CONTENTS

Chapter I. The Foundation of Ecology
       
THE NEED OF A SYSTEM
      PAGE
  1. The scope of ecology 1
  2. Ecology and physiology 1
Historical Development  
  3. Geographical distribution 2
  4. The plant formation 2
  5. Plant succession 3
  6. Ecological phytogeography 4
  7. Experimental ecology 4
  8. Ecology of the habitat 5
  9. The evidence from historical development 6
Present Status of Ecology  
  10. The lack of special training 6
  11. Descriptive ecology 7
  12. The value of floristic 8
  13. Reconnaissance and investigation 8
  14. Resident investigation 9
  15. The dangers of a restricted field 9
Applications of Ecology  
  16. The subjects touched by ecology 10
  17. Physiology and pathology 11
  18. Experimental evolution 11
  19. Taxonomy 12
  20. Forestry 14
  21. Physiography 15
  22. Soil physics 15
  23. Zoogeography 15
  24. Sociology 16
       
THE ESSENTIALS OF A SYSTEM
       
  25. Cause and effect: habitat and plant 16
  26. The place of function 17
       
       
Chapter II. The Habitat
       
CONCEPT AND ANALYSIS
       
  27. Definition of the habitat 18
  28. Factors 18
Classification of Factors  
  29. The nature of factors 19
  30. The influence of factors 19
Determination of Factors  
  31. The need of exact measurement 20
  32. The value of meteorological methods 20
  33. Habitat determination 21
  34. Determinable and efficient differences 21
Instrumentation  
  35. Methods 22
  36. Method of simple instruments 22
  37. Method of automatic instruments 23
  38. Combined methods 23
       
CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF INSTRUMENTS
       
  39. The selection of instruments 24
Water-content  
  40. Value of different instruments 25
  Geotome methods  
  41. The geotome 25
  42. Soil borers 26
  43. Taking samples of soil 26
  44. Weighing 27
  45. Computation 28
  46. Time and location of readings 28
  47. Location of readings 29
  48. Depth of samples 30
  49. Check and control instruments 30
  Physical and Physiological Water  
  50. The availability of soil water 30
  51. Terms 31
  52. Chresard determination under control 32
  53. Chresard readings in the field 33
  54. Chresard values of different soils 34
  Records and Results  
  55. The field record 35
  56. The permanent record 36
  57. Sums and means 36
  58. Curves 37
Humidity  
  59. Instruments 37
  Psychrometers  
  60. Kinds 37
  61. The sling psychrometer 38
  62. Readings 39
  63. Cog psychrometer 39
  64. Construction and use 40
  65. Hygrometers 40
  Psychrographs  
  66. The Draper psychrograph 41
  67. Placing the instrument 42
  68. Regulating and operating the instrument 43
  69. The weekly visit 44
  Humidity Readings and Records  
  70. The time of readings 44
  71. Place and height 45
  72. Check instruments 45
  73. Humidity tables 46
  74. Sums, means, and curves 47
    Conversion scale for temperatures  
  75. Records 48
Light  
  76. Methods 48
  The Photometer  
  77. Construction 49
  78. Filling the photometer 50
  79. Making readings 50
  80. The Dawson-Lander sun recorder 51
  81. The selagraph 52
  Standards  
  82. Use 53
  83. Making a standard 53
  84. Kinds of standards 54
  Readings  
  85. Time 55
    Chart for determining sun’s altitude 57
  86. Table for determining apparent noon 58
  87. Place 59
    Table of intensity at various angles 60
  Reflected and Absorbed Light  
  88. The fate of incident light 60
  89. Methods of determination 61
  90. Leaf and epidermis prints 62
  Expression of Results  
  91. Light records 63
  92. Light sums, means and curves 63
Temperature  
  93.   64
  Thermometers  
  94. Air thermometers 64
  95. Soil thermometers 64
  96. Maximum-minimum thermometers 65
  97. Radiation thermometers 67
  98. Thermographs 67
  Readings  
  99. Time 69
  100. Place and height 70
  Expression of Results  
  101. Temperature records 70
  102. Temperature sums and means 70
  103. Temperature curves 71
  104. Plant temperatures 71
Precipitation  
  105. General relations 72
  106. The rain gauge 73
  107. Precipitation records 74
Wind  
  108. Value of readings 74
  109. The anemometer 75
  110. Records 76
Soil  
  111. Soil as a factor 76
  112. The value of soil surveys 77
  113. The origin of soils 77
  114. The structure of soils 78
  115. Mechanical analysis 79
  116. Kinds of soils 79
  117. The chemical nature of soils 80
Physiography  
  118. Factors 80
  Altitude  
  119. Analysis into factors 81
  120. The barometer 82
  Slope  
  121. Concept 83
  122. The clinometer 83
  123. The trechometer 84
  Exposure  
  124. Exposure 85
  125. Surface 85
  126. Record of physiographic factors 86
  127. Topography 86
Biotic Factors  
  128. Influence and importance 86
  129. Animals 87
  130. Plants 87
       
METHODS OF HABITAT INVESTIGATION
       
  131.   88
Method of Simple Instruments  
  132. Choice of stations 88
  133. Time of readings 89
  134. Details of the method 89
  135. Records 91
Method of Ecograph Batteries  
  136.   92
Expression of Physical Factor Results  
  137. The form of results 94
  Factor Records  
  138.   94
  Factor Curves  
  139. Plotting 95
  140. Kinds of curves 96
  141. Combinations of curves 96
  142. The amplitude of curves 98
  Factor Means and Sums  
  143.   98
       
       
Chapter III. The Plant
       
STIMULUS AND RESPONSE
       
General Relations  
  144. The nature of stimuli 100
  145. The kinds of stimuli 100
  146. The nature of response 101
  147. Adjustment and adaptation 102
  148. The measurement of response 103
  149. Plasticity and fixity 104
  150. The law of extremes 105
  151. The method of working hypotheses 106
Hydroharmose  
  Adjustment  
  152. Water as a stimulus 107
  153. The influence of other factors upon water 107
  154. Response 108
  155. The measurement of absorption 109
  156. The quantitative relation of absorption and transpiration 111
  157. Measurement of transpiration 113
  158. Field methods 114
  159. Expression of results 116
  160. Coefficient of transpiration 117
  Adaptation  
  161. Modifications due to water stimuli 118
  162. Modifications due to a small water supply 118
  163. The decrease of water loss 118
  164. The increase of water supply 121
  165. Modifications due to an excessive water supply 121
  166. Plant types 122
  167. Xerophytic types 122
  168. Types of leaf xerophytes 123
  169. Types of stem xerophytes 125
  170. Bog plants 126
  171. Hydrophytic types 127
Photoharmose  
  Adjustment  
  172. Light as a stimulus 129
  173. The reception of light stimuli 131
  174. The response of the chloroplast 132
  175. Aeration and translocation 134
  176. The measurement of responses to light 135
  Adaptation  
  177. Influence of chloroplasts upon form and structure 138
  178. Form of leaves and stems 139
  179. Modification of the epidermis 140
  180. The differentiation of the chlorenchym 142
  181. Types of leaves 144
  182. Heliophytes and sciophytes 144
       
EXPERIMENTAL EVOLUTION
       
  183. Scope 145
  184. Fundamental lines of inquiry 146
  185. Ancestral form and structure 146
  186. Variation and mutation 147
  187. Methods 149
Method of Natural Experiment  
  188. Selection of species 149
  189. Determination of factors 151
  190. Method of record 152
Method of Habitat Cultures  
  191. Scope and advantages 153
  192. Methods 153
  193. Transfer 154
  194. Modification of the habitat 156
Method of Control Cultures  
  195. Scope and procedure 157
  196. Water-content series 158
  197. Light series 160
       
       
Chapter IV. The Formation
       
METHODS OF INVESTIGATION AND RECORD
       
  198. The need of exact methods 161
Quadrats  
  199. Uses 161
  200. Possible objections 163
  Kinds of Quadrats and Their Use  
  201. Size and kinds 164
  202. Tapes and stakes 164
  203. Locating quadrats 165
  The List Quadrat  
  204. Description 165
  205. Manner of use 166
  206. Table of abundance 166
  The Chart Quadrat  
  207. Description and use 167
  208. The chart 168
  209. Mapping 168
  210. Factors and photographs 170
  The Permanent Quadrat  
  211. Description and uses 170
  212. Manner of use 172
  The Denuded Quadrat  
  213. Description 173
  214. Methods of denuding and recording 174
  215. Physical factors 175
  Aquatic Quadrats  
  216. Scope 175
Transects  
  217. The transect 176
  The Line Transect  
  218. Description and method 176
  219. The location and size 177
  The Belt Transect  
  220. Details 178
  The Permanent Transect  
  221. Advantages 179
  222. Details 179
  The Denuded Transect  
  223.   180
  The Layer Transect  
  224.   180
Ecotone Charts  
  225.   181
The Migration Circle  
  226. Purpose 182
  227. Location and method 182
  228. The denuded circle 183
  229. Photographs 183
Cartography  
  230. Value of cartographic methods 183
  231. Standard scale 184
  232. Color scheme 184
  233. Formation and vegetation maps 185
  234. Continental maps 187
Photography  
  235.   188
  236. The camera and its accessories 188
  237. The choice of a camera 190
  238. The use of the camera 191
  239. The sequence of details 192
  240. The time of exposure 193
  241. Developing 194
  242. Finishing 195
Formation and Succession Herbaria  
  243. Concept and purpose 196
  244. Details of collecting 197
  245. Arrangement 197
  246. Succession herbaria 198
       
DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE
       
  247. Vegetation an organism 199
  248. Vegetation essentially dynamic 199
  249. Functions and structures 199
Association  
  250. Concept 200
  251. Causes 201
  252. Aggregation 203
  Kinds of Association  
  253. Categories 204
  254. Stratum association 204
  255. Ground association 205
  256. Species guild association 206
  257. Light association 206
  258. Water-content association 208
       
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FORMATION
       
  259.   210
Invasion  
  260.   210
  Migration  
  261.   210
  262. Mobility 211
  263. Organs for dissemination 211
  264. Contrivances for dissemination 212
  265. Position of disseminules 214
  266. Seed production 215
  267. Agents of migration 216
  268. The direction of migration 219
  Ecesis  
  269. Concept 220
  270. Germination of the seed 221
  271. Adjustment to the habitat 223
  Barriers  
  272. Concept 224
  273. Physical barriers 225
  274. Biological barriers 225
  275. Influence of barriers 226
  Endemism  
  276. Concept 227
  277. Causes 228
  278. Significance 228
  Polyphylesis and Polygenesis  
  279. Concept 230
  280. Proofs of polygenesis 231
  281. Origin by polyphylesis 232
  Kinds of Invasion  
  282. Continuous and intermittent invasion 234
  283. Complete and partial invasion 235
  284. Permanent and temporary invasion 235
  Manner of Invasion  
  285. Entrance into the habitat 236
  286. Influence of levels 238
  Investigation of Invasion  
  287.   239
Succession  
  288. Concept 239
  289. Kinds of succession 240
  Primary Successions  
  290.   241
  291. Succession through elevation 241
  292. Succession through volcanic action 242
  293. Weathering 243
  294. Succession in residuary soils 243
  295. Succession in colluvial soils 244
  296. Succession in alluvial soils 245
  297. Succession in aeolian soils 246
  298. Succession in glacial soils 247
  Secondary Successions  
  299.   247
  300. Succession in eroded soils 247
  301. Succession in flooded soils 248
  302. Succession by subsidence 249
  303. Succession in land slips 249
  304. Succession in drained or dried soils 249
  305. Succession by animal agency 250
  306. Succession by human agency 250
  307. Succession in burned areas 251
  308. Succession in lumbered areas 252
  309. Succession by cultivation 253
  310. Succession by drainage 253
  311. Succession by irrigation 253
  312. Anomalous successions 254
  313. Perfect and imperfect successions 254
  314. Stabilization 255
  Causes and Reactions  
  315.   256
  316. Succession by preventing weathering 257
  317. Succession by binding aeolian soils 258
  318. Succession by reducing run-off and erosion 259
  319. Succession by filling with silt and plant remains 260
  320. Succession by enriching the soil 261
  321. Succession by exhausting the soil 262
  322. Succession by the accumulation of humus 263
  323. Succession by modifying atmospheric factors 264
  Laws of Succession  
  324.   264
  Classification and Nomenclature  
  325. Basis 267
  326. Nomenclature 267
  327. Illustrations 270
  Investigation of Succession  
  328. General rules 270
  329. Method of alternating stages 271
  330. The relict method 272
       
THE STRUCTURE OF THE FORMATION
       
  331.   274
Zonation  
  332. Concept 274
  Causes of Zonation  
  333. Growth 275
  334. Reactions 276
  335. Physical factors 276
  336. Physiographic symmetry 278
  Kinds of Zonation  
  337.   279
  338. Radial zonation 280
  339. Bilateral zonation 280
  340. Vertical zonation 280
  341. Vegetation zones 281
Alternation  
  342. Concept 283
  343. Causes 284
  344. Competition 285
  345. Kinds of alternation 289
The Formation in Detail  
  346. The rank of the formation 292
  347. The parts of a formation 295
  348. Nomenclature of the divisions 299
  349. The investigation of a particular formation 299
Classification and Relationship  
  350. Basis 300
  351. Habitat classification 301
  352. Nomenclature 302
  353. Developmental classification 304
  354. Regional classification 304
  355. Mixed formations 304
       
EXPERIMENTAL VEGETATION
       
  356. Scope and methods 306
Method of Natural Habitats  
  357. Natural experiments 307
Method of Artificial Habitats  
  358. Modification of habitat 307
  359. Denuding 308
  360. Modification of the formation by transfer 309
Method of Control Habitats  
  361. Competition cultures 310
  362. Details of culture methods 311
       
Glossary 314
       
Bibliography 324