Use a comma before or when the expressions between which it occurs, refer to the same person or thing. Thus: “Jones or Smith was here” [no comma]; but: “Saul, or Paul” [comma].

Put a comma after a proposition forming the subject of a verb. So: “That he did so, is not clear.”

When an infinitive is the subject of a verb, and follows the verb, a comma is generally inserted before the infinitive. This is especially the case if the infinitive or the verb has other words depending upon it. So write: “It ill becomes great and good men, to smile at sin.”

Use no commas after short and closely-connected adjectives qualifying the same noun. Thus: “A good old sound dry wine.”

Use a comma before a quotation closely dependent upon such introductory words as say, tell, cry. E.g.: “The man said, I will return.” [With such quotations—especially if short—the quotation marks are generally omitted.] Before a direct quotation, i.e., one not closely dependent upon introductory words (say, will, cry, &c.), insert the colon. [When the quotation is poetry, a dash often follows the colon, especially if a space is left at the end of the line.]

As a general rule, the subject of a verb must be expressed in every clause preceded by a semi-colon. If, however, there are several clauses or phrases marked off by semi-colons, to avoid repetition the subjects may be omitted. [The subject of a verb may, of course, be understood before a comma.]

A short and serviceable rule for the use of the comma in relative clauses, and in participial, adjectival and adverbial phrases, is, to insert it when the clauses and phrases are coördinate, but not when they are restrictive. E.g.: “The things which are seen are temporal.” “He was a man known in three continents.” [No commas.] “The king, who was now old, declared for war.” “His brother, known far and wide, was present.” [Commas.] Where the subject of the verb is a phrase greatly lengthened by adjuncts, a comma will be required before the verb. E.g.: “The fact of his having acted in so strange a way, warranted his detention.”

Use a semi-colon, and not a comma, in the following cases:

A colon, not a semi-colon, should be used when the clause or phrase that follows the mark expresses a result or effect, or when it is in the form of an analogy, or is a parallel to what precedes. “He lived a virtuous life: he died a happy death.” “The flowers bloom and wither: so is it with the life of man.” The use of the colon before a quotation or a list is an application of this principle. As a general thing, therefore, the voice should be kept up before colons, and let fall before semi-colons.

A long compound or complex sentence, the various parts of which are divided by colons or semi-colons, may be separated into two or more parts by periods. The second part will begin with for, therefore, and, as, or some other introductory word. [This dividing up of long sentences must be sparingly practised.]

Use brackets, and not parentheses, when, in a quotation, you wish to insert words improperly omitted by the author, or when you wish to explain something, or to correct an error in your own writing. [In the last two cases parentheses may be employed, but brackets are preferable.] So: “The man [Mr. Jones] was very rich.” [When brackets are thus used in a quotation, additional quotation marks are not required after the word preceding, and before the word following, the brackets.]

When both brackets and parentheses are employed, the brackets enclose the parentheses: [(—)].

Parentheses, brackets and dashes do not affect the ordinary punctuation of the sentence; i.e., the points which would be required in the rest of the sentence if the parentheses, brackets, or dashes, were omitted, are still used.

A punctuation mark may be used before, but not after, a dash.

Mark with an interrogation point a question expressed in the form of an assertion: e.g.; “I suppose, Sir, you are his physician?”

The plurals of two, three, &c., are written without the apostrophe: twos, threes, &c. [Written as figures, these words will have the apostrophe: 2’s, 3’s, &c.]

A hyphen is used between two substantives expressing a compound idea, when the second substantive has lost or changed its accent. Thus: ship-builder, iron-worker; but master builder, lord chancellor. The omission of the hyphen may cause confusion when the compound expression is qualified by an adjective or an adjectival phrase. E.g.: “A large mill owner,” may be taken to mean, the owner of a large mill, instead of, an extensive owner of mills, some of which may be small. If the former sense is intended, say, “An owner of a large mill [or, of large mills].” If the latter, say, “An extensive [or, important] owner of mills;” or else use a hyphen: “A large mill-owner.”

A hyphen is used between an adjective and its noun when the two, taken together, form a compound adjective. E.g.: “High-church principles.” [A similar remark may be made of adjectives, one qualifying the other, as: a red-hot poker; also of an adjective (or an adverb) qualifying a participle used as an adjective, when the compound expression precedes the noun, as: a slow-sailing vessel. When it follows the noun, the hyphen is not required; as in: “A vessel slow (or, slowly) sailing o’er the sea.” In the latter case, the participle cannot be said to be used as an adjective.]

In writing, it is better to divide syllables according to sound than according to derivation. E.g.: Epiph-any, pref-ace.

When a quotation contains several paragraphs, inverted commas should be used at the beginning of each paragraph, but the apostrophes should be omitted after all the paragraphs except the last one. The same rule will apply to several stanzas of poetry in one quotation. When the poetical quotation consists of verses not separated into stanzas, some writers use inverted commas before each line. This is unnecessary: inverted commas before the first line, and apostrophes after the last, being sufficient.

Do not write the plural of proper names with an apostrophe. Write: “I have seen the Smiths” [not, Smith’s]. “I know the three Marys” [not, Mary’s].