[131] Russell. Jour. of Geol., Vol. III, p. 823.

[132] Geikie. The Great Ice Age, 3d ed., p. 529.

[133] Carried out by C. E. Peet and E. C. Perisho under the direction of one of the authors.

[134] Ueber die Plasticität der Eiskrystalle. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, etc., 1895, Bd. II, p. 211.

[135] On the Plasticity of Glaciers and other Ice. Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. XLIV, 1888, pp. 331–67 (with D. A. Kidd); Vol. XLVIII, 1890, pp. 259, 260; Vol. XLIX, 1891, pp. 323–43.

[136] Grönland-Expedition der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1891–93, Bd. I, p. 491 et seq.

[137] References on glacier structure and motion.—L. Agassiz, Études sur les Glaciers, Neuchâtel, 1840. Rendu, Théorie des Glaciers de la Savoie, Soc. Roy. Acad., Savoie, Mém. 1840 (in English, ed. by Geo. Forbes, London, 1874). J. de Charpentier, Essai sur les Glaciers et le terrain erratique du Basin du Rhone, Lausanne, 1841. F. J. Hugi, Ueber das Wesen der Gletscher und Wintereise in dem Eismeer, Stuttgart, 1842. R. Mallet, The Mechanism of Glaciers, Jour. Geol. Soc. Dublin, Vol. I, p. 317; On the Plasticity of Glacier Ice, Jour. Geol. Soc. Dublin, 1845, Vol. III, p. 122; On the Brittleness and Non-plasticity of Glacier Ice, Phil. Mag., XXVI, p. 586. James Thompson, On the Plasticity of Ice as Manifested in Glaciers, Roy. Soc. Proc., Vol. 8, 1857, pp. 455–58. J. Tyndall and T. H. Huxley, On the Structure and Motion of Glaciers, Phil. Trans., 1857, Vol. CXLVII, p. 327. J. D. Forbes, Occasional Papers on the Theory of Glaciers, Edinburgh, 1859. W. Hopkins, On the Theory of the Motion of Glaciers, Phil. Trans., 1862, p. 677; Phil. Mag., 1863, Vol. XXV, p. 224. J. Tyndall, Forms of Water, New York, 1872; The Glaciers of the Alps, London, 1861. James Croll, On the Physical Cause of the Motion of Glaciers, Phil. Mag., 1869, Vol. 38, pp. 201–6. A. Heim, On Glaciers, Phil. Mag., 1871, Vol. 41, pp. 485–508; Handbuch der Gletscherkunde, 1885. H. Moseley, On the Cause of the Descent of Glaciers, Br. Assoc. Rept., 1860, Pt. 2, p. 48; also Phil. Mag., 1869, Vol. 37, pp. 229, 363; Vol. 39, p. 241; Vol. 42, p. 138; Vol. 43, p. 38. Ch. Grad, La Constitution et le movement des Glaciers, Revue Sci., 1872. H. J. Rink, Danish Greenland, 1877. R. M. Deeley, A Theory of Glacial Motion, Phil. Mag., 1888, Vol. 25, pp. 136–64. J. C. McConnel, On the Plasticity of an Ice Crystal, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Vol. 48, 1890, pp. 256–60; ibid., Vol. 49, 1891, pp. 323–43. O. Mügge, Über die Plasticität der Eiskrystalle, Nachr. k. Ges. d. Wiss., Göttingen, 1895, pp. 1–4. R. M. Deeley and George Fletcher, The Structure of Glacier Ice and its Bearings on Glacier Motion, Geol. Mag. (London), Decade 4, Vol. 2, 1895, pp. 152–62. T. C. Chamberlin, Presidential address before the Geol. Soc. Am., Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. VI, February 1895, pp. 199–220. Reid, Mechanics of Glaciers, Jour. Geol., Vol. IV, 1896, p. 912. Erich von Drygalski, Grönland-Expedition der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1891–93, Vol. I, 1897.

[138] Much information on these and other points is to be found in the following books: Wild’s Thalassa; Thompson’s Depths of the Sea; Barker’s Deep Sea Soundings, and Maury’s Physical Geography; Agassiz’ The Three Cruises of the Blake, and the Challenger Reports give much more detailed information concerning these and other matters.

[139] Dittmar, Challenger Reports, Physics and Chemistry, Vol. I, p. 204.

[140] For a discussion of the way in which this gas is held in solution, see Tolman, Jour. of Geol., Vol. VII, pp. 598–618.

[141] Murray, Scot. Geogr. Mag., Vol. IV, p. 39.

[142] Murray, Scot. Geogr. Mag., Vol. III, p. 76.

[143] Ibid., p. 70.

[144] Limited areas of the ocean bottom are actually concave upward; that is, they are basins in the more commonly accepted sense of the term (see Chapter IX).

[145] J. Geikie. Earth Sculpture, p. 329.

[146] Murray. Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. XV, p. 507.

[147] Lindenkohl. Science, Vol. X, 1899, p. 807.

[148] This does not hold for tropical latitudes.

[149] National Geographic Magazine, Vol. XI, pp. 377–392.

[150] For causes of ocean-currents, see Croll’s Climate and Time; Proc. Roy. Soc., 1869–73, and Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc., 1871–77.

[151] In the following pages concerning the waves and their work Gilbert’s classic discussion of shore features, in the Fifth Annual Report of the U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 80–100, is freely drawn on. Another incisive discussion of certain shore phenomena is that of Fenneman, Jour. of Geol., Vol. X, pp. 1–32.

[152] Dana. Manual of Geology, 4th ed., p. 213.

[153] Delesse. Lithologie des Mers de France. Cited by Geikie, Text-book of Geology, 3d ed., p. 438.

[154] Sir G. Airy. Encyclopedia Metropolitana, Art. Waves. Cited by Geikie, loc. cit., p. 438.

[155] Stevenson. Treatise on Harbors.

[156] Willis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. I, p. 481.

[157] Stevenson. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. XVI, p. 25. Treatise on Harbors, p. 42. Quoted by Geikie, Text-book of Geology, p. 437.

[158] Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 3d ed., p. 437.

[159] Brit. Assoc. Rept., 1850, p. 26.

[160] Davis. Physical Geography, p. 354.

[161] Dana. Manual of Geology, 4th ed., p. 219.

[162] Shaler. Sea and Land, p. 29.

[163] Gulliver, Shore Line Topography: Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Vol. XXXIV, 1899, pp. 151–258. A valuable study of shore-line topography.

[164] Willis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. I, p. 481.

[165] See Gilbert. Topographic Features of Lake Shores, 5th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv.

[166] Shaler, Sea Coast Swamps of the U. S., 6th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv.; and Merrill, Pop. Sci. Mo., Oct., 1890.

[167] Willis. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. IX, p. 113, and Tacoma, Wash., Folio, U. S. Geol. Surv.

[168] Agassiz. Three Cruises of the Blake, Vol. I, p. 259. Agassiz would ascribe the Blake plateau itself to the Gulf Stream, p. 138. See also Am. Jour. Sci., Vol XXXV, 1888, p. 498.

[169] Reade. Phil. Mag., Vol. XXV (1888), p. 342.

[170] Murray. Challenger Report, Deep Sea Deposits, pp. 184, 185.

[171] Murray, loc. cit., pp. 187, 188.

[172] Ibid.

[173] Stevenson. Harbors, 2d ed., p. 15.

[174] Usiglio. Encyclopædia Britannica. Article on Salt.

[175] Willis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. I, p. 500, where the evidences for deposition are fully set forth.

[176] Murray, loc. cit.

[177] Ibid., p. 186.

[178] Murray, loc. cit., p. 295.

[179] Challenger Report, Deep Sea Deposits, p. 327.

[180] Young’s Astronomy, p. 472.

[181] Murray. Scottish Geog. Mag., Vol. XV, p. 511. An excellent summary of deep-sea deposits.

[182] Murray, Challenger Report on Deep Sea Deposits, p. 337 et seq., and Buchanan, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. XVIII, 1892, pp. 17–39.

[183] Challenger Report on Deep Sea Deposits, pp. 385–391. See also Jour. of Geol., Vol. II, pp. 167–172.

[184] Forel, Compte Rendu, 1875, 1876, 1878, 1879, and p. Du Bois, 1891. Also Forel’s Lac Leman.

[185] C. A. Davis, Journ. of Geol., Vol. VIII, pp. 485–97, and 498–503, and Vol. IX, pp. 491–506.

[186] Russell, Lake Lahontan, Mono. XI, U. S. Geol. Surv., Chap. V; also Third Ann. Rept., pp. 211–221. Gilbert, Lake Bonneville, Mono. I, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 167.

[187] Stapff, Zeit. deut. geol. Gesell., Vol. XVIII, pp. 86–173.

[188] Upham, Lake Agassiz, Mono. XXV, U. S. Geol. Surv.; Salisbury and Kümmel, Lake Passaic, Rept. of the State Geologist of N. J., 1893, and Jour. of Geol., Vol. III, pp. 533–560; Gilbert, Lake Bonneville, Mono. I, U. S. Geol. Surv.; Russell, Lake Lahontan, Mono. XI, U. S. Geol. Surv.; and Mono Lake, Eighth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I.

[189] Gilbert, Lake Bonneville, Mono. I, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 71, and Topographic Features of Lake Shores, Fifth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 109.

[190] Buckley. Wis. Acad. of Sci., Vol. XIII, Pt. I, 1900. A study of ice ramparts formed about the shores of Lake Mendota, Wis., in 1898–99.

[191] Copied from Russell’s Lake Lahontan, Mono. XI, U. S. Geol. Surv.

[192] Less .04254 carbonic acid added to amount found. Average of two analyses.

[193] Average from four analyses.

[194] Average of two analyses.

[195] As sesquicarbonates.

[196] As chloride.

[197] As peroxide.

[198] Carbonic acid by difference.

[199] Analyses of Rocks, Bull. 168, U. S. Geol. Surv., 1900, p. 15.

[200] Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rocks, by Whitman Cross, Joseph p. Iddings, Louis V. Pirsson, and Henry S. Washington. 1903.

[201] Van Hise. 16th Ann. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, pp. 589–94.

[202] The application of these principles we owe chiefly to Van Hise: Metamorphism of Rocks and Rock Flowage, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 9, pp. 269–328.

[203] Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington. Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rocks.

[204] The initials f.n. (field names) are introduced to show that the term is used in the broad field sense proposed.

[205] Added by the authors of this work.

[206] The following definitions are given, as nearly as practicable, in accordance with present common usage, which is, however, more or less varying and inconsistent.

[207] A comprehensive discussion of the “Genesis of Ore Deposits” may be found in Vols. XXIII and XXIV of the Trans. of the Am. Inst. of Min. Eng. (also printed with additions in book form by the Institute, 1902), in which Posepny, Emmons, Van Hise, LeConte, Blake, Becker, Ricard, Raymond, Lindgren, Weed, Vogt, Winslow, Winchell (H. V.), Church, Cazin, Adams, Keyes, Bain, Collins, Beck, and DeLaunay participated. Various phases of the leading modern views are set forth.

[208] Chamberlin. Geol. of Wis., Vol. IV, p. 599 et seq., 1882.

[209] Penrose. Jour. of Geol., Vol. XI, pp. 135–155, 1903.

[210] Van Hise, Mono. XIX, U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 268–295, 1892.

[211] Gilbert. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. X, pp. 135–140, 1898.

[212] Branner. Jour. of Geol., Vol. VIII, pp. 481–484, 1900.

[213] Iddings. Jour. of Geol., Vol. VI, pp. 704–710.

[214] Daubrée. Géologie d’Expérimentale, pp. 306–372.

[215] Crosby. American Geologist, Vol. XII, 1893, pp. 368–375.

[216] Becker. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., Vol. X, pp. 41–75.

[217] Van Hise. Principles of North American Pre-Cambrian Geology. 16th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, pp. 668–672.

[218] Diller. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. I, pp. 441–442. Ibid. Hay, Vol. III, pp. 50–55; and Newsom, ibid. Vol. XIV, pp. 227–268.

[219] Willis. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Am., Vol. XIII, pp. 331–336.

[220] McConnell. Canada Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv., 1886, Pt. II.

[221] Geikie. Text-book of Geology.

[222] Becker. Geology of the Comstock Lode, Mono. III, U. S. Geol. Surv., Chapter IV.

[223] Reference, Van Hise. Sixteenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, pp. 672–678.

[224] Davison. Jour. of Geol., Vol. VIII, p. 301.

[225] Nature, October 24, 1895.

[226] Milne. The Geog. Jour., Vol. XXI, p. 1. See also Seismology, a more technical work than the same author’s Earthquakes.

[227] Darwin. Journal of Researches, 1845, p. 303.

[228] Oldham. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXVIII, p. 257.

[229] Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 4th ed., p. 372.

[230] Kotô. Jour. Coll. Sci., Japan, Vol. V, Pt. IV (1893), pp. 329, 339. Cited by Geikie, loc. cit., p. 373.

[231] An elaborate account of this earthquake is given by Dutton, Ninth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 209–528.

[232] Cross. Twenty-first Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, Chap. V.

[233] Oldham. Report on the Indian Earthquake of June 12, 1897, p. 138. Mem. Geol. Surv. of India. Cited by Geikie, loc. cit., p. 374.

[234] Oldham, loc. cit., p. 80.

[235] Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 4th ed., p. 375.

[236] Ibid., p. 376.

[237] Forster, Seismology, 1877. Summarized in the Am. Geol., Vol. III, 1889, p. 182.

[238] The literature of seismology is very extensive. Some of the more general treatises are the following: Mallet, Brit. Assoc., 1847, Part II, p. 30; 1850, p. 1; 1851, p. 272; 1852, p. 1; 1858, p. 1; 1861, p. 201; and The Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857, 2 Vols., 1862; A. Perrey, Mém. Couronn. Bruxelles, XVIII (1844), Comptes Rendus, LII, p. 146; R. Falb, Grundzüge einer Theorie der Erdbeben und Vulkanenausbrüche, Graz, 1871, and Gedanken und Studien über den Vulkanismus, etc., 1874; Pfaff, Allgemeine Geologie als exacte Wissenschaft, Leipzig, 1873, p. 224; Schmidt, Studien über Erdbeben, 2d ed., 1879, and Studien über Vulkane und Erdbeben, 1881; Dieffenbach, Neues Jahrb., 1872, p. 155; M. S. di Rossi, La Meteorologia Endogena, 2 Vols., 1879 and 1882; J. Milne, Earthquakes and other Earth-movements (contains a bibliography), 4th ed., 1898; Seismology, ibid., 1898; Dutton, Earthquakes, 1904.

Records of earthquakes have been preserved more or less fully in several countries, especially in recent years. A few of the more accessible publications where these records are found are cited below: California earthquakes, Perrine, Bull. 147, U. S. Geol. Surv.; Earthquakes of the Pacific Coast, Holden, Smithson. Misc. Coll., No. 1087, 1898; Records of recent earthquake movements in Great Britain since 1890 are published by Davison in Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Geol. Mag., and Nature; Records of earlier earthquakes are found in the reports of the Brit. Assoc. (Mallet), in the Edinburgh New Philos. Jour., Vols. XXXI-XXXVI (Milne), and in Trans. of the Roy. Irish Acad., 1884 and 1886 (O’Reilly); The Earthquakes of Scandinavia have been recorded in volumes of the Geol. Fören, Förhandl.; Records of other continental European earthquakes are found in Gerland’s Beiträge zur Geophysik, 1895, 1900, and 1901; Neues Jahrb., 1865–71; Zeitschr. Naturwissen. (1884), (Credner); Bericht. k. Sachs. Geol. Wissen., 1889 and 1900 (Credner); Jahrb. Geol. Reichsanst., 1895 and 1897; Tschermak’s Min. Mitth., 1873, and later; Transactions of the Seismological Soc. of Japan. An index to these Transactions is given at the end of Milne’s Seismology.

[239] Antlitz der Erde. Vol. 1, p. 136.

[240] Eugene A. Smith. Underthrust Folds and Faults, Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLV, 1893, pp. 305–6.

[241] Manual of Geology, 3d ed., p. 23.

[242] For discussions of folds, see Van Hise, Sixteenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, pp. 603–632; and Willis, Thirteenth Ann. Rept., Pt. II, pp. 217–296.

[243] Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung, p. 213.

[244] Am. Nat., Vol. XIX, p. 257, 1885.

[245] Geol. Surv. of Canada, p. 33 D, 1886.

[246] Elements of Geology, 5th ed., p. 266.

[247] Van Hise. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Am., 1897, Vol. IX, p. 291.

[248] See Woodward’s address, Mathematical Theories of the Earth, Proc. Am. Assc. for Adv. Sci., 1889, pp. 59–63.

[249] Nat. Phil. Thompson and Tait, Pt. II, p. 477. See also Popular Lectures and Addresses, 1894, II, p. 313.

[250] Physics of the Earth’s Crust, Fisher, p. 95.

[251] Origin of Mountain Ranges, T. Mellard Reade, p. 125.

[252] Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Vol. 178, pp. 231–49.

[253] Amer. Jour. Sci., 1893, 3d series, Vol. 45, p. 7.

[254] Essentially the same as atmospheres.