d,%r10d | 0x7fe8bb1996e3: inc %r10d | 0x7fe8bb1996e6: add %r8d,%r11d ; r11d stores the 'sum' | 0x7fe8bb1996e9: mov %r10d,%r8d ; update loop counter | 0x7fe8bb1996f0: cmp %r8d,%eax ; compare eax ('size') to r8d (loop counter) + 0x7fe8bb1996f3: jg 0x7fe8bb1996e0 ; jump if greater ; r11d stores the result of the post loop Conclusions None of the compilers have implemented this optimization. Nevertheless, the optimization triggered by the C2 JIT compiler, which unrolls the main loop by a factor of 16 and sequentially performs the additions, appears to be less efficient compared to other compilers. Despite the fact that the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler utilizes vectorized instructions within the main unrolled loop, it seems to perform slower than the GraalVM CE JIT compiler, which abstains from using vectorized instructions but employs an efficient formula with scalar instructions. ScalarReplacementBenchmark The compiler can analyse the scope of a new object and decide whether it can be allocated or not on the stack instead of the heap. The method is called Escape Analysis (EA), and it identifies if an object allocation is escaping the current scope. To not be confused, EA is not an optimization but rather an analysis phase of the optimizer. There are a few escape states: * NoEscape - The object does not escape the method or thread, and it is not passed to a call. * ArgEscape - The object does not escape the method or thread, but it is passed as an argument to a call or referenced by an argument, and it does not escape during the call. * GlobalEscape - The object can escape the method or the thread, which means that such an object is visible outside the method or thread. For NoEscape objects, the compiler can remap accesses to the object fields to accesses to synthetic local operands: which leads to so-called Scalar Replacement optimization. @Param(value = {"false"}) private boolean objectEscapes; @Benchmark public HeavyWrapper branch_escape_obj() { HeavyWrapper wrapper = new HeavyWrapper(value, size); HeavyWrapper result; // wrapper is NoEscape, because "objectEscapes" is always false, hence branch is never executed if (objectEscapes) { result = wrapper; } else { result = CACHED_WRAPPER; } return result; } @Benchmark public boolean arg_escape_obj() { HeavyWrapper wrapper1 = new HeavyWrapper(value, size); HeavyWrapper wrapper2 = new HeavyWrapper(value, size); boolean match = false; // wrapper1 is NoEscape // wrapper2 is: // - NoEscape if inlining of equals() succeeds // - ArgEscape if inlining fails or disabled if (wrapper1.equals(wrapper2)) match = true; return match; } Source code: ScalarReplacementBenchmark.java ScalarReplacementBenchmark.svg Analysis of branch_escape_obj C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler allocates the HeavyWrapper wrapper object at the start of the method, as per its declaration. However, later on, as the comparison is always evaluated to false, the allocated object remains unnecessary. 0x7f5ac04f7a5a: mov %rsi,0x8(%rsp) ; store the rsi into the stack at an offset of 0x8 0x7f5ac04f7a5f: mov 0x10(%rsi),%edx ; move 'size' into register edx 0x7f5ac04f7a6e: movslq %edx,%rcx ; sign-extend the value in edx into rcx 0x7f5ac04f7a71: mov 0xc(%rsi),%r10d ; move 'value' into r10d 0x7f5ac04f7a75: mov %r10d,(%rsp) ; move 'value' from r10d into the stack ... <--- Allocates the HeavyWrapper wrapper object ---> ... 0x7f5ac04f7b59: mov 0x8(%rsp),%r10 ; load the value from the stack offset 0x8 into r10 0x7f5ac04f7b5e: movzbl 0x14(%r10),%ebp ; load and zero-extend the byte at field 'objectEscapes' into ebp 0x7f5ac04f7b63: test %ebp,%ebp ; test if 'objectEscapes' is true (non-zero) 0x7f5ac04f7b65: jne 0x7f5ac04f7bb1 ; jump if the 'objectEscapes' value is true (branch not taken) 0x7f5ac04f7b67: mov 0x18(%r10),%r10d 0x7f5ac04f7b6b: mov %r10,%rax ; move 'CACHED_WRAPPER' into rax 0x7f5ac04f7b6e: shl $0x3,%rax ; compressed oops (shift left by 3 for addressing) ... 0x7f5ac04f7b84: ret Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler allocates the HeavyWrapper wrapper object only if the boolean condition imposes (i.e., it reorders the instructions), otherwise it uses the cached wrapper object, hence preventing unnecessary allocations. 0x7f7ceada1b40: cmpb $0x0,0x14(%rsi) ; compare byte at offset 0x14 (field 'objectEscapes') to zero + 0x7f7ceada1b44: jne 0x7f7ceada1b72 ; jump if not equal (branch not taken) | 0x7f7ceada1b4a: cmpl $0x0,0x10(%rsi) ; compare 'size' agaist 0x0 | 0x7f7ceada1b4e: jl 0x7f7ceada1b9a ; jump if 'size' is less than 0x0 (branch not taken) | 0x7f7ceada1b54: mov 0x18(%rsi),%eax ; move 'CACHED_WRAPPER' into rax | 0x7f7ceada1b57: shl $0x3,%rax ; compressed oops (shift left by 3 for addressing) | ... | 0x7f7ceada1b71: ret \ ... 0x7f7ceada1b8d: call 0x7f7cea6ff17a ; new array GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler performs the same optimization as the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler, which explains why this benchmark is much faster for the Graal compiler. Analysis of arg_escape_obj C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler triggers the allocations, inlines the equals method and returns true. 0x7f05384f7fda: mov %rsi,%rdi 0x7f05384f7fdd: mov 0x10(%rsi),%r10d ; move 'size' into register r10d 0x7f05384f7fee: movslq %r10d,%rcx ; sign-extend the value in r10d into rcx 0x7f05384f7ff1: mov 0xc(%rsi),%r8d ; move 'value' into r8d 0x7f05384f7ff5: lea (%r8,%r8,1),%ebp ; ebp = r8 + r8 * 1 ... <--- Allocates the HeavyWrapper wrapper object ---> ... 0x7f05384f80ed: mov $0x1,%eax ; set return value to true ... 0x7f05384f8104: ret Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler method returns true (since the HeavyWrapper objects are equal), optimizing the allocations. 0x7fb9c2da03c0: cmpl $0x0,0x10(%rsi) ; compare 'size' agaist 0x0 + 0x7fb9c2da03c4: jl 0x7fb9c2da03ee ; jump if 'size' is less than 0x0 (branch not taken) | 0x7fb9c2da03ca: mov $0x1,%eax ; set return value to true | ... | 0x7fb9c2da03ed: ret \ ... 0x7fb9c2da0400: call 0x7fb9c26ff17a ; new array GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler performs the same optimization as the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler. Conclusions In cases where the object does not escape the method or the thread (e.g., no_escape, no_escape_array_obj), all compilers are able to eliminate the heap allocations. In cases where the object is passed as an argument but still does not escape the current thread (e.g., arg_escape_obj) or is guarded by a global boolean condition (even though that condition does not allow the object to escape; e.g., branch_escape_obj), and the object remains visible only to the current thread, only the GraalVM compilers (Oracle GraalVM JIT and GraalVM CE JIT) can eliminate unnecessary allocations. StackSpillingBenchmark This benchmark measures the cost of stack spilling. Stack spilling occurs when the register allocator runs out of available registers and starts using the stack to store intermediate values. Loads/stores from memory are much slower than using CPU registers. The benchmark method contains a series of field loads followed by a series of fields stores. Normally, the JIT compiler is expected to group together loads and stores, resulting in less register pressure. In order to force all the loads to be grouped before all the stores, the load_store_spill* benchmark contains a volatile read after the loads but before the stores. private void load_store_spill() { // loads int v00 = load0; int v01 = load1; ... more field loads ... int v24 = load24; // volatile read to force all the loads to be grouped together before the stores non_volatile_value = volatile_value; // stores store0 = v00; store1 = v01; ... more field stores ... store24 = v24; } Note: The C2 JIT compiler has an optimization that first tries to spill onto the FPU registers before spilling onto the stack. This optimization is enabled by default and can be disabled by using the -XX:-UseFPUForSpilling flag. Source code: StackSpillingBenchmark.java StackSpillingBenchmark.svg Analysis of load_store_spill_use_fpu The JIT compilers perform similar in all the benchmarks except for the load_store_spill_use_fpu benchmark. Therefore, the analysis will focus on the load_store_spill_use_fpu benchmark. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler is able to use the FPU registers to spill intermediate values before using the stack. This can be observed by looking at the generated assembly code. Below is a snippet: 0x7f11bc63ab76: mov 0x38(%r11),%r10d ; load field load11 in scratch register %r10d 0x7f11bc63ab7a: vmovd %r10d,%xmm14 ; move scratch register %r10d in %xmm14 0x7f11bc63ab7f: mov 0x3c(%r11),%r10d ; load field load12 in scratch register %r10d 0x7f11bc63ab83: vmovd %r10d,%xmm15 ; move scratch register %r10d in %xmm15 0x7f11bc63ab88: mov 0x40(%r11),%r11d ; load field load13 in register %r11d 0x7f11bc63ab8c: vmovq %xmm0,%r10 ; move `this` pointer in %r10 0x7f11bc63ab91: mov 0x44(%r10),%r9d ; load field load14 in register %r9d ... 0x7f11bc63ac01: mov %r9d,0xa8(%rax) ; store value of load14 to field store14 0x7f11bc63ac08: mov %r11d,0xa4(%rax) ; store value of load13 to field store13 0x7f11bc63ac0f: vmovd %xmm15,%r10d ; move %xmm15 (field load12) in scratch register %r10d 0x7f11bc63ac14: mov %r10d,0xa0(%rax) ; store scratch register %r10d to field store12 0x7f11bc63ac1b: vmovd %xmm14,%r10d ; move %xmm14 (field load11) in scratch register %r10d 0x7f11bc63ac20: mov %r10d,0x9c(%rax) ; store scratch register %r10d to field store11 Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler and GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler and the GraalVM CE JIT compiler do not perform (in this benchmark) the FPU optimization C2 does. Therefore, both compilers will spill intermediate values onto the stack once they run out of available registers. 0x7fd0c6d82c37: mov 0x34(%r10),%esi ; load field load10 in register %esi 0x7fd0c6d82c3b: mov 0x38(%r10),%r11d ; load field load11 in scratch register %r11d 0x7fd0c6d82c3f: mov %r11d,0x4c(%rsp) ; store value of load11 to stack 0x7fd0c6d82c44: mov 0x3c(%r10),%r11d ; load field load12 in scratch register %r11d 0x7fd0c6d82c48: mov %r11d,0x48(%rsp) ; store value of load12 to stack 0x7fd0c6d82c4d: mov 0x40(%r10),%r11d ; load field load13 in scratch register %r11d 0x7fd0c6d82c51: mov %r11d,0x44(%rsp) ; store value of load13 to stack 0x7fd0c6d82c56: mov 0x44(%r10),%r11d ; load field load14 in scratch register %r11d 0x7fd0c6d82c5a: mov %r11d,0x40(%rsp) ; store value of load14 to stack ... 0x7fd0c6d82d01: mov %esi,0x98(%r10) ; store value of load10 to field store10 0x7fd0c6d82d08: mov 0x4c(%rsp),%r11d ; load value of load11 from stack in scratch register %r11d 0x7fd0c6d82d0d: mov %r11d,0x9c(%r10) ; store value of load11 to field store11 0x7fd0c6d82d14: mov 0x48(%rsp),%r11d ; load value of load12 from stack in scratch register %r11d 0x7fd0c6d82d19: mov %r11d,0xa0(%r10) ; store value of load12 to field store12 0x7fd0c6d82d20: mov 0x44(%rsp),%r11d ; load value of load13 from stack in scratch register %r11d 0x7fd0c6d82d25: mov %r11d,0xa4(%r10) ; store value of load13 to field store13 0x7fd0c6d82d2c: mov 0x40(%rsp),%r11d ; load value of load14 from stack in scratch register %r11d 0x7fd0c6d82d31: mov %r11d,0xa8(%r10) ; store value of load14 to field store14 Conclusions The C2 JIT compiler is able to use the FPU registers to spill intermediate values before using the stack. This optimization does not happen (for this benchmark) in the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler and the GraalVM CE JIT compiler. TailRecursionBenchmark A tail-recursive function is a function where the last operation before the function returns is an invocation to the function itself. Tail-recursive optimization avoids allocating a new stack frame by re-writing the method into a completely iterative fashion. @Benchmark public long tail_recursive() { return recursive(n, 0); } private long recursive(int n, long sum) { if (n == 0) { return sum; } else { return recursive(n - 1, sum + A[n % size]); } } Source code: TailRecursionBenchmark.java TailRecursionBenchmark.svg Analysis of tail_recursive The analysis below pertains to the tail_recursive (i.e., recursive) method, which is more interesting due to the highest differences in performance. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler is capable of devirtualizing the tail recursive virtual call and performs partial inlining up to a depth of 2. recursive() / 0x7fc12063aec0: mov %eax,-0x14000(%rsp) | ... | 0x7fc12063aee0: test %edx,%edx ; check if edx ('n') is zero | 0x7fc12063aee2: je 0x7fc12063af73 ; jump if edx ('n') is zero | 0x7fc12063aee8: mov 0x14(%rsi),%r8d ; load array ('A') into r8d | ... | <-- Calculate 'n' modulo size ('1024') and store the result in r10d --> | ... | 0x7fc12063af07: mov 0xc(%r12,%r8,8),%ebx ; load array ('A') length | 0x7fc12063af0c: mov %edx,%ebp | 0x7fc12063af0e: dec %ebp | 0x7fc12063af10: cmp %ebx,%r10d ; compare the array ('A') length against r10d | 0x7fc12063af13: jae 0x7fc12063af78 ; jump if greater than or equal | 0x7fc12063af19: lea (%r12,%r8,8),%r11 | 0x7fc12063af1d: movslq 0x10(%r11,%r10,4),%rax ; load the array ('A') element value in rax | 0x7fc12063af22: add %rcx,%rax ; add rcx ('sum') to rax (array element) | ... | 0x7fc12063af2a: lea -0x2(%rdx),%r9d ; r9d = rdx - 0x2 (i.e., recursive inlining depth) | ... | <-- Similar pattern for adding the next element of the array --> | ... | 0x7fc12063af4d: add %rax,%rcx ; accumulate sum to rcx ('sum') | 0x7fc12063af50: mov %r9d,%edx ; move r9d to edx + 0x7fc12063af53: call 0x7fc12063aec0 ; <--- recursive call to itself ; invokevirtual recursive ; - TailRecursionBenchmark::recursive@23 (line 86) ; - TailRecursionBenchmark::recursive@23 (line 86) ; {optimized virtual_call} ; rcx stores the sum of array ('A') elements Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler is able to devirtualize the tail recursive virtual call, nevertheless does not perform any inlining of the recursive method. recursive() 0x7f362ed7f860: test %edx,%edx ; check if edx ('n') is zero 0x7f362ed7f862: je 0x7f362ed7f8ce ; jump if edx ('n') is zero 0x7f362ed7f868: mov 0x14(%rsi),%r10d ; load array ('A') into r10d ... <-- calculate 'n' modulo size ('1024') and store result in r8d --> ... 0x7f362ed7f887: cmp 0xc(,%r10,8),%r8d ; compare r8d against the array ('A') length 0x7f362ed7f88f: jae 0x7f362ed7f8ee ; jump if greater than or equal 0x7f362ed7f895: shl $0x3,%r10 ; shift left by 3 (multiply by 8) 0x7f362ed7f899: dec %edx ; decrement edx ('n') 0x7f362ed7f89b: movslq 0x10(%r10,%r8,4),%r10 ; load element from array ('A') into r10 0x7f362ed7f8a0: add %r10,%rcx ; add r10 to rcx ('sum') 0x7f362ed7f8a3: call 0x7f362e764380 ; <--- recursive call to itself ; invokevirtual recursive ; - TailRecursionBenchmark::recursive@23 (line 86) ; {optimized virtual_call} ; rcx stores the sum of array ('A') elements GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The GraalVM CE JIT compiler is capable of devirtualizing the tail recursive virtual call and performs partial inlining up to a depth of 6. recursive() / 0x7f603b23ffc0: mov %eax,-0x14000(%rsp) | ... | 0x7f603b23ffe0: test %edx,%edx ; check if edx ('n') is zero | 0x7f603b23ffe2: je 0x7f603b24015f ; jump if edx ('n') is zero | 0x7f603b23ffe8: mov 0x14(%rsi),%r10d ; load array ('A') into r10d | 0x7f603b23ffec: mov 0xc(,%r10,8),%r11d ; load array ('A') length | ... | <-- calculate 'n' modulo size ('1024') and store result in r9d --> | ... | 0x7f603b24000f: cmp %r9d,%r11d ; compare the array ('A') length against r9d | 0x7f603b240012: jbe 0x7f603b240192 ; jump if below than or equal | 0x7f603b240018: shl $0x3,%r10 ; shift left by 3 (multiply by 8) for array ('A') | 0x7f603b24001c: movslq 0x10(%r10,%r9,4),%r8 ; load the array ('A') element value in r8 | 0x7f603b240021: add %rcx,%r8 ; add r8 (array element) to rcx ('sum') | ... | <-- similar pattern for adding the next fifth elements of the array --> | ... | 0x7f603b24012b: lea -0x6(%rdx),%edx ; edx = rdx - 0x6 (i.e., recursive inlining depth) | ... | 0x7f603b240136: mov %r8,%rcx ; Move r8 to rcx ('sum') + 0x7f603b24013b: call 0x7f603b23ffc0 ; <--- recursive call to itself ; invokevirtual recursive ; - TailRecursionBenchmark::recursive@23 (line 86) ; - TailRecursionBenchmark::recursive@23 (line 86) ; - TailRecursionBenchmark::recursive@23 (line 86) ; - TailRecursionBenchmark::recursive@23 (line 86) ; - TailRecursionBenchmark::recursive@23 (line 86) ; - TailRecursionBenchmark::recursive@23 (line 86) ; {optimized virtual_call} ; rcx stores the sum of array ('A') elements Conclusions The main difference in case of tail_recursive benchmark lies in the inlining capability of each compiler for tail recursive virtual calls: * The C2 JIT compiler performs partial inlining up to a depth of 2. * The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler refrains from partial inlining, resulting in relatively lower performance in this benchmark * The GraalVM CE JIT compiler triggers partial inlining up to a depth of 6. TypeCheckBenchmark This benchmark checks the performance of instanceof type check using multiple secondary super types (i.e., interfaces), none being of an AutoCloseable type. private Object[] instances; @Param({"1", "2", "3", "4"}) private int types; instances = new Object[types]; switch (types) { case 1: instances[0] = ManySecondarySuperTypes_1.Instance; break; case 2: instances[0] = ManySecondarySuperTypes_1.Instance; instances[1] = ManySecondarySuperTypes_2.Instance; break; // ... default: throw new IllegalStateException("Unexpected value: " + types); } @Benchmark public boolean instanceof_type_check() { return closeNotAutoCloseable(instances[nextPosition()]); } public static boolean closeNotAutoCloseable(Object o) { // it searches through the secondary supers (i.e., an array of objects) for a type match // but does not find one since "o" is not an "AutoCloseable" type if (o instanceof AutoCloseable) { try { ((AutoCloseable) o).close(); return true; } catch (Exception ignore) { return false; } } else { // it always takes this path return false; } } private enum ManySecondarySuperTypes_1 implements I1, I2, I3, I4, I5, I6, I7, I8 { Instance } private enum ManySecondarySuperTypes_2 implements I1, I2, I3, I4, I5, I6, I7, I8 { Instance } Java, being a type-safe language, requires runtime type checking (based on metadata) to determine type compatibility. Within Hotspot, the class word contains a native pointer to the VM Klass instance, including extensive metadata such as superclass types, implemented interfaces, and more. The efficiency of those runtime checks depends on the type metadata as well as further optimizations performed by the compiler. Note: The difference between this benchmark and the TypeCheckSlowPathBenchmark lies in the fact that, in this benchmark, none of the types used ManySecondarySuperTypes_{1, 2, 3, 4} are instances of AutoCloseable. Furthermore, in the setup method of the TypeCheckSlowPathBenchmark, both an AutoCloseable object and a ManySecondarySuperTypes_{16, 32, 64, 128, 256} object are used, forcing all compilers to compile both branches of the if condition. Source code: TypeCheckBenchmark.java TypeCheckBenchmark.svg Analysis of types 1 The analysis below pertains to the types=1 scenario, which is more interesting due to the highest differences in performance. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler takes the slow path and searches through the secondary supers (i.e., an array of interfaces) for a AutoCloseable type match. Since it does not find one, it returns false. 0x7f291c63815a: mov 0xc(%rsi),%r10d ; get field obj 0x7f291c638160: mov 0x8(%r12,%r10,8),%r8d 0x7f291c638165: movabs $0x7f28a300bab8,%rax ; {metadata('java/lang/AutoCloseable')} 0x7f291c63816f: movabs $0x7f28a3000000,%rsi ; load known Klass* for ManySecondarySuperTypes_1 0x7f291c638179: add %r8,%rsi 0x7f291c63817c: mov 0x20(%rsi),%r11 ; the cache field 0x7f291c638180: cmp %rax,%r11 ; compare the 'obj' type against AutoCloseable + 0x7f291c638183: je 0x7f291c6381b7 ; jump if the types match (branch not taken) | 0x7f291c638185: mov 0x28(%rsi),%rdi ; load the secondary supertypes array | 0x7f291c638189: mov (%rdi),%ecx ; load the length of the array | 0x7f291c63818b: add $0x8,%rdi ; skip the length field | 0x7f291c63818f: test %rax,%rax | 0x7f291c638192: repnz scas %es:(%rdi),%rax ; loop over the array | ; ^ this loop is where the execution spends most of the time |+ 0x7f291c638195: jne 0x7f291c63819f ; if not found, avoid setting the cache field || 0x7f291c63819b: mov %rax,0x20(%rsi) ; set the cache field |\ 0x7f291c63819f: nop | + 0x7f291c6381a0: je 0x7f291c6381b7 ; if found, jump to the true branch of the type check | | 0x7f291c6381a2: xor %eax,%eax ; return false | | ... | | 0x7f291c6381b6: ret \ \ ... 0x7f291c6381bf: call 0x7f291c0c9f00 ; {runtime_call UncommonTrapBlob} Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler The GraalVM JIT compiler takes the fast path by directly checking against the ManySecondarySuperTypes_1 type. Since there is a match, it simply returns false without searching through the secondary super types. 0x7ff7d6d7ecbf: mov 0xc(%rsi),%eax ; get field obj 0x7ff7d6d7ecc2: cmpl $0x102bd38,0x8(,%rax,8) ; compare the 'obj' type against ManySecondarySuperTypes_1 ; {metadata('TypeCheckBenchmark$ManySecondarySuperTypes_1')} + 0x7ff7d6d7eccd: jne 0x7ff7d6d7ecef ; jump if not the same type | 0x7ff7d6d7ecd3: mov $0x0,%eax ; return false | ... | 0x7ff7d6d7ecee: ret \ 0x7ff7d6d7ecef: movl $0xffffffcd,0x484(%r15) ; instanceof check 0x7ff7d6d7ecfa: movq $0x14,0x490(%r15) 0x7ff7d6d7ed05: call 0x7ff7d676a17a ; {runtime_call DeoptimizationBlob} GraalVM CE JIT Compiler The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler performs the same optimization as the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler. Conclusions The GraalVM compilers (Oracle GraalVM JIT and GraalVM CE JIT) optimize the type check by specializing the if condition (i.e., comparing against the ManySecondarySuperTypes_1 type) and taking the fast path, as a match is found, unlike the C2 JIT compiler, which always checks the type against the supertypes array (no match is found). TypeCheckScalabilityBenchmark This benchmark addresses the scalability issue happening while performing type checks (instanceof, checkcast, and similar) against interfaces (so-called secondary super types). The scalability issue is triggered by massive concurrent updates to Klass::_secondary_super_cache from multiple threads, which in turn causes false sharing with its surrounding fields e.g., Klass::_secondary_supers and cache line invalidations. The JDK 21 snippet below shows both fields and what they are used for: class Klass : public Metadata { // ... // Cache of last observed secondary supertype Klass* _secondary_super_cache; // Array of all secondary supertypes Array* _secondary_supers; // ... } Each time a type check is performed, the Klass::_secondary_super_cache is checked first. If the cache does not contain the type being checked, then the Klass::_secondary_supers array is searched for the type. If the type is found in the array, then the cache is updated with the type. @Benchmark @Threads({1, 2, 3 ,4}) public boolean is_duplicated_{1, 2, 3, 4}() { return isDuplicated(msg); } private static boolean isDuplicated(Context message) { Context actual = Objects.requireNonNull(message); return ((InternalContext) actual).isDuplicated(); } public interface Context { // some public API } public interface InternalContext extends Context { // internal framework API boolean isDuplicated(); } public static class DuplicatedContext implements InternalContext { @Override public boolean isDuplicated() { return true; } } public static class NonDuplicatedContext implements InternalContext { @Override public boolean isDuplicated() { return false; } } Source code: TypeCheckScalabilityBenchmark.java TypeCheckScalabilityBenchmark.svg Analysis of is_duplicated When typePollution is false, the benchmark uses a single type DuplicatedContext and the compilers are able to optimize and avoid checking the cache and the secondary supertypes array. In this case, a guard is used that checks if the receiver type is DuplicatedContext and then returns true. 0x7fda40635fda: mov 0x10(%rsi),%r10d ; read oop msg in %r10d 0x7fda40635fde: xchg %ax,%ax ; nop 0x7fda40635fe0: mov 0x8(%r12,%r10,8),%r8d ; read klass word of object in %r8d 0x7fda40635fe5: cmp $0x102acf8,%r8d ; compare against DuplicatedContext klass 0x7fda40635fec: jne 0x7fda40636006 ; jump to deoptimization stub if not equal 0x7fda40635fee: mov $0x1,%eax ; move true to %eax 0x7fda40635ff3: add $0x20,%rsp ; pop the stack 0x7fda40635ff7: pop %rbp ; pop the frame pointer 0x7fda40635ff8: cmp 0x450(%r15),%rsp ; safepoint poll check 0x7fda40635fff: ja 0x7fda40636034 ; jump to safepoint handler if needed 0x7fda40636005: ret ; return When typePollution is true, the benchmark uses two types and the compiler is not able to optimize as above. In this case, each benchmark iteration will check the cache field, and if a miss occurs, it will iterate through the secondary supertypes array. In a multithreaded context, the same cache line is read and written by multiple threads, which causes false sharing and cache line invalidations. This behavior is best observed by looking at the number of L1 data cache misses. When typePollution is false, the number of reported L1 data cache misses is very low. TypeCheckScalabilityBenchmark.is_duplicated_4:L1-dcache-load-misses [?] 10-5 #/op TypeCheckScalabilityBenchmark.is_duplicated_4:L1-dcache-loads 4.998 #/op When typePollution is true, the number of reported L1 data cache misses is almost two per benchmark iteration. TypeCheckScalabilityBenchmark.is_duplicated_4:L1-dcache-load-misses 1.818 #/op TypeCheckScalabilityBenchmark.is_duplicated_4:L1-dcache-loads 25.477 #/op C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler is the slowest when typePollution is true. One interesting observation is that C2 remains slower even when the number of threads running is equal to one (no false sharing occurring). That is, the C2 JIT compiler is in general slower at checking the secondary super types array. The reason behind this is explained in the TypeCheckSlowPathBenchmark. Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler and GraalVM CE JIT Compiler Overall, the Graal based JIT compilers perform close in performance. The only difference is that the GraalVM CE JIT compiler generates additional memory loads for the klass word of the object before checking the secondary super types array. Additionally, the error margins of the two JIT compilers are quite large to draw any clear conclusions. For reference, below is a snippet of the generated assembly code for the GraalVM CE JIT compiler: 0x7f82a323d682: mov 0x8(,%rax,8),%r10d ; load klass word of the object in %r10d 0x7f82a323d68a: movabs $0x7f8227000000,%r11 ; load the base address of the metaspace in %r11 0x7f82a323d694: lea (%r11,%r10,1),%r8 ; compute the address of the klass of the object 0x7f82a323d698: movabs $0x7f822802b798,%r11 ; move klass Context to %r11 0x7f82a323d6a2: cmp 0x20(%r8),%r11 ; compare the _secondary_super_cache with the klass Context 0x7f82a323d6a6: je 0x7f82a323d6b9 ; if equal jump to the fast path 0x7f82a323d6ac: cmp $0x102b798,%r10d ; compare the klass word with Context klass 0x7f82a323d6b3: jne 0x7f82a323d74e ; if not equal jump to the slow path that iterates through the secondary super types array 0x7f82a323d6b9: mov 0x8(,%rax,8),%r10d ; Additional! load again the klass word of the object in %r10d 0x7f82a323d6c1: movabs $0x7f8227000000,%r11 ; Additional! load the base address of the metaspace in %r11 0x7f82a323d6cb: lea (%r11,%r10,1),%r8 ; Additional! compute the address of the klass of the object 0x7f82a323d6cf: movabs $0x7f822802b990,%r11 ; Additional! move klass InternalContext to %r11 0x7f82a323d6d9: nopl 0x0(%rax) ; nop 0x7f82a323d6e0: cmp 0x20(%r8),%r11 ; compare the _secondary_super_cache with the klass InternalContext 0x7f82a323d6e4: je 0x7f82a323d6f7 ; if equal jump to the fast path 0x7f82a323d6ea: cmp $0x102b990,%r10d ; compare klass InternalContext to %r10d 0x7f82a323d6f1: jne 0x7f82a323d785 ; if not equal jump to the slow path that iterates through the secondary super types array ... Compared to the equivalent snippet generated by the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler: 0x7fcda2d7e5e2: mov 0x8(,%rax,8),%r10d ; load the klass word of the object in %r10d 0x7fcda2d7e5ea: movabs $0x7fcd27000000,%rax ; load the base address of the metaspace in %rax 0x7fcda2d7e5f4: lea (%rax,%r10,1),%r11 ; compute the address of the klass of the object 0x7fcda2d7e5f8: movabs $0x7fcd2802b328,%rax ; move klass Context to %rax 0x7fcda2d7e602: cmp 0x20(%r11),%rax ; compare the _secondary_super_cache with the klass Context 0x7fcda2d7e606: je 0x7fcda2d7e619 ; if equal jump to the fast path 0x7fcda2d7e60c: cmp $0x102b328,%r10d ; compare the klass word with Context klass 0x7fcda2d7e613: jne 0x7fcda2d7e66e ; if not equal jump to the slow path that iterates through the secondary super types array 0x7fcda2d7e619: movabs $0x7fcd2802b520,%rax ; move klass InternalContext to %rax 0x7fcda2d7e623: cmp 0x20(%r11),%rax ; compare the _secondary_super_cache with the klass InternalContext 0x7fcda2d7e627: je 0x7fcda2d7e63a ; if equal jump to the fast path 0x7fcda2d7e62d: cmp $0x102b520,%r10d ; compare the klass word with InternalContext klass 0x7fcda2d7e634: jne 0x7fcda2d7e6a5 ; if not equal jump to the slow path that iterates through the secondary super types array ... Conclusions This scalability issue is not specific to a particular JIT compiler, although some differences can be observed in the results. This issue is already discussed and reported in JDK-8180450. A temporary backoff mechanism is proposed in JDK-8316180 and implemented in PR-15718. This issue is also described in Francesco Nigro's post and the Netflix blog post. The TypeCheckSlowPathBenchmark benchmark further investigates the performance of the slow path that iterates through the secondary super types array when false sharing is not occurring. TypeCheckSlowPathBenchmark This benchmark checks the slow path of instanceof type checks using multiple secondary super types (i.e., interfaces) and always takes the slow path by iterating over the secondary super types array. Compared to the TypeCheckScalabilityBenchmark, this benchmark does not cause false sharing. It only compares the performance of the slow path of type checking across the different JITs. @Benchmark public boolean instanceof_type_check() { return closeNotAutoCloseable(obj); } public static boolean closeNotAutoCloseable(Object o) { // it searches through the secondary supers for a type match // but does not find one since "o" is not an "AutoCloseable" type // "o" is actually of type "ManySecondarySuperTypes_*" if (o instanceof AutoCloseable) { try { ((AutoCloseable) o).close(); return true; } catch (Exception ignore) { return false; } } else { // it always takes this slow path return false; } } private enum SomeCloseable implements AutoCloseable { Instance; @Override public void close() throws Exception {} } private enum ManySecondarySuperTypes_{16, 32, 64, 128, 256} { implements I1, I2, I3, ... I{16, 32, 64, 128, 256} { Instance; } Source code: TypeCheckSlowPathBenchmark.java TypeCheckSlowPathBenchmark.svg Analysis of instanceof_type_check For a low number of secondary super types (16, 32, 64), the GraalVM JIT compilers perform similarly and are faster than C2 JIT compiler. The performance gap between the Graal and C2 compilers decreases however as the number of secondary super types increases. C2 JIT Compiler The C2 JIT compiler loops through the secondary super types array using a repnz scas instruction. 0.17% 0x7f1e7863b2a6: mov 0x28(%rsi),%rdi ; load the secondary_supers array in %rdi 0x7f1e7863b2aa: mov (%rdi),%ecx ; load the size of the array in %ecx 0.46% 0x7f1e7863b2ac: add $0x8,%rdi ; skip the length field 0x7f1e7863b2b0: test %rax,%rax ; set the zero flag to 0 83.32% 0x7f1e7863b2b3: repnz scas %es:(%rdi),%rax ; scan the array for the expected klass (AutoCloseable) 6.34% 0x7f1e7863b2b6: jne 0x7f1e7863b2c0 ; if not found jump to the false branch 0x7f1e7863b2bc: mov %rax,0x20(%rsi) ; update the secondary_super_cache with the klass found 1.56% 0x7f1e7863b2c0: je 0x7f1e7863b285 ; jump to the true branch of the type check 0x7f1e7863b2c2: xor %eax,%eax 0x7f1e7863b2c4: jmp 0x7f1e7863b293 ; jump to the false branch of the type check In modern CPUs, the repnz (scas) class of instructions can have a large setup overhead and therefore be slower than a loop for a small number of elements. The performance of this class of instructions very much depends on the vendor and CPU microarchitecture. Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler and GraalVM CE JIT Compiler Both GraalVM JIT compilers iterate over the secondary super types array using a loop: 0.30% 0x7f342f2470e0: mov %ecx,%ebx ; move the loop counter in %ebx 0x7f342f2470e2: shl $0x3,%ebx ; multiply the loop counter by 8 44.80% 0x7f342f2470e5: lea 0x8(%rbx),%ebx ; skip the length field; compute the byte offset of the element in the secondary_supers array in %ebx 0x7f342f2470e8: movslq %ebx,%rbx ; sign extend to 64 bits 0.34% 0x7f342f2470eb: mov (%r8,%rbx,1),%rbx ; load the klass from the secondary_supers array at index %ecx 0.47% 0x7f342f2470ef: cmp %rbx,%r10 ; compare the klass with the expected klass (AutoCloseable) 0x7f342f2470f2: je 0x7f342f247106 ; if equal jump and store the klass in the secondary_super_cache 44.10% 0x7f342f2470f8: inc %ecx ; increment the loop counter 0x7f342f2470fa: cmp %ecx,%r9d ; compare the loop counter with the length of the secondary_supers array 0x7f342f2470fd: jg 0x7f342f2470e0 ; if greater jump to the beginning of the loop 0.33% 0x7f342f2470ff: mov $0x0,%eax ; move false to %eax 0.79% 0x7f342f247104: jmp 0x7f342f24709c ; jump to not found label 0x7f342f247106: mov %r10,0x20(%r11) ; update the secondary_super_cache with the klass found 0x7f342f24710a: jmp 0x7f342f24708b ; match found so jump to found label Conclusions The C2 JIT compiler can be slower than the GraalVM JIT compilers when iterating through the secondary super types array (i.e. performing instanceof checks), especially when the number of secondary super types is not very large. One of the reasons is that the C2 JIT compiler uses the repnz scas instruction which can be slow on modern x86 architectures. This issue is discussed in the JDK mailing list and in JDK-8251318. JIT Geometric Mean This section describes the normalized geometric mean (GM) for the entire JIT-related benchmark category, having in total 305 benchmarks. This is purely informative to have a high-level understanding of the overall benchmark scores. The process of generating the normalized geometric mean is: * All benchmark scores are converted to the same unit (e.g., "ns/ op"). * The resulting geometric mean is normalized to OpenJDK (i.e., C2 JIT). x86_64 Rank JVM Arcitecture Normalized Geometric Nr. of Unit distribution Mean Benchmarks 1 Oracle x86_64 0.64 305 ns/ GraalVM op 2 OpenJDK x86_64 1 305 ns/ op 3 GraalVM CE x86_64 1.06 305 ns/ op The first in the row is the fastest, and the last in the row is the slowest. arm64 Rank JVM Arcitecture Normalized Geometric Nr. of Unit distribution Mean Benchmarks 1 Oracle x86_64 0.76 305 ns/ GraalVM op 2 OpenJDK x86_64 1 305 ns/ op 3 GraalVM CE x86_64 1.31 305 ns/ op The first in the row is the fastest, and the last in the row is the slowest. To summarize, on both architectures the normalized geometric mean is consistent: 1. Oracle GraalVM JIT is the fastest. 2. C2 JIT is in the middle. 3. GraalVM CE JIT is the slowest. API This set of benchmarks targets common APIs from both the Java Platform, Standard Edition (Java SE) and the Java Development Kit (JDK). API Benchmarks The API benchmarks are measured in average time per operation, which is the score reported by the JMH. Note: Only a small subset of the API benchmarks are included here; in general, we selected those with significant performance differences or representing various APIs. For the complete set, please refer to the repository and the generated plots. AesEcbCryptoBenchmark Encrypts and decrypts data using the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) algorithm in Electronic Codebook (ECB) mode with both padding and no padding options. The process involves various key sizes. It's important to note that AES/ECB mode does not require initialization vectors (IVs) or GCM (Galois/Counter Mode), unlike some other encryption modes. Source code: AesEcbCryptoBenchmark.java AesEcbCryptoBenchmark.svg ByteArrayInputStreamBenchmark Measures the time it takes to read byte array chunks using a ByteArrayInputStream and includes a sanity check to verify the number of bytes read. Note: This I/O benchmark might be affected by various factors, including: * Underlying File System: Different file systems (such as NTFS, ext4, FAT32) might employ distinct strategies for caching, block allocation, and metadata management, thereby impacting I/O performance. * Hardware: The hardware utilized, including specifications of the hard drive or solid-state drive (SSD), such as rotational speed, data transfer rates, and seek times. * Disk Subsystem: The physical hardware components responsible for storing and retrieving data, encompassing factors like disk speed, storage technology (HDD vs. SSD), and more. * Operating System Disk Scheduler: The OS disk scheduler manages the order in which read and write requests are processed on the storage device. Various schedulers prioritize requests differently, influencing the sequence and efficiency of I/O operations. * Caching: Both the OS and hardware often employ caching mechanisms to boost the I/O performance. This entails frequently accessed data being stored in a cache to curtail the necessity of accessing slower storage media, such as disks. * File Size and Data Patterns: The size of files being read or written and the patterns of data access can exert influence on I/ O performance. Sequential access might outpace random access, and disparities in performance characteristics might emerge between larger and smaller files. Source code: ByteArrayInputStreamBenchmark.java ByteArrayInputStreamBenchmark.svg DateTimeFormatterBenchmark Evaluates the performance of DateTimeFormatter creation using various styles and patterns available in Java's DateTimeFormatter API. This benchmark measures the efficiency of DateTimeFormatter instantiation for localized date, time, and datetime formats employing different styles. Additionally, it assesses the speed of DateTimeFormatter creation using a custom-defined pattern with specific formatting elements and locale. Source code: DateTimeFormatterBenchmark.java DateTimeFormatterBenchmark.svg DsaEcSignatureBenchmark The benchmark measures the performance of ECDSA (elliptic curve DSA) using different message lengths, key lengths and hash sizes. Source code: DsaEcSignatureBenchmark.java DsaEcSignatureBenchmark.svg HmacCryptoBenchmark Generates an HMAC (Hash-based Message Authentication Code) for an input byte array using various algorithms (e.g., MD5, SHA*). No explicit provider is specified; thus, the standard JDK provider is used. Source code: HmacCryptoBenchmark.java HmacCryptoBenchmark.svg MessageDigestBenchmark Generates a message digest (i.e., a hash representation) for an input byte array using various algorithms (e.g., MD5, SHA, SHA3). No explicit provider is declared; thus, the standard JDK provider is utilized. Source code: MessageDigestBenchmark.java MessageDigestBenchmark.svg StringConcatenationBenchmark Benchmark measuring the performance of various concatenation methods using different data types (e.g., String, int, float, char, long, double, boolean, Object): * StringBuilder * StringBuffer * String.concat() * plus operator * StringTemplate The input String and char contain characters encoded in either Latin-1 or UTF-16. Note: The benchmark might encompass different allocations, potentially impacting the overall results. @Benchmark public String string_builder() { // Do not explicitly set a capacity return new StringBuilder() .append(aString).append(anInt).append(aFloat).append(aChar) .append(aLong).append(aDouble).append(aBool).append(anObject) .toString(); } @Benchmark public String string_buffer() { // Do not explicitly set a capacity return new StringBuffer() .append(aString).append(anInt).append(aFloat).append(aChar) .append(aLong).append(aDouble).append(aBool).append(anObject) .toString(); } @Benchmark public String string_concat() { return new String() .concat(aString).concat(valueOf(anInt)).concat(valueOf(aFloat)).concat(valueOf(aChar)) .concat(valueOf(aLong)).concat(valueOf(aDouble)).concat(valueOf(aBool)).concat(valueOf(anObject)); } @Benchmark public String plus_operator() { return aString + anInt + aFloat+ aChar + aLong + aDouble + aBool + anObject ; } @Benchmark public String string_template() { return STR."\{aString}\{anInt}\{aFloat}\{aChar}\{aLong}\{aDouble}\{aBool}\{anObject}"; } Source code: StringConcatenationBenchmark.java StringConcatenationBenchmark.svg Remarks The STR template processor (refer to JEP 430: String Templates) and the plus operator exhibit lower execution times (i.e., better performance) compared to other methods tested in this benchmark. StringFormatBenchmark This benchmark measures the performance of different formatting approaches utilizing various data types (e.g., String, int, float, char, long, double, boolean, Object) using different methods: * String.format() * MessageFormat.format() with both constant or dynamically allocated message formatter in the benchmark method * String.formatted() * FormatProcessor The input String and char consist of characters encoded in either Latin-1 or UTF-16. Note: The benchmark might encompass different allocations, potentially impacting the overall results. @Benchmark public String string_format() { return String.format( "%s%d%.8f%s%d%.17f%b%s", aString, anInt, aFloat, aChar, aLong, aDouble, aBool, anObject); } @Benchmark public String message_format_new() { final MessageFormat mf = new MessageFormat( "{0}{1,number,0}{2,number,0.00000000}{3}{4,number,0}{5,number,0.00000000000000000}{6}{7,number,0}"); return mf.format(new Object[] {aString, anInt, aFloat, aChar, aLong, aDouble, aBool, anObject}); } @Benchmark public String message_format_constant() { return MESSAGE_FORMAT.format(new Object[] {aString, anInt, aFloat, aChar, aLong, aDouble, aBool, anObject}); } @Benchmark public String string_formatted() { return "%s%d%.8f%s%d%.17f%b%s".formatted(aString, anInt, aFloat, aChar, aLong, aDouble, aBool, anObject); } @Benchmark public String format_processor() { return FMT."%s\{aString}%d\{anInt}%.8f\{aFloat}%s\{aChar}%d\{aLong}%.17f\{aDouble}%b\{aBool}%s\{anObject}"; } Source code: StringFormatBenchmark.java StringFormatBenchmark.svg Remarks The FMT template processor (refer to JEP 430: String Templates) demonstrates significantly lower execution times (i.e., better performance) compared to all other methods tested in this benchmark. On the other side, MessageFormat shows considerably slower performance and should be avoided in real applications, either used directly or indirectly. StringPatternSplitBenchmark Measures the performance of splitting a very long text (i.e., a sequence of words separated by empty spaces) by either one or two characters, using the below methods: * Pattern.split() * String.split() String.split() has a fast-path for: * one-char String and this character is not one of the RegEx's meta characters .$|()[{^?*+\\ * or two-char String and the first char is the backslash and the second is not the ascii digit or ascii letter. Pattern.split() reuses the pattern, it saves a few cycles in comparison to String.split() The number of allocations during this benchmark is not neglectable, and it influences the overall results. It could be partially mitigated by using a shorter text. @Param({"_", "__"}) private String regexp; private String text; private Pattern pattern; @Benchmark public String[] string_split() { return text.split(regexp); } @Benchmark public String[] pattern_split() { return pattern.split(text); } Source code: StringPatternSplitBenchmark.java StringPatternSplitBenchmark.svg Analysis of pattern_split The flame graphs below pertain to the pattern_split method. C2 JIT Compiler StringPatternSplitBenchmar.png Oracle GraalVM JIT Compiler StringPatternSplitBenchmark.png GraalVM CE JIT Compiler StringPatternSplitBenchmark.png Remarks At first glance, it appears that the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler does a better job of inlining. However, a more in-depth analysis might be necessary to identify the differences, as they may not be very obvious to reveal based solely on the generated assembly code. VPThreadCpuBoundBenchmark This benchmark evaluates the performance of running CPU-bound (or CPU-intensive) tasks, which are submitted to either a virtual thread executor service or a cached thread pool. Additionally, various backoff strategies (e.g., thread parking, yield, or none) are triggered while running CPU-bound tasks. These strategies may (or may not) unpin the virtual thread from its carrier. A configurable number of tasks are submitted to an executor using a burst approach, and the benchmark awaits the completion of all these tasks. The executor is cached within the JMH state. The level of parallelism for both platform and virtual threads is set to the same value to facilitate an evaluation of their performance under comparable conditions. The benchmark method accounts for the task submission cost to the initially idle executor, which, within the scope of this specific use case, is deemed negligible. When a virtual thread executes CPU-bound code without involving any blocking I/O or other blocking JDK methods, the virtual thread cannot be unmounted. Consequently, it will not yield and may continue to occupy its carrier thread until it completes its computation. To address this, the CPU-bound tasks include explicit various backoff strategies (such as yielding, or parking) in an attempt to de-schedule the running thread and permit other threads to execute on the CPU, thereby facilitating the unmounting of the virtual thread from its carrier. Source code: VPThreadCpuBoundBenchmark.java VPThreadCpuBoundBenchmark.svg Remarks When the workload is CPU-bound, virtual threads may not offer a substantial improvement in application throughput compared to traditional platform threads. Additionally, in scenarios of CPU-bound workloads, having significantly more threads than processor cores does not necessarily enhance throughput. As a side note, also using virtual threads solely for heavy in-memory processing may not align with their intended use case. VPThreadSynchronizationBenchmark This benchmark evaluates the performance of running synchronized blocks in the context of virtual threads, comparing them with platform threads. The synchronization mechanism is implemented using lock objects, reentrant locks, and no locks at all. Additionally, various backoff strategies (e.g., thread parking, sleeping, or none) are triggered within the synchronized execution block. These strategies may (or may not) unpin the virtual thread from its carrier. A configurable number of tasks are submitted to an executor using a burst approach, and the benchmark awaits the completion of all these tasks. The executor is cached within the JMH state. The parallelism level for both platform and virtual threads is restricted the same value to evaluate their performance under comparable conditions. The benchmark method includes the cost of task submission to the initially idle executor, which, for this specific use case, is considered negligible. Note: When a virtual thread executes code inside a synchronized block or method it cannot be unmounted during the blocking operation because it is pinned to its carrier (i.e., the platform thread). The total number of tasks to be executed by either a virtual or a platform thread is proportional to the number of available CPUs multiplied by a factor of 384 (i.e., which makes 384 x 6 = 2,304 on the particular x86_64 target machine the benchmark was run on). @Param({"384"}) private int loadFactor; @Param private LockType lockType; @Param private BackoffType backoffType; @Benchmark public void synchronized_calls(ExecutorState executor) throws InterruptedException { final CountDownLatch latch = new CountDownLatch(tasks); IntStream.range(0, tasks).forEach(i -> executor.service.submit(synchronizedWork(latch))); latch.await(); } private Runnable synchronizedWork(CountDownLatch latch) { return switch (lockType) { case OBJECT_LOCK -> () -> { synchronized (objectLock) { try { backoff(); } finally { latch.countDown(); } } }; case REENTRANT_LOCK -> () -> { reentrantLock.lock(); try { backoff(); } finally { reentrantLock.unlock(); latch.countDown(); } }; case NO_LOCK -> () -> { try { backoff(); } finally { latch.countDown(); } }; }; } private void backoff() { switch (backoffType) { case NONE: break; case SLEEP: try { Thread.sleep(0, 1); } catch (InterruptedException e) { throw new RuntimeException(e); } break; case PARK: LockSupport.parkNanos(1); break; default: throw new UnsupportedOperationException("Unsupported backoff type " + backoffType); } } Source code: VPThreadSynchronizationBenchmark.java VPThreadSynchronizationBenchmark_param_backoffType_NONE.svg VPThreadSynchronizationBenchmark_param_backoffType_PARK.svg Analysis Analysis of backoffType:NONE In this scenario, platform threads demonstrate lower execution times (i.e., better performance) compared to virtual threads across the tested synchronization mechanisms. Based on the reported performance event statistics, the major differences between virtual and platform threads can be summarized as follows: * Virtual threads exhibit slightly higher instructions per cycle (IPC) than platform threads. * Platform threads have relatively lower cache misses (e.g., L1-dcache-load-misses, LLC-load-misses) than virtual threads. * Platform threads tend to have less branches and branch-misses than platform virtual. * context-switches occur more frequently in platform threads than in virtual threads. * Virtual threads consume more CPU cycles than platform threads. // Platform thread stats Perf Event (lockType) Mode Score Units IPC OBJECT_LOCK avgt 0.596 insns/clk L1-dcache-load-misses OBJECT_LOCK avgt 42399.031 #/op LLC-load-misses OBJECT_LOCK avgt 8.115 #/op branch-misses OBJECT_LOCK avgt 3187.952 #/op branches OBJECT_LOCK avgt 373101.145 #/op context-switches OBJECT_LOCK avgt 56.866 #/op cycles OBJECT_LOCK avgt 3291424.505 #/op IPC REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 0.593 insns/clk L1-dcache-load-misses REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 45007.877 #/op LLC-load-misses REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 8.138 #/op branch-misses REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 3328.792 #/op branches REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 388046.866 #/op context-switches REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 59.633 #/op cycles REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 3462417.099 #/op IPC NO_LOCK avgt 0.566 insns/clk L1-dcache-load-misses NO_LOCK avgt 42033.874 #/op LLC-load-misses NO_LOCK avgt 7.947 #/op branch-misses NO_LOCK avgt 3027.985 #/op branches NO_LOCK avgt 342940.528 #/op context-switches NO_LOCK avgt 54.597 #/op cycles NO_LOCK avgt 3182397.387 #/op // Virtual thread stats Perf Event (lockType) Mode Score Units IPC OBJECT_LOCK avgt 1.272 insns/clk L1-dcache-load-misses OBJECT_LOCK avgt 196249.216 #/op LLC-load-misses OBJECT_LOCK avgt 799.745 #/op branch-misses OBJECT_LOCK avgt 30627.527 #/op branches OBJECT_LOCK avgt 3710927.299 #/op context-switches OBJECT_LOCK avgt 8.620 #/op cycles OBJECT_LOCK avgt 17970218.767 #/op IPC REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 1.254 insns/clk L1-dcache-load-misses REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 206329.513 #/op LLC-load-misses REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 804.014 #/op branch-misses REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 31657.944 #/op branches REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 3737761.434 #/op context-switches REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 8.665 #/op cycles REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 18440844.889 #/op IPC NO_LOCK avgt 1.284 insns/clk L1-dcache-load-misses NO_LOCK avgt 180438.009 #/op LLC-load-misses NO_LOCK avgt 762.020 #/op branch-misses NO_LOCK avgt 29958.780 #/op branches NO_LOCK avgt 3693926.389 #/op context-switches NO_LOCK avgt 8.596 #/op cycles NO_LOCK avgt 17792312.604 #/op Analysis of backoffType:PARK In this scenario, virtual threads demonstrate lower execution times (i.e., better performance) compared to platform threads across the tested synchronization mechanisms. Based on the reported performance event statistics, the major differences between virtual and platform threads can be summarized as follows: * Virtual threads exhibit slightly higher instructions per cycle (IPC) than platform threads. * Virtual threads tend to have typically lower LLC-load-misses compared to platform threads. * context-switches occur more frequently in platform threads than in virtual threads. * Platform threads consume more CPU cycles than virtual threads. // Platform thread stats Perf Event (lockType) Mode Score Units IPC OBJECT_LOCK avgt 0.687 insns/clk L1-dcache-load-misses OBJECT_LOCK avgt 640480.970 #/op LLC-load-misses OBJECT_LOCK avgt 4576.228 #/op branch-misses OBJECT_LOCK avgt 165016.601 #/op branches OBJECT_LOCK avgt 7692129.353 #/op context-switches OBJECT_LOCK avgt 4614.475 #/op cycles OBJECT_LOCK avgt 58254748.922 #/op IPC REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 0.476 insns/clk L1-dcache-load-misses REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 1035894.902 #/op LLC-load-misses REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 1832.722 #/op branch-misses REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 241965.715 #/op branches REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 13410429.953 #/op context-switches REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 4597.790 #/op cycles REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 134215963.863 #/op IPC NO_LOCK avgt 0.767 insns/clk L1-dcache-load-misses NO_LOCK avgt 433751.100 #/op LLC-load-misses NO_LOCK avgt 674.073 #/op branch-misses NO_LOCK avgt 90173.994 #/op branches NO_LOCK avgt 4060838.177 #/op context-switches NO_LOCK avgt 2311.858 #/op cycles NO_LOCK avgt 25152425.987 #/op // Virtual thread stats Perf Event (lockType) Mode Score Units IPC OBJECT_LOCK avgt 0.946 insns/clk L1-dcache-load-misses OBJECT_LOCK avgt 449792.578 #/op LLC-load-misses OBJECT_LOCK avgt 940.029 #/op branch-misses OBJECT_LOCK avgt 86623.166 #/op branches OBJECT_LOCK avgt 5401765.289 #/op context-switches OBJECT_LOCK avgt 309.747 #/op cycles OBJECT_LOCK avgt 31854171.315 #/op IPC REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 0.562 insns/clk L1-dcache-load-misses REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 2108434.887 #/op LLC-load-misses REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 2639.517 #/op branch-misses REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 447183.746 #/op branches REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 16424976.383 #/op context-switches REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 5217.440 #/op cycles REENTRANT_LOCK avgt 158322287.830 #/op IPC NO_LOCK avgt 0.983 insns/clk L1-dcache-load-misses NO_LOCK avgt 598629.320 #/op LLC-load-misses NO_LOCK avgt 1340.012 #/op branch-misses NO_LOCK avgt 150567.950 #/op branches NO_LOCK avgt 5867568.869 #/op context-switches NO_LOCK avgt 208.967 #/op cycles NO_LOCK avgt 35865001.555 #/op Conclusions This benchmark dispels the myth that replacing platform threads in the application with virtual threads will always increase performance. In general, virtual threads have fewer context switches and potentially higher IPC than platform threads, but the overall performance may also depend on various other factors. Therefore, the decision to simply switch from platform threads to virtual threads should be carefully considered since virtual threads have very specific use cases and are not always the best choice. API Geometric Mean This section describes the normalized GM for the entire miscellaneous benchmarks category, having in total 725 benchmarks. This is purely informative to have a high-level understanding of the overall benchmark scores. The process of generating the normalized geometric mean is: * All benchmark scores are converted to the same unit (e.g., "ns/ op") * The resulting geometric mean is normalized to OpenJDK x86_64 Rank JVM Arcitecture Normalized Geometric Nr. of Unit distribution Mean Benchmarks 1 Oracle x86_64 0.82 725 ns/ GraalVM op 2 OpenJDK x86_64 1 725 ns/ op 3 GraalVM CE x86_64 1.02 725 ns/ op The first in the row is the fastest, and the last in the row is the slowest. arm64 Rank JVM Arcitecture Normalized Geometric Nr. of Unit distribution Mean Benchmarks 1 Oracle arm64 0.86 725 ns/ GraalVM op 2 GraalVM CE arm64 0.99 725 ns/ op 3 OpenJDK arm64 1 725 ns/ op The first in the row is the fastest, and the last in the row is the slowest. To summarize, on both architectures based on the normalized geometric mean: 1. Oracle GraalVM is the fastest. 2. OpenJDK and GraalVM CE are very close and have interchangeable positions. Miscellaneous This set of benchmarks covers a broader spectrum of classical programs using different techniques, various programming styles, and high-level Java APIs. Miscellaneous Benchmarks The miscellaneous benchmarks are measured in average time per operation, which is the score reported by the JMH. Note: Only a small subset of the miscellaneous benchmarks are included here; in general, we selected those with significant performance differences or representing various APIs. For the complete set, please refer to the repository and the generated plots. DijkstraShortestPathBenchmark Dijkstra's algorithm is an algorithm for finding the shortest paths between a random source node and all other nodes in a graph. The benchmark uses two alternative approaches, each using different data structures to represent the graph, as follows: 1. an adjacency matrix 2. an adjacency list with a binary heap (min heap) Adjacency Matrix: This implementation uses an adjacency matrix representation of the graph combined with a standard priority queue (binary heap). The adjacency matrix represents the graph as a 2D array, where the value in the matrix indicates the weight of the edge between two nodes. This approach is suitable for dense graphs but can be inefficient for sparse graphs due to its space usage. The time complexity is O(V^2) due to the cost of accessing the matrix for each node during relaxation. Adjacency List with Binary Heap (Min Heap): This implementation uses a standard binary heap (min heap) combined with an adjacency list representation of the graph. The binary heap is implemented manually using a list of queues (buckets). It can offer better performance than binary heaps for dense graphs with small and non-negative edge weights. Its time complexity is O((V + E) log V). Note: These implementations offer different trade-offs in terms of time complexity, space efficiency, and performance characteristics. The best choice of implementation depends on the specific graph structure, the distribution of edge weights, etc. Source code: DijkstraShortestPathBenchmark.java DijkstraShortestPathBenchmark.svg GameOfLifeBenchmark Conway's Game of Life, is a cellular automaton devised by mathematician John Conway in 1970. It is a mathematical "zero-player" game, meaning that its evolution is determined by its initial state, with no further input required. The Game of Life is played on a 2D grid of cells, where each cell can be in one of two states: alive or dead (0 or 1). The game progresses through generations, with the state of each cell in a generation being determined by the state of its neighboring cells in the previous generation according to a set of rules. These rules are based on the concept of birth, death, and survival: * Birth: A dead cell with exactly three live neighbors becomes a live. * Death: A live cell with fewer than two live neighbors (underpopulation) or more than three live neighbors (overpopulation) becomes a dead cell. * Survival: A live cell with two or three live neighbors remains alive. Despite its simple rules, the Game of Life can produce complex and intricate patterns, including gliders (moving structures), oscillators (repeating patterns), and even structures that can act as logic gates and memory cells. The benchmark involves several alternative strategies: * Game of Life with Functional Programming * Game of Life with Imperative Style Source code: GameOfLifeBenchmark.java GameOfLifeBenchmark.svg HolidayPlannerBenchmark This benchmark simulates a holiday planning system that utilizes the structured concurrency API to collect necessary information from multiple sources for trip planning. These sources include quotations, tourist attractions, and weather data. Each of these sources divides the work into sub-tasks, processes them in parallel, and returns their results, which are subsequently aggregated to form the final response. The implementation compares the performance of using virtual threads with platform threads. The total number of tasks to be executed by either a virtual or a platform thread is proportional to the number of available CPUs multiplied by a factor of 256 (i.e., which makes 256 x 6 = 1,536 on the particular x86_64 target machine the benchmark was run on). Source code: HolidayPlannerBenchmark.java HolidayPlannerBenchmark.svg HuffmanCodingBenchmark Huffman encoding is an algorithm devised by David A. Huffman of MIT in 1952 for compressing text data to make a file occupy a smaller number of bytes. This relatively simple compression algorithm is powerful enough that variations of it are still used today in computer networks, fax machines, modems, HDTV, and other areas. The steps involved in Huffman encoding a given text source file into a destination compressed file are: * count frequencies: examine a source file's contents and count the number of occurrences of each character * build encoding tree: build a binary tree with a particular structure, where each node represents a character and its count of occurrences in the file. A priority queue is used to help build the tree along the way. * build encoding map: traverse the binary tree to discover the binary encodings of each character * encode data: re-examine the source file's contents, and for each character, output the encoded binary version of that character to the destination file. Source code: HuffmanCodingBenchmark.java HuffmanCodingBenchmark.svg KnapsackBenchmark The knapsack problem is a classic optimization problem in computer science and combinatorial optimization. Given a set of items, each with a value and weight, and a knapsack with a maximum weight capacity, the objective is to select items to maximize the total value while ensuring that the sum of their weights does not exceed the knapsack's capacity. The knapsack problem has two main variations: * 0/1 Knapsack Problem: each item can be either included (0/1 choice) or excluded from the knapsack. An item cannot be partially included. This means you can either take an item entirely or leave it out. * Fractional Knapsack Problem: there can take fractions of items, allowing to include parts of an item based on its weight. Some important notes regarding the knapsack problem: * The 0/1 Knapsack problem is commonly tackled using dynamic programming, owing to its complex nature. * The Fractional Knapsack problem is typically solved through a greedy algorithm. This is mainly because a 0/1 version of the Fractional Knapsack problem doesn't exist. The benchmark involves several alternative strategies: * Knapsack with Dynamic Programming (for the 0/1 version) * Knapsack with Greedy Programming (for the 0/1 version) * Fractional Knapsack (with Greedy Programming) Source code: KnapsackBenchmark.java KnapsackBenchmark.svg PalindromeBenchmark Iterates through a list of Strings read from a file and checks, for each String, if it is a palindrome. The benchmark uses a few alternative approaches: * trampolines * recursive * iterative The trampoline pattern is used for implementing algorithms recursively but without blowing the stack (as an alternative to recursive functions). A trampoline is an iteration applying a list of functions, where each function returns the next function to be called. The result (i.e., number of palindromes) is compared against a known constant number to be sure the computation is not wrong. Source code: PalindromeBenchmark.java PalindromeBenchmark.svg PopulationVarianceBenchmark This benchmark generates a population of different ages and then calculates the age variation. Population variance is the average of the distances from each data point in a particular population to the mean squared. It indicates how data points spread out in the population. Population variance is an important measure of dispersion used in statistics. Source code: PopulationVarianceBenchmark.java PopulationVarianceBenchmark.svg PrimesBenchmark Calculates the count of prime numbers up to a specified threshold (e.g., N). The benchmark employs several alternative methods: * Sieve of Eratosthenes * Trial division (i.e., checking if a number is prime by dividing it by all possible divisors up to the square root of the number.) * Miller-Rabin primality test The resulting count of prime numbers is compared against the Prime Number Theorem to ensure the accuracy of the computation. Source code: PrimesBenchmark.java PrimesBenchmark.svg PublicationStatisticsBenchmark This benchmark extensively uses the Collectors/Streams API to perform a bunch of operations on a list of publications and their authors producing different final results (i.e., statistics), including: * the year(s) with the most publications * the number of publications for each author * the author who published the most articles * the authors who have never collaborated with the same publication twice * the year of the first publication * the year of the last publication * the publication with the most authors (for each year). * the pair of authors who published the most publications together (for each year). The list of publications is randomly generated at the beginning of the benchmark and consists of 100,000 items, with each publication having a maximum of 9 authors. All of these publications are generated between the years 1900 and 2000, and in total, they have around 100 distinct types. The total number of authors is 1,000 (which means, on average, every author could potentially write around 100 articles). Source code: PublicationStatisticsBenchmark.java PublicationStatisticsBenchmark.svg WordFrequencyBenchmark Computes the word frequencies/occurrences from a text file. The benchmark uses a few alternative approaches: * iterative * parallel streams * pattern streams Source code: WordFrequencyBenchmark.java WordFrequencyBenchmark.svg Miscellaneous Geometric Mean This section describes the normalized GM for the entire miscellaneous benchmarks category, having in total 82 benchmarks. This is purely informative to have a high-level understanding of the overall benchmark scores. The process of generating the normalized geometric mean is: * All benchmark scores are converted to the same unit (e.g., "ns/ op") * The resulting geometric mean is normalized to OpenJDK x86_64 Rank JVM Arcitecture Normalized Geometric Nr. of Unit distribution Mean Benchmarks 1 Oracle x86_64 0.87 82 ns/ GraalVM op 2 OpenJDK x86_64 1 82 ns/ op 3 GraalVM CE x86_64 1.09 82 ns/ op The first in the row is the fastest, and the last in the row is the slowest. arm64 Rank JVM Arcitecture Normalized Geometric Nr. of Unit distribution Mean Benchmarks 1 Oracle arm64 0.91 82 ns/ GraalVM op 2 OpenJDK arm64 1 82 ns/ op 3 GraalVM CE arm64 1.13 82 ns/ op The first in the row is the fastest, and the last in the row is the slowest. To summarize, on both architectures the normalized geometric mean is consistent: 1. Oracle GraalVM is the fastest. 2. OpenJDK is in the middle. 3. GraalVM CE is the slowest. Overall Geometric Mean This section describes the normalized GM for all categories, having in total 1112 benchmarks. This is purely informative to have a high-level understanding of the overall benchmark scores. The process of generating the normalized geometric mean is: * All benchmark scores are converted to the same unit (e.g., "ns/ op") * The resulting geometric mean is normalized to OpenJDK x86_64 Rank JVM Arcitecture Normalized Geometric Nr. of Unit distribution Mean Benchmarks 1 Oracle x86_64 0.77 1112 ns/ GraalVM op 2 OpenJDK x86_64 1 1112 ns/ op 3 GraalVM CE x86_64 1.03 1112 ns/ op The first in the row is the fastest, and the last in the row is the slowest. arm64 Rank JVM Arcitecture Normalized Geometric Nr. of Unit distribution Mean Benchmarks 1 Oracle arm64 0.83 1112 ns/ GraalVM op 2 OpenJDK arm64 1 1112 ns/ op 3 GraalVM CE arm64 1.08 1112 ns/ op The first in the row is the fastest, and the last in the row is the slowest. To summarize, on both architectures the normalized geometric mean is consistent: 1. Oracle GraalVM is the fastest. 2. OpenJDK is in the middle. 3. GraalVM CE is slightly slower than OpenJDK. Overall Conclusions In this article, we compared three different JVM distributions (OpenJDK, Oracle GraalVM, and GraalVM CE) on both x86_64 and arm64 architectures. We used a set of JMH benchmarks to evaluate the performance of the JIT compilers, considering a non-exhaustive set of optimizations. Based on the normalized overall geometric mean, the Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler is the fastest, followed by the C2 JIT compiler, and then the GraalVM CE JIT compiler. The Oracle GraalVM JIT compiler obtains a geometric mean performance improvement of approximately 23% on x86_64 and 17% on arm64 compared to the C2 JIT compiler. Optimizations such as improved partial escape analysis, more aggressive inlining (including polymorphic inlining, recursive method inlining, constructor inlining, etc.), compact TLAB allocation code for grouped allocations, extended vectorization support, and (in general) cleaner and more compact CPU assembly instructions make a significant difference. The C2 JIT and GraalVM CE JIT score closely overall, but there are fundamental differences between these two compilers. The C2 JIT compiler, in contrast to GraalVM CE JIT, offers a broader set of intrinsics and vectorization support, along with a better mechanism for handling exceptions when the same exception is thrown multiple times in the hot path. However, C2 JIT exhibits limited inlining heuristics, constrained devirtualization of megamorphic calls (i.e., when the number of targets is higher than two), and, in some very specific cases, it can fail to compile resulting in execution of C1 compiled-code or even the Interpreter. On the other hand, GraalVM CE JIT, compared to C2 JIT, demonstrates superior partial escape analysis and inlining heuristics. Nevertheless, it has a limited set of intrinsics and vectorization support, along with poor loop optimizations. Final Thoughts This report should not be considered as a final verdict on which JVM distribution is the best. Our goal is to offer an accurate and transparent analysis based on our knowledge, avoiding bias toward any specific JVM. We do not aim to promote or favor any JVM over another, and we are not responsible for influencing marketing or community adoption. Additionally, micro-benchmarking is often not the best indicator of how good a system will be in a production environment. Instead, it is a starting point for further investigation and could be used as a reference for future benchmarks. It might also be useful to software engineers who want to have a better understanding of the class of optimizations available in a given JVM distribution. Join us in making a difference! Our free-time, and non-profit project welcomes and values any form of involvement. Contact us directly or open a pull request on GitHub to contribute to the Java community. Acknowledgements We are very thankful to the members of the Oracle GraalVM team for their review and helpful suggestions. References * OpenJDK sources * GraalVM sources * JMH sources * Aleksey Shipilev: One Stop Page * async-profiler * How to not lie with statistics: the correct way to summarize benchmark results - Philip J Fleming, John J Wallace Share this... * Twitter * Linkedin * Facebook * Pinterest * Whatsapp Post navigation JVM Performance Comparison for JDK 17 [b2acbe68eded9e2e24f9] By Ionut Balosin Software Architect, Independent Technical Trainer Related Post Performance JVM Performance Comparison for JDK 17 Mar 20, 2023 Ionut Balosin Performance Application / Dynamic Class Data Sharing In HotSpot JVM Apr 2, 2022 Ionut Balosin Performance HotSpot JVM Performance Tuning Guidelines Jan 7, 2020 Ionut Balosin Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] Comment * [ ] Name * [ ] Email * [ ] Website [ ] [Post Comment] [cropped-HeaderImage-1024x381]I speak about Java and software architecture, with a taste for performance, and security-related topics. Corporate Training Catalog Java Performance Tuning Software Architecture Essentials Designing High-Performance, Scalable, and Resilient Applications Application Security for Java Developers Client Portfolio Check out my client portfolio, people from these companies attended my training sessions and workshops. Get in touch for a personalized offer. Follow Me Follow @ionutbalosin Ionut Balosin Software Architect | Technical Trainer | Oracle ACE Associate | Security Champion | Speaker | Blogger * * Proudly powered by WordPress | Theme: Newsup by Themeansar. * Home * Blog * Clients * Contact * Corporate Training Catalog + Application Security for Java Developers Course + Designing High-Performance, Scalable, and Resilient Applications Course + Java Performance Tuning Course + Software Architecture Essentials Course * DHPSRA * External Links * Talks We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. By clicking "Accept All", you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. However, you may visit "Cookie Settings" to provide a controlled consent. Cookie SettingsAccept All Manage consent Close Privacy Overview This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. Necessary [*] Necessary Always Enabled Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. These cookies ensure basic functionalities and security features of the website, anonymously. Cookie Duration Description This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent 11 plugin. The cookie is cookielawinfo-checkbox-analytics months used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". The cookie is set by GDPR 11 cookie consent to record cookielawinfo-checkbox-functional months the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional". This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent 11 plugin. The cookies is cookielawinfo-checkbox-necessary months used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary". This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent cookielawinfo-checkbox-others 11 plugin. The cookie is months used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent 11 plugin. The cookie is cookielawinfo-checkbox-performance months used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance". The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent 11 plugin and is used to viewed_cookie_policy months store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. It does not store any personal data. Functional [ ] Functional Functional cookies help to perform certain functionalities like sharing the content of the website on social media platforms, collect feedbacks, and other third-party features. Performance [ ] Performance Performance cookies are used to understand and analyze the key performance indexes of the website which helps in delivering a better user experience for the visitors. Analytics [ ] Analytics Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. Advertisement [ ] Advertisement Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads. Others [ ] Others Other uncategorized cookies are those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet. SAVE & ACCEPT