CONTENTS.

 
PART I.
ANCIENT CIVIL-ENGINEERING WORKS.
 
CHAPTER I.
ART.   PAGE
1. Introductory 1
2. Hydraulic Works of Chaldea and Egypt 2
3. Structural Works in Chaldea and Egypt 4
4. Ancient Maritime Commerce 7
5. The Change of the Nile Channel at Memphis 8
6. The Pyramids 8
7. Obelisks, Labyrinths, and Temples 12
8. Nile Irrigation 13
9. Prehistoric Bridge-building 14
10. Ancient Brick-making 15
11. Ancient Arches 16
 
CHAPTER II.
12. The Beginnings of Engineering Works of Record 19
13. The Appian Way and other Roman Roads 20
14. Natural Advantages of Rome in Structural Stones 22
15. Pozzuolana Hydraulic Cement 24
16. Roman Bricks and Masonry 25
17. Roman Building Laws 27
18. Old Roman Walls 27
19. The Servian Wall 28
20. Old Roman Sewers 29
21. Early Roman Bridges 31
22. Bridge of Alcantara 35
23. Military Bridges of the Romans 35
24. The Roman Arch 36
 
CHAPTER III.
25. The Roman Water-supply 37
26. The Roman Aqueducts 38
27. Anio Vetus 39
28. Tepula 40
29. Virgo 40
30. Alsietina 40
31. Claudia 41
32. Anio Novus 42
33. Lengths and Dates of Aqueducts 42
34. Intakes and Settling-basins 43
35. Delivery-tanks 44
36. Leakage and Lining of Aqueducts 44
37. Grade of Aqueduct Channels 45
38. Qualities of Roman Waters 46
39. Combined Aqueducts 46
40. Property Rights in Roman Waters 46
41. Ajutages and Unit of Measurement 47
42. The Stealing of Water 49
43. Aqueduct Alignment and Design of Siphons 49
 
CHAPTER IV.
44. Antiquity of Masonry Aqueducts 52
45. Pont du Gard 52
46. Aqueducts at Segovia, Metz, and other Places 53
47. Tunnels 54
48. Ostia, the Harbor of Rome 56
49. Harbors of Claudius and Trajan 58
 
CHAPTER V.
50. Ancient Engineering Science 60
51. Ancient Views of the Physical Properties of Materials 61
52. Roman Civil Engineers Searching for Water 62
53. Locating and Designing Conduits 63
54. Siphons 64
55. Healthful Sites for Cities 65
56. Foundations of Structures 65
57. Pozzuolana and Sand 66
58. Lime Mortar 66
59. Roman Bricks according to Vitruvius 66
60. Roman Timber 67
61. The Rules of Vitruvius for Harbors 67
62. The Thrusts of Arches and Earth;  
  Retaining-walls and Pavements 68
63. The Professional Spirit of Vitruvius 68
64. Mechanical Appliances of the Ancients 69
65. Unlimited Forces and Time 69
 
PART II.
BRIDGES.
 
CHAPTER VI.
66. Introductory 70
67. First Cast-iron Arch 70
68. Early Timber Bridges in America 71
69. Town Lattice Bridge 72
70. Howe Truss 74
71. Pratt Truss 76
72. Squire Whipple’s Work 77
73. Character of Work of Early Builders 77
 
CHAPTER VII.
74. Modern Bridge Theory 78
75. The Stresses in Beams 79
76. Vertical and Horizontal Shearing Stresses 80
77. Law of Variation of Stresses of Tension and Compression 82
78. Fundamental Formulæ of Theory of Beams 83
79. Practical Applications 85
80. Deflection 86
81. Bending Moments and Shears with Single Load 87
82. Bending Moments and Shears with any System of Loads 89
83. Bending Moments and Shears with Uniform Loads 92
84. Greatest Shear for Uniform Moving Load 94
85. Bending Moments and Shears for Cantilever Beams 96
86. Greatest Bending Moment with any System of Loading 97
87. Applications to Rolled Beams 99
 
CHAPTER VIII.
88. The Truss Element or Triangle of Bracing 100
89. Simple Trusses 101
90. The Pratt Truss Type 102
91. The Howe Truss Type 105
92. The Simple Triangular Truss 106
93. Through- and Deck-Bridges 108
94. Multiple Systems of Triangulation 108
95. Influence of Mill and Shop Capacity on Length of Span 109
96. Trusses with Broken or Inclined Chords 109
97. Position of any Moving Load for Greatest Webb Stress 110
98. Application of Criterions for both Chord and Web Stresses 111
99. Influence Lines 112
100. Influence Lines for Moments both for Beams and Trusses 113
101. Influence Lines for Shears both for Beams and Trusses 115
102. Application of Influence-line Method to Trusses 118
 
CHAPTER IX.
103. Lateral Wind Pressure on Trusses 122
104. Upper and Lower Lateral Bracing 124
105. Bridge Plans and Shopwork 125
106. Erection of Bridges 126
107. Statically Determinate Trusses 126
108. Continuous Beams and Trusses—Theorem of Three Moments 128
109. Application to Draw- or Swing-bridges 130
110. Special Method for Deflection of Trusses 130
111. Application of Method for Deflection of Triangular Frame 133
112. Application of Method for Deflection to Truss 134
113. Method of Least Work 137
114. Application of Method of Least Work to General Problem 138
115. Application of Method of Least Work to Trussed Beam 139
116. Removal of Indetermination by Methods of  
  Least Work and Deflection 141
 
CHAPTER X.
117. The Arched Rib, of both Steel and Masonry 142
118. Arched Rib with Ends Fixed 144
119. Arched Rib with Ends Jointed 144
120. Arched Rib with Crown and Ends Jointed 145
121. Relative Stiffness of Arched Ribs 145
122. General Conditions of Analysis of Arched Ribs 146
 
CHAPTER XI.
123. Beams of Combined Steel and Concrete 149
 
CHAPTER XII.
124. The Masonry Arch 154
125. Old and New Theories of the Arch 155
126. Stress Conditions in the Arch-ring 158
127. Applications to an Actual Arch 158
128. Intensities of Pressure in the Arch-ring 162
129. Permissible Working Pressures 163
130. Largest Arch Spans 163
 
CHAPTER XIII.
131. Cantilever and Stiffened Suspension Bridges 166
132. Cantilever Bridges 166
133. Stiffened Suspension Bridges 168
134. The Stiffening Truss 170
135. Location and Arrangement of Stiffening Trusses 171
136. Division of Load between Cables and Stiffening Truss 173
137. Stresses in Cables and Moments and Shears in Trusses 174
138. Thermal Stresses and Moments in Stiffened  
  Suspension Bridges 175
139. Formation of the Cables 176
140. Economical Limits of Spans 177
 
PART III.
WATER-WORKS FOR CITIES AND TOWNS.
 
CHAPTER XIV.
141. Introductory 179
142. First Steam-pumps 180
143. Water-supply of Paris and London 181
144. Early Water-pipes 181
145. Earliest Water-supplies in the United States 182
146. Quality and Uses of Public Water-supply 182
147. Amount of Public Water-supply 183
148. Increase of Daily Consumption and the Division  
  of that Consumption 183
149. Waste of Public Water 186
150. Analysis of Reasonable Daily Supply per Head of Population 188
151. Actual Daily Consumption in Cities of the United States 189
152. Actual Daily Consumption in Foreign Cities 191
153. Variations in Rate of Daily Consumption 192
154. Supply of Fire-streams 193
 
CHAPTER XV.
155. Waste of Water, Particularly in the City of New York 196
156. Division of Daily Consumption in the City of New York 197
157. Daily Domestic Consumption 198
158. Incurable and Curable Wastes 199
159. Needless and Incurable Waste in City of New York 200
160. Increase in Population 200
161. Sources of Public Water-supplies 202
162. Rain-gauges and their Records 204
163. Elements of Annual and Monthly Rainfall 204
164. Hourly or Less Rates of Rainfall 207
165. Extent of Heavy Rain-storms 207
166. Provision for Low Rainfall Years 208
167. Available Portion of Rainfall or Run-off of Watersheds 209
168. Run-off of Sudbury Watershed 211
169. Run-off of Croton Watershed 211
170. Evaporation from Reservoirs 213
171. Evaporation from the Earth’s Surface 215
 
CHAPTER XVI.
172. Application of Fitzgerald’s Results to the Croton Watershed 216
173. The Capacity of the Croton Watershed 217
174. Necessary Storage for New York Supply to Compensate  
  for Deficiency 218
175. No Exact Rule for Storage Capacity 220
176. The Color of Water 221
177. Stripping Reservoir Sites 222
178. Average Depth of Reservoirs should be as  
  Great as Practicable 224
179. Overturn of Contents of Reservoirs Due to  
  Seasonal Changes of Temperature 224
180. The Construction of Reservoirs 225
181. Gate-houses, and Pipe-lines in Embankments 229
182. High Masonry Dams 230
 
CHAPTER XVII.
183. Gravity Supplies 234
184. Masonry Conduits 234
185. Metal Conduits 236
186. General Formula for Discharge of Conduits—Chezy’s Formula 237
187. Kutter’s Formula 239
188. Hydraulic Gradient 241
189. Flow of Water in Large Masonry Conduits 244
190. Flow of Water through Large Closed Pipes 245
191. Change of Hydraulic Gradient by Changing Diameter of Pip 250
192. Control of Flow by Gates at Upper End of Pipe-line 251
193. Flow in Old and New Cast-iron Pipes—Tubercles 251
194. Timber-stave Pipes 253
 
CHAPTER XVIII.
195. Pumping and Pumps 254
196. Resistances of Pumps and Main—Dynamic Head 258
197. Duty of Pumping-engines 260
198. Data to be Observed in Pumping-engine Tests 261
199. Basis of Computations for Duty 262
200. Heat-units and Ash in 100 Pounds of Coal, and  
  Amount of Work Equivalent to a Heat-unit 262
201. Three Methods of Estimating Duty 265
202. Trial Test and Duty of Allis Pumping-engine 265
203. Conditions Affecting Duty of Pumping-engines 266
204. Speeds and Duties of Modern Pumping-engines 266
 
CHAPTER XIX.
205. Distributing-reservoirs and their Capacities 267
206. System of Distributing Mains and Pipes 268
207. Diameters of and Velocities in Distributing Mains and Pipes 269
208. Required Pressures in Mains and Pipes 270
209. Fire-hydrants 270
210. Elements of Distributing Systems 270
 
CHAPTER XX.
211. Sanitary Improvement of Public Water-supplies 276
212. Improvement by Sedimentation 277
213. Sedimentation Aided by Chemicals 279
214. Amount of Solid Matter Removed by Sedimentation 279
215. Two Methods of Operating Sedimentation-basins 279
216. Sizes and Construction of Settling-basins 280
217. Two Methods of Filtration 281
218. Conditions Necessary for Reduction of Organic Matter 282
219. Slow Filtration through Sand—Intermittent Filtration 283
220. Removal of Bacteria in the Filter 286
221. Preliminary Treatment—Sizes of Sand Grains 286
222. Most Effective Sizes of Sand Grains 288
223. Air and Water Capacities 288
224. Bacterial Efficiency and Purification—Hygienic Efficiency 290
225. Bacterial Activity near Top of Filter 290
226. Rate of Filtration 291
227. Effective Head on Filter 291
228. Constant Rate of Filtration Necessary 292
229. Scraping of Filters 293
230. Introduction of Water to Intermittent Filters 294
231. Effect of Low Temperature 294
232. Choice of Intermittent or Continuous Filtration 294
233. Size and Arrangement of Slow Sand Filters 295
234. Design of Filter-beds 296
235. Covered Filters 299
236. Clear-water Drain-pipes of Filters 299
237. Arrangement of the Sand at Lawrence and Albany 300
238. Velocity of Flow through Sand 302
239. Frequency of Scraping and Amount Filtered between Scrapings 303
240. Cleaning the Clogged Sand 303
241. Controlling or Regulating Apparatus 305
242. Cost of Slow Sand Filters 307
243. Cost of Operation of Albany Filter 308
244. Operation and Cost of Operation of Lawrence Filter 309
245. Sanitary Results of Operation of Lawrence  
  and Albany Filters 310
246. Rapid Filtration with Coagulants 311
247. Operation of Coagulants 312
248. Principal Parts of Mechanical Filter-plant—  
  Coagulation and Subsidence 313
249. Amount of Coagulant—Advantageous Effect  
  of Alum on Organic Matter 314
250. High Heads and Rates for Rapid Filtration 315
251. Types and General Arrangement of Mechanical Filters 316
252. Cost of Mechanical Filters 318
253. Relative Features of Slow and Rapid Filtration 318
 
PART IV.
SOME FEATURES OF
RAILROAD ENGINEERING.
 
CHAPTER XXI.
254. Introductory 320
255. Train Resistances 322
256. Grades 322
257. Curves 324
258. Resistance of Curves and Compensation in Grades 324
259. Transition Curves 325
260. Road-bed, including Ties 327
261. Mountain Locations of Railroad Lines 328
262. The Georgetown Loop 331
263. Tunnel-loop Location, Rhætian Railways, Switzerland 331
 
CHAPTER XXII.
264. Railroad Signalling 335
265. The Pilot Guard 335
266. The Train-Staff 335
267. First Basis of Railroad Signalling 336
268. Code of American Railway Association 337
268a. The Block 338
269. Three Classes of Railroad Signals 338
270. The Banner Signal 338
271. The Semaphore 340
272. Colors for Signalling 340
273. Indications of the Semaphore 341
274. General Character of Block System 342
275. Block Systems in Use 343
276. Locations of Signals 344
277. Home, Distant, and Advance Signals 344
278. Typical Working of Auto-controlled Manual System 345
279. General Results 348
280. Distant Signals 349
281. Function of Advance Signals 349
282. Signalling at a Single-track Crossing 350
283. Signalling at a Double-track Crossing 352
284. Signalling for Double-track Junction and Cross-over 352
285. General Observations 353
286. Interlocking-machines 354
287. Methods of Applying Power in Systems of Signalling 357
288. Train-staff Signalling 358
 
CHAPTER XXIII.
289. Evolution of the Locomotive 363
290. Increase of Locomotive Weight and Rate  
  of Combustion of Fuel 365
291. Principal Parts of a Modern Locomotive 366
292. The Wootten Fire-box and Boiler 367
293. Locomotives with Wootten Boilers 370
294. Recent Improvements in Locomotive Design 372
295. Compound Locomotives with Tandem Cylinders 373
296. Evaporative Efficiency of Different Rates of Combustion 375
296a. Tractive Force of a Locomotive 376
297. Central Atlantic Type of Locomotive 378
298. Consolidation Engine, N. Y. C. & H. R. R. R. 379
299. P., B. & L. E. Consolidation Engine 380
300. L. S. & M. S. Fast Passenger Engine 381
301. Northern Pacific Tandem Compound Locomotive 382
302. Union Pacific Vauclain Compound Locomotive 384
303. Southern Pacific Mogul with Vanderbilt Boiler 384
304. The “Soo” Decapod Locomotive 385
305. The A., T. & S. F. Decapod, the Heaviest Locomotive  
  yet Built 386
306. Comparison of Some of the Heaviest Locomotives in Use 389
 
PART V.
THE NICARAGUA ROUTE
FOR A SHIP-CANAL.
 
307. Feasibility of Nicaragua Route 390
308. Discovery of Lake Nicaragua 390
309. Early Maritime Commerce with Lake Nicaragua 391
310. Early Examination of Nicaragua Route 392
311. English Invasion of Nicaragua 392
312. Atlantic and Pacific Ship-canal Company 392
313. Survey and Project of Col. O. W. Childs 393
314. The Project of the Maritime Canal Company 393
315. The Work of the Ludlow and Nicaragua Canal Commissions 394
316. The Route of the Isthmian Canal Commission 395
317. Standard Dimensions of Canal Prism 396
318. The San Juan Delta 397
319. The San Carlos and Serapiqui Rivers 398
320. The Rapids and Castillo Viejo 399
321. The Upper San Juan 399
322. The Rainfall from Greytown to the Lake 399
323. Lake-surface Elevation and Slope of the River 400
324. Discharges of the San Juan, San Carlos, Serapiqui 401
325. Navigation on the San Juan 401
326. The Canal Line through the Lake and Across the West Side 402
327. Character of the Country West of the Lake 403
328. Granada to Managua, thence to Corinto 404
329. General Features of the Route 404
330. Artificial Harbor at Greytown 405
331. Artificial Harbor at Brito 407
332. From Greytown Harbor to Lock No. 2 408
333. From Lock No. 2 to the Lake 409
334. Fort San Carlos to Brito 410
335. Examinations by Borings 411
336. Classification and Estimate of Quantities 412
337. Classification and Unit Prices 413
338. Curvature of the Route 413
339. The Conchuda Dam and Wasteway 414
340. Regulation of the Lake Level 417
341. Evaporation and Lockage 418
342. The Required Slope of the Canalized River Surface 419
343. All Surplus Water to be Discharged over the Conchuda Dam 419
344. Control of the Surface Elevation of the Lake 420
345. Greatest Velocities in Canalized River 425
346. Wasteways or Overflows 427
347. Temporary Harbors and Service Railroad 427
348. Itemized Statement of Length and Cost 427
 
PART VI.
THE PANAMA ROUTE
FOR A SHIP-CANAL.
 
349. The First Panama Transit Line 429
350. Harbor of Porto Bello Established in 1597 429
351. First Traffic along the Chagres River, and  
  the Importance of the Isthmian Commerce 431
352. First Survey for Isthmian Canal Ordered in 1520 431
353. Old Panama Sacked by Morgan and the Present City Founded 431
354. The Beginnings of the French Enterprise 432
355. The Wyse Concession and the International Congress of 1870 432
356. The Plan without Locks of the Old Panama Canal Company 433
357. The Control of the Floods in the Chagres 434
358. Estimate of Time and Cost—Appointment of Liquidators 435
359. The “Commission d’Etude” 435
360. Extensions of Time for Completion 436
361. Organization of the New Panama Canal Company, 1894 437
362. Priority of the Panama Railroad Concession 437
363. Resumption of Work by the New Company—The Engineering  
  Commission and the Comité Technique 438
364. Plan of the New Company 439
365. Alternative Plan of the New Panama Canal Company 440
366. The Isthmian Canal Commission and its Work 441
367. The Route of the Isthmian Canal Commission that of  
  the New Panama Canal Company 441
368. Plan for a Sea-level Canal 443
369. Colon Harbor and Canal Entrance 443
370. Panama Harbor and Entrance to Canal 444
371. The Route from Colon to Bohio 445
372. The Bohio Dam 446
373. Variation in Surface Elevation of Lake 448
374. The Extent of Lake Bohio and the Canal Line in It 448
375. The Floods of the Chagres 449
376. The Gigante Spillway or Waste-weir 450
377. Storage in Lake Bohio for Driest Dry Season 451
378. Lake Bohio as a Flood Controller 452
379. Effect of Highest Floods on Current in Channel in Lake Bohio 453
380. Alhajuela Reservoir not Needed at Opening of Canal 453
381. Locks on Panama Route 454
382. The Bohio Locks 454
383. The Pedro Miguel and Miraflores Locks 454
384. Guard-gates near Obispo 455
385. Character and Stability of the Culebra Cut 455
386. Length and Curvature 456
387. Small Diversion-channels 457
388. Principal Items of Work to be Performed 457
389. Lengths of Sections and Elements of Total Cost 458
390. The Twenty Per Cent Allowances for Exigencies 459
391. Value of Plant, Property, and Rights on the Isthmus 460
392. Offer of New Panama Coal Company to Sell for $40,000,000 461
393. Annual Costs of Operation and Maintenance 462
394. Volcanoes and Earthquakes 463
395. Hygienic Conditions on the Two Routes 464
396. Time of Passage Through the Canal 465
397. Time for Completion on the Two Routes 466
398. Industrial and Commercial Value of the Canal 469
399. Comparison of Routes 471