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Text is not the enemy: How illiterates' use their mobile phones

  * January 2012

  * Project: Common Sense Net 2.0

Authors:
Hendrik Knoche at Aalborg University
Hendrik Knoche

  * Aalborg University

Jeffrey Huang at Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne
Jeffrey Huang

  * Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne

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Abstract

Despite 800 million illiterate people worldwide little research has
aimed at understanding how they use and appropriate mobile phones. We
interviewed illiterate immigrants living in Switzerland to inform the
design of phones and applications for illiterate users. We report on
their use, coping strategies, and appropriation of mobile devices and
other media to manage their lives. We found that text represented a
valuable component for managing contacts in current smart phones. We
provide design recommendations for mobile phone interfaces for
illiterate and semi-literate users.
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Text is not the enemy:
How illiterates' use their mobile phones
Hendrik Knoche
EPFL
Station 14, IC LDM
hendrik.knoche@epfl.ch
Jeffrey Huang
EPFL
Station 14, IC LDM
jeffrey.huang@epfl.ch
ABSTRACT
Despite 800 million illiterate people worldwide little
research has aimed at understanding how they use and
appropriate mobile phones. We interviewed illiterate
immigrants living in Switzerland to inform the design of
phones and applications for illiterate users. We report on
their use, coping strategies, and appropriation of mobile
devices and other media to manage their lives. We found
that text represented a valuable component for managing
contacts in current smart phones. We provide design
recommendations for mobile phone interfaces for illiterate
and semi-literate users.
Author Keywords
HCI4D, ICTD, illiteracy, mobile phone use, touch screens
ACM Classification Keywords
H5.m. Information interfaces and presentation (e.g., HCI):
Miscellaneous.
General Terms
Human Factors, Languages
INTRODUCTION
Around 800 million people worldwide cannot read or write
their mother tongue. Most of them live in developing
countries and the majority of those in rural areas. The
business model of mobile phones has proved viable in
developing countries and coverage has been improving
despite infrastructural shortcomings in terms of, e.g. the
availability of electricity. Penetration of mobile devices has
taken off despite limited power availability for charging
devices, high call charges, and high cost of ownership
relative to income. While much ICTD (information
communication for development) research has found
problems and shortcomings of mobile user interfaces (UI)
in usability tests, e.g. icons that are not culturally adapted
[7], no local language support and hardly any support for
illiterate users, uptake of these devices "in the wild" is
staggering. It is clear that incentives to overcome initial UI
hurdles are underappreciated [13]. Given the current
technological speed of advances in the mobile domain we
can assume that within the next few years low-end smart
phones (most likely with touch screens) will become
affordable for illiterates in developing countries. We look
at how illiterate immigrants in Switzerland have
appropriated smart and feature phones in their daily life to
inform the design of smart phones UIs to make them more
accessible and easier to use by illiterates.
The background summarizes previous ICTD work on
illiterates and user interfaces (UI) tailor made for them. The
results from interviews we conducted with illiterates
include their use, coping strategies, and appropriation of
mobile devices and other media to manage their lives. In
the discussion we argue for better supporting text in
conjunction with other media in mobile devices for
illiterate and semi-literates.
BACKGROUND
Literacy can be defined in many ways. The U.N. defines a
literate person as someone who can "...with understanding,
both read and write a short simple statement in his or her
everyday life" [15]. Illiterate people may have basic
numeracy skills, i.e., they can to some degree understand,
read and write numbers. The two most noteworthy
exceptions to the dearth of published research on illiterate
mobile phone use are Chipcase [2] and Lalji et al. [7].
Conducting ethnographic studies of illiterate mobile users
in several Asian countries, Chipchase reported that while
illiterates could successfully turn on their phones and
accept incoming calls, dialing numbers to make outgoing
calls proved difficult for some. Nor could the illiterate users
send text messages or use the address book on their phone.
Lalji et al. found that illiterates used call logs in lieu of the
address book [7] but that this proved challenging when
having to remember how many calls ago someone had
called.
More research on illiterates and their needs mobile phone
UIs has been conducted in lab studies. This body of
research concurred about the value of audio support and
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graphics in UIs for illiterates but provided differing
recommendations or went against current design
conventions. Controversial UI topics included the issues of
in- [16] or exclusion [12],[11] of text labels, and use of
drawings [10] instead of icons. Common UI components -
the concept of soft-keys, vertical scrollbars, short text
labels [8], [9] and the concept of a focus in lists [7] - were
described as hard to understand. To some degree, these
findings run counter to Chipchase and Lalji et al.'s results,
the large increase in mobile phone ownership of illiterates
and semi-literates despite employment of these UI
concepts, and that computer literates had to learn these
conventions, too. We need to understand how illiterates
eventually use their mobile phones when embedded in a
socio-technical context in real life. In summary, more
research is warranted, especially considering the rapid
uptake of mobile phones in the developing world by
illiterate and semi-literate users and the current changes in
the mobile phone market with its trend towards smart and
touch screen phones.
STUDY
We carried out semi-structured interviews (60-90minutes in
duration) in cafes or the participants' homes. All
9 participants (7f, 2m) had immigrated from Africa or Latin
America to Switzerland and recently started a course to
learn how to read and write. The interview included topics
such as a typical day, problems or inconveniences faced,
media used in the home, means of communication and
information, interacting with necessary machinery, e.g.
automated teller machines (ATMs), and a focus on the use
of their mobile phones. We wanted to know how they
received and placed calls and managed contacts; we also
probed for other functions that they used.
Outside the phone
Our participants employed a number of strategies to
retrieve telephone numbers of contacts that were stored on
paper, e.g. business cards, telephone registers and pieces of
paper that they could tell apart from spatial arrangements
locations in note- or telephone registers, special colors of
ink or paper, patterns, doodles, or shapes of paper, business
cards (some enhanced with the owners' pictures). Spatial
location in the homes (near or on doors, fridges, calendars,
telephone register) aided recall through opportunistic
encounters and provision of additional context.
Unlike in Lalji's study our interviewees could all tell digital
time and read numbers. Almost half of the Swiss
participants made use of paper calendars to some degree.
Almost exclusively they only noted down the times of
meetings in the slot for a day (on calendars with a grid) not
with whom or where. One exception to these handwritten
notes were cards given to them for doctor's appointments
that contained the time, date and contextual information
about the doctor.
Our interviewees faced problems finding their way around
or recovering from getting lost in the city. They often asked
for directions, described landmarks to friends on the phone
or took taxis home to recover from being lost. They also
had trouble meeting dietary or religious requirements when
shopping for food.
Living in a foreign country, our participants needed to stay
in touch with family and friends in their home countries.
Calling abroad was expensive and they often used internet
cafes' to make calls through special operators or VoIP,
which required synchronizing with the other party to be at a
certain place at a certain time. Many considered
asynchronous communication such as SMS a convenient
and cost-efficient alternative for staying in touch.
Moreover, some had been asked by others to send texts
rather than call. However, the need to read and write
seemed an insurmountable barrier to using the SMS feature
to contact people.
Inside the phone
The director of the school who put us in contact with our
participants was not sure whether they were actually using
mobile phones. However, all of our interviewees owned at
least one mobile phone. The phones they used were
surprisingly advanced and expensive. The latest iPhones or
other fashionable feature phones were common. A typical
response when prompted about their decision to obtain
these high-end phones was: "Everyone has these [pointing
to his iPhone] now - so why shouldn't I? Just because I
cannot read doesn't mean that I'm stupid." However, due
to their high reliance on voice calls many participants had
relatively expensive calling plans and the interviewee
above had been offered the iPhone as a free upgrade to his
99 CHF per month plan.
Rote memorization
The speed at which they traversed the phone menus was the
same as for literate people. We often had to ask our
interviewees to slow down when they were showing us
how they performed certain tasks on their phones. They
mastered important functionality through rote learning:
"After I have clicked on this icon I need to go down twice
and then - click! - I'm done." This was the same technique
that they used to learn how to operate other important
digital interfaces such as ATMs and game consoles. Family
or friends assisted during the memorization phase and they
repeated the procedures in their presence as many times as
needed. Icons served as landmarks and sometimes the
shape or length of text allowed the people to orient
themselves in the interface. Continuous help was necessary
for smart phone owners to download apps, games, music,
ringtones, install customizations (e.g. a different unlock
button on the iPhone) and both celebrity and personal
picture wallpapers.
Text messaging
All of them had received text messages, though they were
often unsolicited. How they dealt with received text
messages varied and depended to some degree on the
content. Some had developed simple heuristics in detecting
unsolicited messages through the length of the sending
telephone number and the fact that the message contained a
lot of text. Most interviewees responded to an incoming
SMS by calling the sender - either they had memorized
how to do this through the context menu or they noted
down the number and typed it into the phone again. Some
of our interviewees treated all messages as spam and had
learned either how to exit the received message mode or
how to quickly delete them without checking the content or
their origin. Others asked for help with the content of the
text messages. None of the interviewees felt particularly
bad about this approach but one who was in a new
relationship found asking close friends to read messages
with romantic content exciting at first but then increasingly
annoying. One participant wondered whether it would be
possible to forward a message to a service and listen to the
content on the phone through a human or machine voice.
Retrieving contacts
Call logs were valued for their quick access and all of our
interviewees made use of them. One recently contacted log,
which aggregated recent calls of contacts and sorted them
in descending order and left the most recently contacted
person on top (either as a telephone number or the name of
the contact) was particularly valued by its user: "This is the
single most useful thing about this phone. One button click
and I'm with my daughter [the only text entry on the top of
the list]." All the interviewees besides her had more than
50 contacts stored in their address books. The few
completely spelled out names (first name or full name) had
been entered by friends or family members themselves. The
names often served as symbolic icons or landmarks since
most remaining contacts or call log entries contained only
numbers. However, the use of some text allowed them to
filter and group large amounts of data. Some had taken
these entries as seeds to venture further. "[pointing to the
textual contact list entry] This is Michel. So I know his
name starts with M. So this must be an M. And I have this
other friend, Mmmmansour. He starts with M, too. So this
is an M and down here [pointing to the keyboard] is the M
and I enter it. But the rest I cannot write and I just make it
up."
Many entries were either approximated by the first letter of
the name supplemented with invented characters, e.g. Mx#-
-, or just the first letter of the name. However, in many
cases, and especially with duplicates resulting from the first
letter strategy, they had to open each contact individually
and try to recognize the contact. They did this by checking
the country code, city code, other salient features in the
telephone number, e.g. repetitions "222" or, in many cases,
its last three digits. The more duplicates, the more onerous
this task became due to the way the address books treat
entries that contain first or last names. In the list views of
call logs and the address book text took precedence and
was shown in lieu of the number that was shown for entries
without text. All of our participants knew how to take
pictures and retrieve them but their use for contacts was
limited.
Three of our interviewees had stored SMS messages that
contained telephone numbers for months as another way of
looking up contacts. "I know X sent me this text message
that has the telephone number from a friend of mine in
Togo. So I go back here [to the inbox of his messages] and
need to find his message. Here this is it. He wrote this text
in front of the number - my wife read it to me. It's the name
of the friend."
Calendar use
Some illiterates used the calendar in their mobile phone to
identify the current date or - for those that had learned the
mapping of written words or their short hands
(MTWTFSS) to the weekdays - the day of the week. A
large proportion of the participants made use of the alarm
functions on their phones and one of them had extended
this to keeping alarms in his iPhone as reminders for
meetings, events and appointments. The only information
stored in the alarm was the time. This was different from
the use of paper calendars insofar as the remaining
information, e.g. the day of the week or the date and the
purpose of the commitment, had to be remembered. This
required diligence in deleting alarms after each event had
occurred, e.g. a doctor's appointment; otherwise the
participant explained that he would get confused and try to
remember what an alarm was supposed to remind him of. A
separate application reminded him when it was time to
pray.
Child mode
The three mothers we interviewed had used their mobile
phones to pacify their children despite worries about the
children changing or deleting information. They were
interested in having a way to secure the phone such that
their children could safely play with it without deleting
contacts, incurring costs, or changing settings.
DISCUSSION
A number of studies have suggested removing text from
UIs for illiterates. However, we think that this might be a
foregone conclusion based on the reliance on UI usability
testing without considering the long-term appropriation of
applications and the different roles of text as part of a status
symbol, a generic or learned symbol capable of
disambiguating, and as an aid in proxy-literacy.
Phones were as much a status symbol for illiterates in
Switzerland as in developing regions [2]. The Motorola
Motofone F3 designed for poor, illiterates was light, very
rugged, and provided audio feedback for its functions from
power on throughout its main (minimal) menu. Its e-ink
screen could easily be read in bright sunlight, it had a
phenomenal battery life (nominally 30 days on standby)
and, at around 20USD it was affordable. However, it was
not a success. According to an unnamed Motorola source
the company had underestimated the aspirational aspects of
the device. Given that many people see mobile phones as
extensions of themselves they did not want to be seen with
a cheap phone.
Chipchase argued against making phones for illiterates
recognizable because of the associated stigma. Text-free
interfaces could give away someone's illiteracy as mobile
phone UIs are often visible to others. The same goes for
constant audio feedback as provided through current
accessibility tools (iPhone, talkback on Android) that target
visually impaired users and read out all UI parts.
All the techniques illiterates used in the physical world to
manage information, e.g., spatial arrangements, shapes,
colors, handwriting and doodles, were absent from contact
lists and calendars in their phones. Pictures in address
books were one of the few exceptions but these are not
always available for contacts, are not searchable and cannot
filter large lists. For our participants text provided some
valuable benefits that many of our participants reaped over
time. In their address books even some text proved useful
to identify, disambiguate or search contacts. Unfortunately,
our participants' address books supplanted the telephone
numbers in the interface in an either text or number fashion
which complicated identification due to many duplicate
names. The current reliance on text as the main method for
accessing and storing information on mobile devices is
making the learning stage for illiterates cumbersome.
However, removing text would cause problems for the
literates enlisted to help the illiterates learn to operate the
device. Omission of text would not allow people to
discover and encourage use with one of humanity's most
valued cultural techniques. Srivastava [14] an India NGO
has started encouraging women to buy mobile phones
English because of the potential to learn various alphabets
through them. Every day exposure to text in conjunction
with audio in same language subtitles of movie content was
also shown to improve reading and writing skills in neo-
literates [6]. Semi-literates in Findlater et al.'s study
benefited from combination of text and audio and had
superior word recognition at the end of each session after
the second day of use [3].
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
We derive the following design recommendations for smart
phones for illiterates from the findings and related work:
A. Avoid stigmatizing physical design of the phone
B. Use text in the interface for controls (plus icons) and
content to aid helpers
- provide audio feedback in the interface as suggested
by Mehdi et al. but on-demand (e.g. to support answer
to "What is this?") and not 'always on' as in
accessibility functions for blind people. In touch screen
phones this will be easier to achieve through a
consistent gesture such as a long-tap.
- provide audio rendition for text messages (read-out
function) as done in [4]
- provide speech to text entry for SMS composition
- integrate audio feedback on maps for textual content
such as street names and landmarks
C. Enhance contacts and their listings by providing
additional graphical discriminators (colours, symbols) as
done in work by Bhamidipaty et al. [1] and Joshi et al. [5].
D. Augment calendars with voice notes, pictures and
drawings/doodles
E. Provide access to voice note reminders based on location
(audible post-it notes)
F. Provide a child-safe (read-only) mode
G. Include name, number, date and time in the last call list
entries
CONCLUSION
Designing for illiterates should leverage multiple media
and create more robust and supple interactions in the socio-
technical setting in which they learn and make use of
mobile devices. Illiterates aspire to owning the same
phones as literates and have effective coping strategies to
overcome their inability to read both in the physical world
and on mobile phones. The latter, however, have reduced
capabilities to structure and recall information. Contrary to
earlier research on illiterates we found that immigrants in
Switzerland made used of contact lists and SMS, to some
degree, to manage contacts. A number of changes to mobile
phone UIs could empower them further: optional text-to-
speech throughout the interface especially for SMS, OCR-
to-speech, the ability to attach voice notes and possibly
pictures to calendar entries and contacts, maps with audio
support for reading out the names of roads and landmarks,
and contact managers that allow for filtering through visual
attributes and read-only access children.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to express our gratitude to Anne Marquis,
Catherine Wick, Annick Mello Spano and the teachers
from Lire-et-ecrire and Francais-en-jeu and all interviewees
for their time; This research has been funded by the Swiss
Development Council in collaboration with
cooperation@EPFL.
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Comparing semiliterate and illiterate users' ability to
transition from audio+text to text-only interaction.
Proceedings of the 27th international conference on
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Supplementary resource (1)

TextIsNotTheEnemy-Knoche, Huang
Data
December 2016
Hendrik Knoche * Jeffrey Huang

Citations (27)

References (21)

... We denote tasks like saving a contact, searching a contact as
Contact management. Both saving and searching a contact are difficult
tasks for emergent users [20,27]. However, new contacts are added
occasionally, and hence, it is probably feasible to get help from a
more experienced user, while searching for a contact is a frequent
task and it is not practical for them to take expert's help every
time. ...
... Emergent users have adopted different strategies to help them
search their required contacts. Some coping strategies studied in the
literature include: writing phone numbers with different colours
[20]; using the call log to select a recently called contact [27];
saving images with contacts [28]; maintaining a very short contact
list and memorizing the last few digits of a number or adding special
symbols like # in the contact names as indicators [27,29]; entering a
number from scratch each time [30]. ...
... Emergent users have adopted different strategies to help them
search their required contacts. Some coping strategies studied in the
literature include: writing phone numbers with different colours
[20]; using the call log to select a recently called contact [27];
saving images with contacts [28]; maintaining a very short contact
list and memorizing the last few digits of a number or adding special
symbols like # in the contact names as indicators [27,29]; entering a
number from scratch each time [30]. ...
Understanding the usability issues in contact management of
illiterate and semi-literate users
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The effective utilization of a communication channel like calling a
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indicated that less-educated users adopt various coping strategies to
store and identify contacts. However, all of these studies
investigated the contact management issues of these users from a
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understanding; and to analyse the differences in the composition of
contact-books of both user groups. The analysis of the log data
confirmed problems that affect the emergent users' communication
behaviour due to the various difficulties they face in storing and
searching contacts. Our findings revealed serious usability issues in
current communication interfaces over smartphones. The emergent users
were found to have smaller contact-books and preferred voice
communication due to reading/writing difficulties. They also reported
taking help from others for contact saving and text reading. The
alternative contact management strategies adopted by our participants
include: memorizing whole number or last few digits to recall
important contacts; adding special character sequence with contact
numbers for better recall; writing a contact from scratch rather than
searching it in the phone-book; voice search; and use of recent call
logs to redial a contact. The identified coping strategies of
emergent users could aid the developers and designers to come up with
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... Most Automated Teller Machines in Africa are imported and the
designs were done without engaging the African users [2]. In most
ATMs English is the most prevalent language on most teller machines
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main menu is in English. ...
... ATM users in most cases spend a lot of time on the machine either
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African users are continuously using different technologies, in terms
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developed in foreign countries and deployed in Africa for use.
Despite the current technologies having enhanced and transformed some
services, there are cases where some devices have been critisised. We
plan to have a workshop on under-standing how African users would
like technologies to be designed for them. We are particularly
focusing on technologies that have had some loss of life during and
after use in Africa. One such is the Automated Teller Machines (ATMs)
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... Illiterate farmers can use the touch screen mobile phone through
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use by illiterate people. However, our results showed that land size
and herd size had a significant effect on the SMS sending rate by
farmers. ...
Developing a data collection application for following up the
small-scale dairy farms' performance in rural areas
Article
Full-text available

  * May 2021

  * Karim Fouad
  * Véronique Alary
  * Annabelle Dubron
  * Sherif Abdelghany

View
... Also, within the next few years, smartphones will become
affordable for illiterate people in developing countries. 27
Recently, there has also been work to develop mHealth applications
that are usable by people with low literacy. 28 29 4. The number of
healthcare-related applications is growing exponentially and now
exceeds 165 000 in the global market. ...
MHealth and big-data integration: Promises for healthcare system in
India
Article
Full-text available

  * Sep 2019

  * Samaneh MadanianSamaneh Madanian
  * David Tudor ParryDavid Tudor Parry
  * David Airehrour
  * Marianne CherringtonMarianne Cherrington

Background: The use of mobile devices in health (mobile health/
mHealth) coupled with related technologies promises to transform
global health delivery by creating new delivery models that can be
integrated with existing health services. These delivery models could
facilitate healthcare delivery into rural areas where there is
limited access to high-quality access care. Mobile technologies,
Internet of Things and 5G connectivity may hold the key to supporting
increased velocity, variety and volume of healthcare data. Objective:
The purpose of this study is to identify and analyse challenges
related to the current status of India's healthcare system-with a
specific focus on mHealth and big-data analytics technologies. To
address these challenges, a framework is proposed for integrating the
generated mHealth big-data and applying the results in India's
healthcare. Method: A critical review was conducted using electronic
sources between December 2018 and February 2019, limited to English
language articles and reports published from 2010 onwards. Main
outcome: This paper describes trending relationships in mHealth with
big-data as well as the accessibility of national opportunities when
specific barriers and constraints are overcome. The paper
concentrates on the healthcare delivery problems faced by rural and
low-income communities in India to illustrate more general aspects
and identify key issues. A model is proposed that utilises generated
data from mHealth devices for big-data analysis that could result in
providing insights into the India population health status. The
insights could be important for public health planning by the
government towards reaching the Universal Health Coverage.
Conclusion: Biomedical, behavioural and lifestyle data from
individuals may enable customised and improved healthcare services to
be delivered. The analysis of data from mHealth devices can reveal
new knowledge to effectively and efficiently support national
healthcare demands in less developed nations, without fully
accessible healthcare systems. https://informatics.bmj.com/content/
bmjhci/26/1/e100071.full.pdf
View
Show abstract
... Since the team is London-based, it is not always possible to
evaluate prototypes in one go or obtain user feedback at all stages
of the development process. We have been working with proxy users, as
in [7], to include textually and digitally illiterate people who live
in Europe [18]. This comes with its own assumptions and complexities
and further work is required to evaluate the effectiveness of this
approach. ...
Experiences from Extreme Citizen Science: Using Smartphone-based Data
Collection Tools with Low-literate People
Conference Paper
Full-text available

  * Jan 2020

  * Artemis SkarlatidouArtemis Skarlatidou
  * Fabien MoustardFabien Moustard
  * Michalis VitosMichalis Vitos

Citizen science gets increasing recognition for its potential to
democratize science and support environmental governance. In this
paper we present our experiences and lessons learned from a set of
'extreme' citizen science initiatives in developing countries, where
data collection applications are used to support low-literate people
in identifying solutions to issues that are of significant local
concern. This paper aims to bring to the attention of the HCI
community of developments in extreme citizen science and contribute
knowledge to the field of HCI4D, especially to research studies which
concern the design and use of smartphones for low-literate users.
View
Show abstract
... Also, within the next few years, smartphones will become
affordable for illiterate people in developing countries. 27
Recently, there has also been work to develop mHealth applications
that are usable by people with low literacy. 28 29 4. The number of
healthcare-related applications is growing exponentially and now
exceeds 165 000 in the global market. ...
mHealth and big-data integration: promises for healthcare system in
India
Article

  * Sep 2019

  * Samaneh MadanianSamaneh Madanian
  * David Tudor ParryDavid Tudor Parry
  * David Airehrour
  * Marianne CherringtonMarianne Cherrington

Background The use of mobile devices in health (mobile health/
mHealth) coupled with related technologies promises to transform
global health delivery by creating new delivery models that can be
integrated with existing health services. These delivery models could
facilitate healthcare delivery into rural areas where there is
limited access to high-quality access care. Mobile technologies,
Internet of Things and 5G connectivity may hold the key to supporting
increased velocity, variety and volume of healthcare data. Objective
The purpose of this study is to identify and analyse challenges
related to the current status of India's healthcare system--with a
specific focus on mHealth and big-data analytics technologies. To
address these challenges, a framework is proposed for integrating the
generated mHealth big-data and applying the results in India's
healthcare. Method A critical review was conducted using electronic
sources between December 2018 and February 2019, limited to English
language articles and reports published from 2010 onwards. Main
outcome This paper describes trending relationships in mHealth with
big-data as well as the accessibility of national opportunities when
specific barriers and constraints are overcome. The paper
concentrates on the healthcare delivery problems faced by rural and
low-income communities in India to illustrate more general aspects
and identify key issues. A model is proposed that utilises generated
data from mHealth devices for big-data analysis that could result in
providing insights into the India population health status. The
insights could be important for public health planning by the
government towards reaching the Universal Health Coverage. Conclusion
Biomedical, behavioural and lifestyle data from individuals may
enable customised and improved healthcare services to be delivered.
The analysis of data from mHealth devices can reveal new knowledge to
effectively and efficiently support national healthcare demands in
less developed nations, without fully accessible healthcare systems.
View
Show abstract
... While illiterate people can master interactions on smart phones
through e.g. rote learning [4] composing text messages represents a
desirable skill and challenge [1]. Audio feedback can be used to help
illiterate users understand what word(s) a text object in the UI
represents [1]. ...
"I Didn't Know, You Could Do That" - Affordance Signifiers for Touch
Gestures on Mobile Devices
Chapter
Full-text available

  * Jan 2019

  * Emilie Lind DamkjaerEmilie Lind Damkjaer
  * Liv Arleth
  * Hendrik KnocheHendrik Knoche

As smartphones have become widely available at low prices, interface
designers need to improve accessibility of mobile applications for
e.g. illiterate users. We evaluated how effectively and efficiently
different signifiers communicated the affordances of dragging and
double tapping touch gestures in a text editor environment. We found
that spatially represented signifiers for dragging (drag handles and
drop shadow) communicated the affordance better than temporal
signifiers for double tapping. The latter appeared only for a limited
amount of time in the user interface and were less effective and
efficient than even a control condition that provided no additional
information.
View
Show abstract
Ways of Connecting Illiterates with the Security Mechanism: Case
Study
Chapter

  * Jan 2021

  * Sunny Ranjan Kumar
  * Meghna Sonkar
  * B. R. Chandavarkar

The digital communication faces lots of security threats and attacks
in the network. Thus, security mechanisms are used as a measure to
ensure safety and to implement the security services for the text
documents, audio, video and other types of data communication over
the network. These security mechanisms are helpful to recognise,
prevent and recover from security breaches, threats and attacks. Some
of the security mechanisms are Cryptography, Public key
certification, Authentication, Digital signatures etc. Obviously,
these are mostly used by educated people in communication for their
data to be remain integrated, confidential and safe. But, a bitter
fact is that there are 30.90% people who are illiterate and have no
education background living in our country and their data is also
very important to them. So, we have to connect those illiterate
people to these security mechanisms, so that they can also
communicate without being in fear of the data loss or data
manipulation. There are many ways to connect illiterate people with
the security mechanisms such as by using facial recognition and
fingerprint as the password in various systems or machines like ATMs,
banks, government offices and also provide information and knowledge
about the prevention from the possible fraud, theft and malicious
activities. This paper discuss those different ways to connect the
illiterate people with security mechanisms and enlighten their lives.
View
Show abstract
Ustaad: A Mobile Platform for Teaching Illiterates
Chapter

  * Aug 2019

  * Syed Ali Umair TirmiziSyed Ali Umair Tirmizi
  * Yashfa Iftikhar
  * Sarah Ali
  * Suleman Shahid

According to a recent statistical analysis conducted in 2018, more
than 40% of the population has no reading or writing skills
especially in rural areas of Pakistan. On the contrary, the mobile
phone users have grown at a very steep rate even with a stagnant
literacy rate. We formed a user-driven approach to research, develop
and test a prototype mobile application that could be used to teach
illiterates basic reading, writing and counting skills without using
traditional schooling techniques. This first of a kind application
provided the user the ability to customize their own learning plan.
Focusing on native language Urdu, the application teaches them the
required skill they need for daily life activities such as writing
their own name, scenario-based calculations, identifying commonly
used words.
View
Show abstract
Understanding Interaction Design Challenges in Mobile Extreme Citizen
Science
Article
Full-text available

  * Jul 2019

  * Veljko Pejovic
  * Artemis SkarlatidouArtemis Skarlatidou

Extreme citizen science is a bottom up practice used to empower
people by supporting them, via processes and technological tools, to
find solutions for local problems, but also to tackle major
sustainability challenges of the 21st century. Methods and tools
based on mobile computing have been utilized by communities in
various parts of the world, from the Congo Basin through the
Amazonian rain forest. However, extreme citizen science initiatives
often face severe challenges as pre-designed technological solutions
prove to be non-transferable to peculiar environments of rural
developing regions. In this paper we collect and investigate evidence
from the implementation of various extreme citizen science
initiatives in the developing world. Our aim is to identify key
obstacles towards their successful realization, mainly focusing on
the problem of user interaction with mobile computing solutions. We
conduct interviews with nine experienced researchers who all
performed extensive fieldwork within these initiatives, and who
reflect on the technology interaction, knowledge organization,
inter-cultural, social and usability issues. Based on our analysis we
report among others, symptomatic difficulties with abstractions,
representational hierarchies, and navigation commands, as well as
potential improvements that mobile technology developers can
implement in order to create a more inclusive environment for extreme
citizen science.
View
Show abstract
Show more
Gender and Education for All: The Leap to Equality Gender, education
and citizenship
Article
Full-text available

  * Jan 2003

  * Madeleine ArnotMadeleine Arnot

View
Designing Mobile Interfaces for Novice and Low-Literacy Users
Article
Full-text available

  * Apr 2011

  * Indrani Medhi
  * Somani Patnaik
  * Emma Brunskill
  * Kentaro ToyamaKentaro Toyama

While mobile phones have found broad application in bringing health,
financial, and other services to the developing world, usability
remains a major hurdle for novice and low-literacy populations. In
this article, we take two steps to evaluate and improve the usability
of mobile interfaces for such users. First, we offer an ethnographic
study of the usability barriers facing 90 low-literacy subjects in
India, Kenya, the Philippines, and South Africa. Then, via two
studies involving over 70 subjects in India, we quantitatively
compare the usability of different points in the mobile design space.
In addition to text interfaces such as electronic forms, SMS, and
USSD, we consider three text-free interfaces: a spoken dialog system,
a graphical interface, and a live operator. Our results confirm that
textual interfaces are unusable by first-time low-literacy users, and
error prone for literate but novice users. In the context of
healthcare, we find that a live operator is up to ten times more
accurate than text-based interfaces, and can also be cost effective
in countries such as India. In the context of mobile banking, we find
that task completion is highest with a graphical interface, but those
who understand the spoken dialog system can use it more quickly due
to their comfort and familiarity with speech. We synthesize our
findings into a set of design recommendations.
View
Show abstract
SymAB: Symbol-Based Address Book for the Semi-literate Mobile User
Conference Paper
Full-text available

  * Sep 2007

  * Anuradha Bhamidipaty
  * Deepak PDeepak P

Developing countries like India are observing an increasing trend in
the penetration of mobile phones towards the base of the pyramid
(lower strata of the society). This segment comprises of users who
are novice and semi-literate and are interested in the basic usage of
the mobile phone. This paper explores one of the basic features, the
address book for its usability and presents an enhanced symbol-based
design to cater for the semi-literate user. The enhancement uses
symbols to replace current text based storage and retrieval and also
includes a call distribution based address book access to align with
the skewed nature of the user's requirements. The results of a
preliminary evaluation of the prototype are encouraging regarding the
value perceived through the design.
View
Show abstract
A comparison of mobile money-transfer UIs for non-literate and
semi-literate users
Conference Paper
Full-text available

  * Apr 2009

  * Indrani Medhi
  * S. N. Nagasena Gautama
  * Kentaro ToyamaKentaro Toyama

Due to the increasing penetration of mobile phones even into poor
communities, mobile payment schemes could bring formal financial
services to the "unbanked". However, because poverty for the most
part also correlates with low levels of formal education, there are
questions as to whether electronic access to complex financial
services is enough to bridge the gap, and if so, what sort of UI is
best. In this paper, we present two studies that provide preliminary
answers to these questions. We first investigated the usability of
existing mobile payment services, through an ethnographic study
involving 90 subjects in India, Kenya, the Philippines and South
Africa. This was followed by a usability study with another 58
subjects in India, in which we compared non-literate and
semi-literate subjects on three systems: text-based, spoken dialog
(without text), and rich multimedia (also without text). Results
confirm that non-text designs are strongly preferred over text-based
designs and that while task-completion rates are better for the rich
multimedia UI, speed is faster and less assistance is required on the
spoken-dialog system.
View
Show abstract
Comparing Semiliterate and Illiterate Users' Ability to Transition
from Audio+Text to Text-Only Interaction
Conference Paper
Full-text available

  * Apr 2009

  * Leah Findlater
  * Ravin Balakrishnan
  * Kentaro ToyamaKentaro Toyama

Multimodal interfaces with little or no text have been shown to be
useful for users with low literacy. However, this research has not
differentiated between the needs of the fully illiterate and
semiliterate - those who have basic literacy but cannot read and
write fluently. Text offers a fast and unambiguous mode of
interaction for literate users and the exposure to text may allow for
incidental improvement of reading skills. We conducted two studies
that explore how semiliterate users with very little education might
benefit from a combination of text and audio as compared to
illiterate and literate users. Results show that semiliterate users
reduced their use of audio support even during the first hour of use
and over several hours this reduction was accompanied by a gain in
visual word recognition; illiterate users showed no similar
improvement. Semiliterate users should thus be treated differently
from illiterate users in interface design. Author Keywords ICT4D,
literacy, semiliteracy, development, accessibility, inclusive design
View
Show abstract
Where there's a will there's a way: Mobile media sharing in urban
india
Conference Paper
Full-text available

  * Jan 2010

  * Thomas N. Smyth
  * Satish Kumar
  * Indrani Medhi
  * Kentaro ToyamaKentaro Toyama

We present the results of a qualitative study of the sharing and
consumption of entertainment media on low-cost mobile phones in urban
India, a practice which has evolved into a vibrant, informal
socio-technical ecosystem. This wide-ranging phenomenon includes end
users, mobile phone shops, and content distributors, and exhibits
remarkable ingenuity. Even more impressive is the number of obstacles
which have been surmounted in its establishment, from the technical
(interface complexity, limited Internet access, viruses), to the
broader socioeconomic (cost, language, legality, institutional rules,
lack of privacy), all seemingly due to a strong desire to be
entertained. Our findings carry two implications for projects in HCI
seeking to employ technology in service of social and economic
development. First, although great attention is paid to the details
of UI in many such projects, we find that sufficient user motivation
towards a goal turns UI barriers into mere speed bumps. Second, we
suggest that needs assessments carry an inherent bias towards what
outsiders consider needs, and that identified "needs" may not be as
strongly felt as perceived.
View
Show abstract
Rangoli: a visual phonebook for low-literate users
Conference Paper
Full-text available

  * Jan 2008

  * Anirudha JoshiAnirudha Joshi
  * Nikhil Welankar
  * Naveen BagalkotNaveen Bagalkot
  * Riyaj SheikhRiyaj Sheikh

ABSTRACT Indeveloping countries, language and literacy are barriers
that prevent,many ,people ,from ,using ,simple ,applications like a
View
Show abstract
Community knowledge sharing : an Internet application to support
communications across literacy levels
Article

  * Aug 2005

  * Shakeel, Hani Umar,

View
Getting in touch with text: Designing a mobile phone application for
illiterate users to harness SMS
Article

  * Mar 2012

  * Elsa Friscira
  * Hendrik KnocheHendrik Knoche
  * Jeffrey HuangJeffrey Huang

A large number of illiterate people -- 800 million worldwide -- are
currently excluded from the benefits of asynchronous and cheap
communication through text messages also known as SMS. Smart phones
with touch screen will soon be in financial reach of illiterate
people in developing countries. Our application EasyTexting allows
illiterate users to listen to received SMS and compose text messages
by augmenting words with touch-initiated text-to-speech support,
icons for frequent phrases and by re-using words from previous
messages. The application sends and receives plain SMS and makes no
assumption on second parties' SMS editors. We present the motivation
for this application derived from interviews and the evolution of the
design along with an exploratory evaluation of the interface both
with illiterate immigrants.
View
Show abstract
The use of icons and labels in an end user application program: An
empirical study of learning and retention
Article

  * Mar 1999
  * BEHAV INFORM TECHNOL

  * Susan Wiedenbeck

This research compared the learning of an application program whose
interface was implemented using buttons with text labels, icons, or a
fully redundant combination of icons and text labels. The objective
was to: 1) evaluate the success of novice computer users in initially
learning to use the application and in later use in a delayed session
and 2) measure users' attitudes toward the application. Each session
was divided into four blocks, and performance in the blocks was
measured in terms of correctness of the tasks performed, time to
perform tasks, and number of times the help facility was accessed. In
addition, at the end of each session the participants' perceptions of
the ease of use and usefulness of the software were measured. The
results showed that in the first session performance was best on the
label-only and icon-label interfaces. Performance on the icon-only
interface was much poorer in session 1, particularly in terms of time
and help references, but improved in session 2 to the point where it
approached the performance on the other interfaces. Retention of
skill between the initial and the delayed session was worse for the
icon-only interface, but the effect was short-lived. Perceptions of
ease of use were consistently better for the icon-label interface
than for the other two interfaces. Perceptions of usefulness were
higher for the icon-only and icon-label interfaces than for the
label-only interface in the first session. Perceptions of usefulness
became more positive for the icon-only group in the delayed session,
but did not change for the other groups.
View
Show abstract
Show more
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Medical education has undergone major changes from teacher centered
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In discussions with older adults on their engagements with cell/smart
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