The Norse Settlement.

Popular attention was called to this subject about forty years ago by Mr. Robert Ferguson, M.P., F.S.A., in his lecture and book on the Northmen in Cumberland and Westmorland. Following out the suggestion of the great Worsaæ, he laid down the main lines of the ethnological map, just as William Smith laid down the main lines of English geology. In both cases the details had still to be more accurately surveyed; but, in spite of much doubt and criticism, the hypothesis grew into a theory, and the theory into an article of faith. Mr. Freeman accepted it in his History of the Norman Conquest (vol. I. app. FF.), and Chancellor Ferguson has adopted it in his already standard Histories of Cumberland and Westmorland. Various local antiquaries have added to the subject, especially in the Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archæological Society; among which may be named the papers of the Rev. T. Ellwood, M.A., comparing the language and customs of Lakeland and Iceland; and the identification by Mr. H. Swainson Cowper, F.S.A., of the Norse Thingstead in Little Langdale. Mr. Ellwood’s “Landnámabók, as illustrating the dialect, &c.,” is published separately (T. Wilson, Kendal, 1894).

Our antiquaries, however, have found us no Lakeland Saga. The reason is simple. By the time when the Sagas were written down, the Norman Conquest and the feudal organisation of England had cut these Norse colonists away from their kindred, and had begun to assimilate them to the condition of the Saxon villeins; while the repeated inroads of the Scots in the 12th Century made life insecure, and reduced civilisation in the Fells to its lowest terms. Whatever songs and stories of Viking ancestors were then current in the mouths of the people found no scribe such as Ari the learned, or Hall Gizurson. One would have thought that in the abbeys of the district some native monk might have noted them down, as the Icelandic folklore was noted down at Flatey, and Helgafell. But the great abbeys hereabouts were founded by aliens, and their mental life had no room for local patriotism. Jocelyn of Furness, our greatest literary figure in that era, was busy with his Celtic legends of St. Patrick and St. Kentigern; at Calder and Holm Cultram it was work enough to live, and old tales were nothing to the stir of passing events. The saga-period went by; and in another couple of centuries, when the age of Border ballads had set in, there were new themes in plenty to sing about. The old legends were out of mind, except for isolated traditions and surviving names.

And yet, even at this day, enough of these remain to give us glimpses of the past. We can picture the life of the Norse settlers from almost contemporary accounts of Orkney and Iceland, checked and verified, in details innumerable, by the dialect and customs of the district. Their arts, wood-carving and iron-work chiefly, we see in the old interwoven panel-patterns and spiral smith-wares, that seem to show a permanence, through several centuries, of the ancestral habit of mind. Their public institutions we can infer from a comparison of the remaining Lawburgs here, with those elsewhere of which there are records in the literature of the North. Their attitude towards neighbouring peoples can be surmised from general history, which now and then throws a light into the darkness. Even the very names of the colonists we can read in the map, at the places they seized and settled.

And so to write this story of Thorstein of the Mere—the eponymus of our Thurston-water (Coniston Lake)—is only as it were to string afresh a handful of broken beads from an opened cairn. There was a Thorstein’s saga, no doubt, once upon a time; or at least ballads of the giants on the fell, and the invasion of Eadmund. “Thus sung, or would, or could, or should have sung” the local skald. And there were old folk of the last generation who would sit in the chimney-corner telling tales of the past, fragmentary sagas, that had come down from they knew not where, but fixed in form, and delivered with animation and with all the richness of the rolling dialect. They were belated sagamen. They had forgotten the Norse stories, but they kept the Norse style. To put a Thorstein’s saga into the mouth of an old “Statesman” would strain truth but little, imagination not at all.

The belated Sagaman, however, needs a little editing. As usual with his tribe, he assumes that you take his allusions without explanation and his statements without reference; while with a laudable curiosity some readers ask for more than he gives. To satisfy them, and to justify him, the following pages are added.

Chronology.

The maps (pp. 32 and 50) are in the last degree tentative, and offered only as graphic suggestions of the state of the country in the tenth and eleventh centuries, rather later than the actual period of the story.

The Roman roads must have been more or less practicable, and though in disrepair, like the ruined roads of China, the only available lines of march for an army or of travel for trade. In drawing them, Chancellor Ferguson (Histories of Cumberland and Westmorland, and sketch map in the Archæological Survey, Archæologia, Vol. LIII.) has been followed, with one or two expressions of uncertainty. Near Thirlmere the old road on the western bank has been traditionally considered as the original track, via the Steading Stone, and the ford with the so-called Celtic bridge; all of which is now destroyed. Some path thence to Threlkeld along the vale of St. John seems reasonable. The road from Satterthwaite to Dalton is doubtful; I have given alternative routes, after consultation with Mr. H. Swainson Cowper, the district secretary of the Society of Antiquaries and co-editor of the Survey. From the Thingstead at Fellfoot some path must have been practicable southward, and a study of the ground has suggested the straight course to Coniston. Thence the mines’ produce went to Ambleside, West says; but the name Greetagate indicates a road from Duddon Sands to Broughton, and towards Coniston, ancient, if not Roman.

As I have filled the maps with names I suppose I must explain them. Those in capitals I take to be Celtic; a few such as Dacor, Penningtun, Stank, are Anglian and pre-Norse. In Vídhborran, Glæsartún, Kilvestravegr, Berrhöfudsegg, may be Celtic loan-words which I have elsewhere discussed (“Some Manx Names in Cumbria,” Trans. C. & W. Ant. Soc.) and rendered as Wide-ruin, Brook-town, Cell of the west road, and Road-head’s edge. Alinskálar, formerly Alinschales, now Elliscales, and Alinthveit, formerly Allinthwaite, now Allithwaite, may be connected with “Helen,”—the chapel of St. Helen being near the former, the latter near a Holy-well, and both on the Roman road; thus pointing to the patroness of roads and wells in Yorkshire and Wales (see Elton, “Origins,” p. 322). The rest are simply old Norse equivalents of the oldest known forms. In reading them the old pronunciation must be given as far as possible. Vigfusson and Powell (Icelandic Reader, p. 467,) give á as in father (though Báss becomes “bowse,” and ásmundarljá becomes Osmotherley). Y short is like the French u; ý long like the German ü. The diphthongs au, ei, ey, have the force of the component vowels. V is our w; j our y; þ is sharp th (thing;) ð is flat th (the) or dh. The terminal r of the nominative was dropped in pronunciation. So read, many names are identical with modern local forms; and few can be explained at all except as survivals from the Norse.

Old Norse.	Mediæval.	Modern.	Meaning.
Alpt		Alps	Swan
Angra-tún	Angertun	Angerton	Bay-town
Armingja-vadh	(cf. Ermyngthweit)	Armboth	Poor-folk’s-wath
Arna-sídha	Arneside	Arnside	Arni’s hillside
Aska-heim	Askhome	Askam	Ash-home
Asmundar-ljá	Asmunderlawe	Osmotherley	Asmund’s lea
Aur-gröf	Ourgrave	Orgrave	Clay-pit
Baæsinga-brunnr	Bassingburne	Baisbrown	Outlaw’s well
Bakka-borg		Backbarrow	Bank-burg
Barr-ey	Barray	Barrow	Barley-isle
Bás-fold		Bousfield	Byre-field
Beyka-stadhr		Bowkerstead	Cooper’s stead
Birk-hryggr		Birkrigg	Birch ridge
Blár vidhr	Blawyth	Blawith	Blue wood
Blá tjörn		Blea tarn	Blue tarn
Blátt vatn (or vatr)		Blea water	Blue water
Blá vík		Blowick	Blue Bay
Bleikr holmr		Blake holm	Yellow holm
Borgar-dalr	Borcheredale	Borrowdale	Burg-dale
Borgar-tún	Borch	Broughton	Burg-town
Brautar-kjarr	Bottocar	Bethecar	Road-copse
Brautar-vatn	Broaderwater	Brothers-water	Road-water
Brekku-myrr	Brackmere	Thirlmere	Motehill-mere
Brim-fell (from its form)		Brim fell	Breaking-wave fell
Brott-haugr		Brotto	Road-howe
Búdh	Bowth	Bouth	Booth
Bygg-land		Bigland	Barley-land
Dal-tún	Daltún	Dalton	Dale-town
Djúpr dalr	Depedale	Deepdale	Deep dale
Dökkrá	Docwra	Dockwray	Dark nook
Drjúg-mýrr		Droomer	Dreigh-mire
Dunna-dalr(?)	Dundersdale	Dunnerdale	Wild-duck’s dale
Dunna-holmr	Dunerholme	Dunnerholm	Wild-duck’s holm
Elra-thveit		Ellerthwaite	Elder-thwaite
Eng	(Hall-)inge	Ings	Meadow
Epla-thveit	Aplethwate	Applethwaite	Apple-thwaite
Esju-dalr	(cf. Eschedale I.o.M.)	Easedale	Clay-dale
Fagrt fold		Fairfield	Fair-field
Fins-thveit	Finnesthwait	Finsthwaite	Fin’s thwaite
Fjor-greina-gil		Farragrain-gill	Four-branches-gill
Flat-skógr	(cf. Flascoo, Holm)	Flaska	Flat wood
Flokka-borg	Flokeberew	Flookburgh	Host-burg
Folks-fold	(cf. Foxdale I.o.M.)	Foxfield	People’s field
Forn-sídha	Fornside	Fornside	Ancient seat
Froska-vegr (? the road that jumps)		Froswick	Frog’s path
Gafl	(cf. Gaflfell Iceland)	Gavel	Gable
Gardha-gröf	(cf. Grauff I.o.M.)	Gargreave	Garth-trench
Gardhar		Guards	Garths
Gardh-skógr	Garthscoh	Gascow	Garth wood
Geirlods-vardha	Gerleuuorde	?Ireleth	Geirlod’s beacon
Godha-bjarg		Goadsbarrow	Priest’s barrow
Godha-thveit		Goathwaite	Priest’s thwaite
Gras-mýrr	Gresmer	Grasmere	Grass-mere
Grettis-thveit	Graythwait	Graythwaite	Gretti’s thwaite
Grísa-dalr	Grisedale	Grisdale	Pigs’ dale
Græn hóp		Greenup	Green inlet
Grænn kambr		Greencomb	Green crest
Grænn oddr (or oddi)		Greenodd	Green point
Grænn skógr		Greenscow	Green wood
Gunnars-haugr		Gummershow	Gunnar’s howe
Grýtá, Grjotá	Greata	Greta	Stony river
Grýta-gata		Greetygate	Stony path
Hafra-thveit	Haverthwaite	Haverthwaite	Oats-thwaite
Hákonar-setr	Haukenshead	Hawkshead	Hakon’s seat
Hall-stadhr		Hallstead	Rock-stead
Hamal’s setr	Hamelsate	Ambleside	Hamal’s seat
Hát kot	Hawcott	Hawcoat	High cott
Hauks-völlr		Hawkswell	Hawk’s field
Heidha-thveit		Heathwaite	Heath-thwaite
Hjalmr	High Haume and Helm Crag		Helmet
Hjörts-hóp	Harteshopp	Hartsop	Hart’s inlet
Hlad-steinar		Ladstones	Pile-stones
Hol-bekkr		Holebeck	Hollow-beck
Hóla-kjarr		Holker	Knoll-copse
Hóll-thveit		Hoathwaite	Knoll-thwaite
Hörgs-hlídh	(Same in Iceland)	Arklid	Holy-place fellside
Hramns-ey	(cf. Ramsey, I.o.M.)	Ramsey	Raven’s isle
Hramns-sídha	Rammesheved	Rampside	Raven’s seat
Hreins-bjarg		Rainsbarrow	Reindeer’s crag
Hreysa-thveit		Raisethwaite	Cairn-thwaite
Hrossa-thveit	(cf. Rozefell, I.o.M.)	Rosethwaite	Horse-thwaite
Hunda-haugr		Hundhow	Hound’s howe
Hválla-thveit	Wallthwaite	Wallthwaite	Hill-thwaite
Hválla-tún	Walletun	Walton	Hill-town
Hvelps-sídha	Quelpsat	Whelpside	Whelp’s seat
Ikorna-thveit	Yccornethewayt	Ickenthwaite	Squirrels’-thwaite
Illt bál		Ill Bell	Evil beacon
Jarls-sídha	Yerlisyde	Yarlside	Earl’s seat
Jatgars-hlidh	Eadgarslithe	Adgarley	Edgar’s fellside
Kalfa-gardhr	Calvgarth	Calgarth	Calves’ garth
Kaup-rönd	(cf. Cowper, Cumb.)	Cowprond	Traders’ shore
Keldu-rá		Keldray	Well-nook
Ketels-veggr	(cf. Ketelton, Kelton)	Keswick	Ketel’s wall
Kirkju-bær	Cherchebi	Kirkby	Church-farm
Klapparnes-gata		Clappersgate	Jutting-rock road
Kleif	Clayf	Claife	Cliff
Klifa-tún	Clivertune	Cleverton	Cliff-town
Kolla-tún	Colton	Colton	Town on a peak
Kolla-vidhr		Colwith	Wood on a peak
Kollr		Caw	Peak
Konungs-á	Consey	Cunsey	King’s river
Konungs-hæd	Cunningsheved	Conishead	King’s headland
Konungs-tún	Connyngeston	Coniston	King’s town
Kötts-stiga-kambr	(Casticand, Camden)	Catstycam	Cat’s-path-crest
Langidalr	Langedene	Langdale	Long dale
Látra-bjarg	(same in Iceland)	Latterbarrow	Lair-crag
Laudha-fors	(cf. Lowther)	Lodore	Foam-force
Laufa-veggr	Laufwic	Lowick	Leaf-wall
Laun-skáli		Lonscale	Lone-shed
Lá-vatn		Low water	Shallow water
Leyni-brekka		Lenibrick	Covert-brink
Lin-dalr	Lindale	Lindal	Flax-dale
Lög-hryggr	Lochrigg	Loughrigg	Lake-ridge
Lög-berg		Legbarrow	Law-burg
Lög-borgar-thveit		Legburthwaite	Law-burg-thwaite
Lundr		Lund	Grove
Lyng-mór	Lyngemouthe	Lingmoor	Ling-moor
Mana-hryggr	(cf. Mansergh)	Mansriggs	Moon’s-ridge
Mela-fell		Mellfell	Bent-grass fell
Mósi-dalr		Mosedale	Moss-dale
Mæri-höll		Merry hall	Border-hall
Mær-tún	Meretun	Marton	Border-town
Nauta-dalr		Naddale	Neats’-dale
Ný-borgar-thveit	Newburthwait	Nibthwaite	New-burg-thwaite
Ný-bygging	Newbigging	Newbiggin	New settlement
Ný-tun	Neutun	Newton	New town
Orma-thveit	Ormathwaite	Ormathwaite	Snakes’ thwaite
Orms-gil		Ormsgill	Orm’s gill
Orröstu-hæd		Orrest head	Battle headland
Ösp		Esps	Aspen
Öxna-fell	Oxynfelde	Oxenfell	Oxen-fell
Polla-vík		Poolwyke	Pool-bay
Rá		Wray	Nook
Raudhr völlr		Rathvale	Red-field
Rauds-ey		Roudsey	Raud’s isle
Raudh skrídha		Red Screes	Red scree
Reyd-á	Routha	Rotha	Trout-river
Reynis-hals	Wreneshals	Wrynose	Pass of the rowan
Rolfs-land	Rolesland	Rusland	Rolf’s land
Rolfs-setr		Rosset	Rolf’s seat
Ruga-dalr	Rydale	Rydal	Rye-dale
Runna-hæd	Ronhed	Roanhead	Grove-headland
Sæta-haugr		Satterhow	Chalet-howe
Sæta-thveit	Saterthwait	Satterthwaite	Chalet-thwaite
Sand-gate		Sandgate	Path over sands
Sand-skáli	Sandescale	Sandscale	Sand-shed
Saudha-gata	Soutergate	Soutergate	Sheep-path
Saudha-stadhr		Southerstead	Sheep-stead
Saur-bær	Sourebi	Sowerby	Mud-farm
Seta-hóll		Seatle	Seat-hill
Skála-gil		Scalegill	Shed-gill
Skálar	Scales	Scales	Sheds, halls
Skála-vidhr	Skelwith	Skelwith	Shed-wood
Skardha-thveit	Skafthwait	Scathwaite	Gap-thwaite
Skrídha-thveit		Scrithwaite	Scree-thwaite
Stafa-hlídh	(cf. Stavenerge)	Staveley	Staff-hillside
Steina-hlídh	Staynerleth	Stennerley	Stony hillside
Stein-tún	Steintun	Stainton	Stone-town
Stein-vegr	Stanwick	Stenock	Stone-way
Stikill		Stickle	Peak
Sumar-hóll		Summerhill	Pasture-hill
Svartr mór	Swartmore	Swarthmoor	Swart moor
Svina-brekka	Swenebrec	Sunbrick	Swine-brink
Sydhri-borgar-thveit		Subberthwaite	South-burg-thwaite
Tangi		Tongue	Tongue
Thröng		Thrang	Narrow pass
Thröng-kelda	fons de Trankeld	Trinkeld	Narrow well
Thorolfs-kelda	Thirilkelde	Threlkeld	Thorolf’s well
Thyrni-thveit		Thornthwaite	Thorn-thwaite
Tjald-borgar-thveit	Tilderburghthwait	Tilberthwaite	Tent-burg-thwaite
Trödha-bekkr	Truttebeck	Troutbeck	Pasture-beck
Ulfa-á	Ulfay	Ulpha	Wolves’-water
Ulfa-dalr	Ulldale	Yewdale	Wolves’-dale
Ulfa-knútr		Woolknot	Wolves’-rock
Ulfa-skardh		Ullscarf	Wolves’-gap
Ulfars-tún	Ulvrestune	Ulverston	Ulfar’s town
Ulfs-vatn		Ullswater	Ulf’s lake
Urdha-veggr	Ursewic	Urswick	Stone-walls
Vala-bjarg		Wallabarrow	Hawks’-crag
Vanga-thveit		Wanthwaite	Garden-thwaite
Vatns-hladha	Wattenland	Watendlath	Barn by the water
Vedhra-hjalmr	(clouded before rain)	Wetherlam	Weather-helmet
Veit-heim		Waitham	Ditch-howe
Vé-skógr	(near “Druid circle.”)	Wescow	Temple-wood
Vidha-haugr		Wythow	Wood-howe
Vík-hús		Wykehouse	Bay-house

Many of these names deserve further explanation and illustration, and some may be thought doubtful. The confusion between vegr, road, and veggr, wall; hlídh, fellside, and hlidh, gate; and that between setr, seat, sætr, chalet, sídha, country-side, and hæd, head, must be allowed for.

Notes to the Story.

Frontispiece and Title. The two pages together give the view from Lake-bank at the foot of Coniston Water, to illustrate pp. 67, 68. Over Thorstein’s head is the Old Man; in the middle of the lake is Peel Island (p. 261,) above it, Fairfield, with Helvellyn (pp. 119, 288,) to the left. Under Helvellyn is Yewdale crag, with the White Lady (p. 117). Between Helvellyn and Fairfield is Grizedale Hause (p. 300). Under Fairfield is Nab Scar (p. 51). The lower points are easy to recognise. The frames of the views are imitated from Norse doorways; the design over the title illustrates p. 142.

P. 1. Bardi Ottarson: slain 913 according to the Ulster Annals (Johnstone, Antiq. Celto-Normannicæ, p. 66) or 914, Sir J. Ware’s Antiq. Hibernicæ (op. cit. p. 77). Skene (Celtic Scotland, I. p. 347) reads Barid mac n-Octir, and explains “son of Ottir.” I suppose Barid (Johnstone’s Barred) is Irish for Bardi; and that the headquarters of this viking were near the scene of the action, i.e., in Man, which had been deserted some 30 years before, in the time of Harald’s invasion (Heimskringla, Harald, c. 22).

Ketil Flatnose is named as one of the settlers in Iceland who had been christened (Landnámabók). By other accounts he died in the South-isles (Eyrb. Saga, c. 5). He is, however, by no means an easy subject for a biographer; compare Skene (Celt. Scot. I. p. 312,) with Eyrb. Saga, c. I.

P. 2. Unna, Una, Unn. Aud, Ketel’s daughter, is so called by Dasent (Burnt Njál, II. p. 240). Another Unn was her grand-daughter (Eyrb. c. 7). Another Una is mentioned in Grettis Saga, c. 3, as having a cousin Konal; which connects the name with Ireland and suggests Fin McCoul’s Oonagh and Spenser’s Una.

P. 2. Ragnwald, variously spelt and corresponding to Ranald, Ronald and Reginald, was one of the grand-sons of Ivar, who play so great a part in the period that it is perhaps worth giving a pedigree of the chief names, for reference throughout the story. Ragnwald himself is important because discrepancies in various accounts of his death have been used by partisan writers to throw doubt on the Commendation of Scotland to Eadward. His biography is, however, no more confused than any other for which we have to gather materials from widely divergent sources.

He attacks Barid at the Isle of Man 913 or 914: seizes Waterford 916 (Ulster Annals,) and is driven out by the Irish 918. He is, perhaps, the Hroald (Ronald) who comes with Ohtor (Ottar jarl) from Brittany to attack Wales, 918 (A.-S. chron.) or 915 (Florence of Worcester). Beaten off, he goes home to Ireland, and hence with Ottar and Osulf Cracabam or Cracaban, (“Kraki’s bane”?) he attacks Scotland:—Symeon of Durham (Ed. Hodgson Hinde, p. 63,) says he ravaged “Dunbline” in 912; the anonymous history of St. Cuthbert (op. cit. p. 147,) makes him conquer the Scots at “Corebricge”; the Ulster Annals give him an important victory, in 917 (Ed. Johnstone,) or 918 (Ed. Skene, “Chronicles of the Picts and Scots”;) the Pictish Chronicle (same vol. p. 9,) makes the battle at “Tinemore,” and Ragnwald beaten; the “wars of the Gaedhil and Gaill” kill him off, along with Ottar; others let him escape. Skene tries to reconcile these accounts (Celtic Scotland, I. pp. 347, 348,) but refuses to make a similar attempt for the rest of the story.

Leaving Scotland he invades Bernicia and then Deira; and takes York, 923 (A.-S. Chron.) or 919 (Symeon, corrected and confirmed by Hodgson Hinde, preface p. lii). The Saxon Chronicle says he was one of the kings who commended themselves to Eadward, 924; but the Ulster Annals make him die in 920 (Johnstone,) or 921 (Skene). Skene suggests (Celt. Scot. I. p. 350,) that Florence ante-dates the Commendation to get Ragnwald in; Canon Raine (York, p. 37,) adopts the Saxon Chronicle date, but identifies this Ragnwald with Olaf Cuaran’s ally 20 years later (R. Guthferthson, see pedigree,) and accounts for his absence by an invasion of France (on the suggestion of Lappenberg, following Frodoard).

In all this, real events seem to be reported by totally independent chroniclers, each with his own partisan bias, and different system of chronology. But one does not invalidate the other. Ragnwald may well have won York, attended the Commendation, left York to his brother Sigtrygg, invaded France and died within a short time; though whether this was 919-921 or 923-925 may be left an open question.

P. 4. Norse house, see Dasent’s preface to Burnt Njál. It may be said here that the dress, manners, &c., of the story are based on sagas or archæological evidence, compared with Lake District characteristics, which it would be tedious to point out in every instance: as for example—

P. 5. Chats, twigs. Long logs: there is a story told of Coniston Hall, and elsewhere, that when such a log had been three days burning, whoop! out flew an owl.

P. 11. Toy boats of chip. “Harald (afterwards Hardradi) was sailing chips on the water. Olaf asked him what they were; he said they were his war-ships.” (St. Olaf’s saga).

P. 13. White linen sark. Anderson (Scotland in Pagan times: Iron Age, p. 30) shows linen smoothers of glass, used in getting up vikings’ shirts.

P. 18. Howe; Eyrb. 38, and Magnússon’s Note, p. 277. The path is through the wood over the railway station.

P. 20. Arnold’s-by, Arnolby (temp. Ed. I.) Arnaby.

P. 21. Sigurd’s hörg Sigarith-erge (temp. Ric. I.) Sizergh.

Donal: Duvenaldus filius Ede rex eligitur (Pictish Chronicle) i.e., Domhnaill or Donal mac Aedh, brother of Constantine; reigned over Strathclyde and Cumbria about 908-925.

Cartmel, given by Ecgfrith to St. Cuthbert 677, “with the Britons on it.”

Halfdan. A coin of “Halfdan Rex” found at Castlehead, Grange, suggests that his conquest was widespread.

P. 22. Ketel, supposed founder of Kelswick on the Solway.

Dundraw (cf. Dunderrow, Ireland,) “hill of oaks.”

P. 23. Sigtrygg; see pedigree. In the English form Sihtric. “919. Sigtrygg m’ Ivar by the Divine power was forced to leave Dublin” (Ulster Annals); he came to Deira, and succeeded Ragnwald at York.

P. 24. Manchester taken by Eadward 923 (A.-S. Chron.)

P. 25. Bakewell. Eadward “went into Peakland to Bakecanwell and commanded a town to be built nigh thereunto, and manned. And then chose him to father and to lord the Scots king and all the Scots’ people, and Rægnald, and Eadulf’s son, and all those who dwell in Northumbria as well English as Danes, and Northmen, and others, and eke the Strathclyde Welshmen’s king and all the Strathclyde Welsh” (A.-S. Chron. 924; Florence, 921). As Freeman (Norman Conquest, I. p. 578) points out, it is not said that the Commendation took place at Bakewell; but the text suggests it, enough at least for the purpose of a story. Sigtrygg is not named, but implied among the Danes. The mention of Northmen, as distinguished from Danes, indicates that Norse vikings were already settled in what is now the North of England, and such a settlement could hardly have been any other than ours on Solway and Morecambe Bay.

P. 30. Death of Eadward, 924 or 925 (A.-S. Chron., &c.)

P. 31. Pennington: the Castle hill is described by Mr. H. Swainson Cowper (Ancient Settlements, &c., of Furness, Archæologia, Vol. LIII.) The name shows it to be Anglian, the settlement of the family of Pæninga, Penning, Penny, and therefore pre-Norse. Swarthmoor is so named before Martin Schwartz, though the origin of the name is only a guess.

P. 37. Eathgita, Roger of Wendover, 925.

P. 41. Athelstan. William of Malmesbury describes him (II. 6). In this “saga” the Norse form is used instead of Æthelstan, as Sigtrygg for Sihtric, &c. Eadward, however, and Eadmund correspond to the Norse Jatvard, Jatmund.

P. 52. Donal, Donevaldus, d. 908, was the last king of Strathclyde claiming Roman descent (Skene, Celtic Scotland, I. p. 346.)

P. 53. City of Helvellyn, Wythburn. The cyclopean wall of this “wide-borran” is now partly submerged. One section of it is taken to be the remains of a circle by the Rev. S. Barber, “Beneath Helvellyn’s Shade.”

P. 55. Picts of Galloway, read “Gaels of Scotland,” if the view be taken that all Picts were Ivernian.

P. 55-60. Dacor, Dacre, so spelt (Bede, Ecc. Hist. IV. 32,) to disconnect the name from the false etymology D’Acre. The Rev. Canon Mathews and the Rev. W. S. Calverley, F.S.A., (Trans. C. & W. Antiq. Soc., Vol. XI. Art. 18,) are followed as to the origin of the Dacre stone. The place of meeting, Emont, is a well-known crux. The initial is from an original sketch, with the plait down the edge of the stone turned into the curve of the D. Prof. George Stephens (Northern Mythology, S. 13,) considers that the Hart symbolizes Christ. The dedication of the church points to Wilfrith as founder.

P. 59. Peaceful settlement of Northmen, see the Rev. T. Ellwood (Landnámabók, pp. iii, iv). The law of Athelstan is given in Wilkin’s Leges A.-S., quoted by Baines (Lancashire, I. p. 52).

P. 64. Signy and Sigmund, Völsunga Saga, 7.

P. 69. Anglo-cymric Score, Rev. T. Ellwood (Trans. Cumb. Assoc. VIII. p. 97.)

P. 72. Thingstead at Fellfoot, Thingvöllr on map, p. 50; described by Mr. H. S. Cowper (Trans. C. & W. Antiq. Soc., XI. p. 1).

Guthferth’s invasion: A.-S. Chron. and Wendover, 927; Skene, Celtic Scotland, I. p. 251. William of Malmesbury, II. 6, makes him G. Sigtryggson, but Guthferth O’Ivar was then king of Dublin (Ulster Annals).

P. 74. Olaf Cuaran’s marriage, Florence, 938. It may have been brought about by the invasion of Scotland mentioned under 931 in a fragment of Irish annals (Chron. P. & S. p. 407).

P. 76. Iceland Althing founded 929 or 930 (Landn.)

P. 79. Ravaging of Scotland, A.-S. Chron. and Wendover, 933; Florence, 934.

P. 92. Heathwaite Settlement, described by Mr. H. S. Cowper (Ancient Settlements, &c., of Furness). He does not, however, accept the beehive hut, which I think I see in one of the cairns: nor is he responsible for the notion that the place was inhabited in the 10th century. The legend—though legends are not evidence—suggests that it was inhabited down to times of which local memory takes notice, i.e., to the colonization of the neighbourhood by the ancestors of present inhabitants. And the fell-folk of Heathwaite could not have been kin to their neighbours in the dales, or they would not have been looked on as giants. The Rev. F. Evans, of Ulverston, found calcined bones in the “Giant’s Grave,” from which Dr. Barber (Furness and Cartmel Notes, p. 35,) thinks that it was a Viking interment. And yet there must have been Gaels, as well as Cymry, in the district, especially in the wilder parts, as shewn by a few Gaelic names; and these Caledonian Gaels seem to have been distinguished by their tallness and their red hair, like Ironhook in Kingsley’s “Hereward.”

P. 112. The Brough, Borch, Borg, at Broughton, possibly an early fortress.

P. 113. Confederation of Dublin Danes, Scots and Cumbrians, 937, leading up to Brunanburh.

P. 119. Armboth Settlement has been previously mentioned by Mr. W. Wilson (Trans. Cumb. and West. Assoc., IX. p. 62). These rectangular buildings, similar to others in the district, generally near Roman roads, connected with cairns, and in this case with a British fort; certainly not sheep-folds nor peat-sheds, seem to be post-Roman, and may have been inhabited at this time by “poor-folk,” Armings; whence perhaps the name Armboth.

P. 126. Domhnaill, so spelt to distinguish him from previous Donals, is called by Roger of Wendover Dummail, and in local tradition Dunmail. The legend is that he loved a “fairy” in the Thirlmere valley; exchanged his torque for her ring; deserted her for a beautiful captive; and was led to destruction by her vengeance. He was, historically, king from about 937 to 945 or 946, when Eadmund defeated him and put out his sons’ eyes (Wendover, 946). He seems to have regained some portion of his power, perhaps as sub-king to Malcolm or leader of Gall-gaedhil in Demetia (Pembrokeshire.) He may be the Donvald, father of Andarch in 971 (Skene, Celt. Scot. I. p. 367) and the Dufnall of Florence (corruptly Dusual in Wendover) who was one of the Celtic kings at Chester in 973. St. Cadroe visited him before his fall (Vita St. C. in Chron. Picts and Scots, p. 116,) and he died on pilgrimage to Rome 975 (Ulster Annals, and Annals of Tighernac).

P. 127. Mineralogy of Cockrigg gill. Of the Armboth and Helvellyn dyke, Mr. Clifton Ward (Geol. of the Northern Lakes, p. 34) says: “In a dull red felspathic base are numerous crystals of pink felspar and quartz, together with sparsely scattered green mica, and some of the same soft, steatitic-looking mineral as in the St. John’s quartz felsite.” He mentions (p. 103) how this dyke creates “doors” or chasms.

P. 131. The mysterious fire, immense and yet unconsuming, is one of the forms of the well-known Dalehead “Boggle”; like other such appearances, a piece of widespread folklore, localized at this point, which is rich in ghosts.

P. 141. Birches. Where heather is, birches grew, and the roots are visible. The rolling forms of Kirkfell etc., are remarkable from Ullscarf, as are the monstrous shapes of boulders and hummocks near Bleatarn. But the blue railings of the Manchester Corporation boundary discount the romance, unless you get very tired and hungry, and meet a thunderstorm.

P. 162. Fox and Geese. I have taken some liberty with the pieces in the picture. The “fox-game” was played with 12 lambs and a fox (Magnússon’s Note to Grettis Saga, 70). The pieces were, however, carved as animals: see figures in Du Chaillu’s Viking Age, II. p. 354, and elsewhere.

P. 183. Orkney dynasty: Orkneyinga Saga. I.

P. 184. Thora’s connections: Combining the above with Eyrb. (Magnússon’s Genealogy,) we get the pedigree opposite.

P. 186. Hakon the good. For his life and character see Heimskringla, Hakon, 6, 11, 15-18, 32.

P. 191. Bishop Aelfheah or Elphege the Bald, a relative of Dunstan, bishop of Winchester 935-951 (Florence). Roger of Wendover gives legendary details.