The “Domine” of the Havannah, E. magistralis.

The species of this genus attain to a considerable size (from four to five feet), and are valuable food fishes; Th. atun from the Cape of Good Hope, South Australia, New Zealand, and Chili, is preserved, pickled or smoked. In New Zealand it is called “Barracuda” or “Snoek,” and exported from the colony into Mauritius and Batavia as a regular article of commerce, being worth over £17 a ton; Th. pretiosus, the “Escholar” of the Havannah, from the Mediterranean, the neighbouring parts of the Atlantic, and the West Indies; Th. prometheus from Madeira, Bermuda, St. Helena, and Polynesia; Th. solandri from Amboyna and Tasmania is probably the same as Th. prometheus.

Young specimens of this (or, perhaps, the following) genus have been described as Dicrotus. In them the finlets are not yet detached from the rest of the fin; and the ventral fins, which are entirely obsolete in the adult fish, are represented by a long crenulated spine.

One species (G. serpens), inhabiting considerable depths of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Family—Palæorhynchidæ.

This family has been formed for two extinct genera: Palæorhynchus from the schists of Glaris, and Hemirhynchus from tertiary formations near Paris. These genera resemble much the Trichiuridæ in their long, compressed body, and long vertical fins, but their jaws, which are produced into a long beak, are toothless, or provided with very small teeth. The dorsal fin extends the whole length of the back, and the anal reaches from the vent nearly to the caudal, which is forked. The ventrals are composed of several rays and thoracic. The vertebræ long, slender, and numerous, and, like all the bones of the skeleton, thin, indicating that these fishes were inhabitants of considerable depths of the ocean. Both the jaws of Palæorhynchus are prolonged into a beak, whilst in Hemirhynchus the upper exceeds the lower in length.

Eighth Division—Acanthopterygii Cotto-scombriformes.

Spines developed, in one of the fins at least. Dorsal fins either continuous or close together; the spinous dorsal, if present, always short; sometimes modified into tentacles, or into a suctorial disk; soft dorsal always long, if the spinous is absent; anal similarly developed as the soft dorsal, and both generally much longer than the spinous, sometimes terminating in finlets. Ventrals, thoracic or jugular, if present, never modified into an adhesive apparatus. No prominent anal papilla.

Marine fishes, with few exceptions.

First Family—Acronuridæ.

Body compressed, oblong or elevated, covered with minute scales. Tail generally armed with one or more bony plates or spines, which are developed with age, but absent in very young individuals. Eye lateral, of moderate size. Mouth small; a single series of more or less compressed, sometimes denticulated, sometimes pointed incisors in each jaw; palate toothless. One dorsal fin, the spinous portion being less developed than the soft; anal with two or three spines; ventral fins thoracic. Air-bladder forked posteriorly. Intestines with more or less numerous circumvolutions. Nine abdominal, and thirteen caudal vertebræ.

Inhabitants of the tropical seas, and most abundant on coral-reefs. They feed either on vegetable substances or on the superficial animal matter of corals.

Extinct species of Acanthurus and Naseus have been discovered in the Monte Bolca formation.

The fishes of this genus, which sometimes are termed “Surgeons,” are readily recognised by the sharp lancet-shaped spine with which each side of the tail is armed. When at rest the spine is hidden in a sheath; but it can be erected and used by the fish as a very dangerous weapon, by striking with the tail towards the right and left. “Surgeons” occur in all tropical seas, with the exception of the eastern part of the Pacific, where they disappear with the corals. They do not attain to any size, the largest species scarcely exceeding a length of eighteen inches. Many are agreeably or showily coloured, the ornamental colours being distributed in very extraordinary patterns. The larger species are eatable, and some even esteemed as food. It is stated that the fry of some species periodically approaches, in immense numbers, the coasts of some of the South Sea Islands (Caroline Archipelago), and serves as an important article of food to the natives. Nearly fifty species are known.

At an early period of their growth these fishes present so different an aspect that they were considered a distinct genus, Acronurus. The form of the body is more circular and exceedingly compressed. No scales are developed, but the skin forms numerous oblique parallel folds. The gill-cover and the breast are shining silvery.

Twelve species are known from the tropical Indo-Pacific, but none of them extend eastwards beyond the Sandwich Islands. In their mode of life these fishes resemble the Acanthuri. Likewise, the young have a very different appearance, and are unarmed, and were described as a distinct genus, Keris. One of the most common species is N. unicornis, which, when adult (22 inches long), has a horn about 2 inches long, whilst it is merely a projection in front of the eye in individuals of 7 inches in length.

Prionurus is an allied genus with a series of several keeled bony laminæ on each side of the tail.

Second Family—Carangidæ.

Body more or less compressed, oblong or elevated, covered with small scales or naked; eye, lateral. Teeth, if present, conical. No bony stay for the præoperculum. The spinous dorsal is less developed than the soft or than the anal, either continuous with, or separated from, the soft portion; sometimes rudimentary. Ventrals thoracic, sometimes rudimentary or entirely absent. No prominent papilla near the vent. Gill-opening wide. Ten abdominal and fourteen caudal vertebræ.

Inhabitants of tropical and temperate seas. Carnivorous. They appear first in cretaceous formations, where they are represented by Platax and some Caranx-like genera (Vomer and Aipichthys from the chalk of Comen in Istria). They are more numerous in various Tertiary formations, especially in the strata of Monte Bolca, where some still existing genera occur, as Zanclus, Platax, Caranx (Carangopsis), Argyriosus (Vomer), Lichia, Trachynotus. Of the extinct genera the following belong to this family:—Pseudovomer (Licata), Amphistium, Archæus, Ductor, Plionemus (?), and Semiophorus. Equula has been recently discovered in the Miocene marls of Licata in Sicily.

The “Horse-mackerels” are found in abundance in almost all temperate and, especially, tropical seas. Many species wander to other parts of the coast, or to some distance from land, and have thus gradually extended their range over two or more oceanic areas; some are found in all tropical seas. The species described are very numerous, about ninety having been properly characterised and distinguished. Some attain to a length of three feet and more, and all are eatable. They feed on other fish and various marine animals.

Of the most noteworthy species the following may be mentioned:—C. trachurus, the common British Horse-mackerel, distinguished by having the lateral line in its whole length armed with large vertical plates; it is almost cosmopolitan within the temperate and tropical zones of the northern and southern hemispheres. C. crumenophthalmus, C. carangus, and C. hippos, three of the most common sea-fishes, equally abundant in the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific oceans; C. ferdau, from the Indo-Pacific, upwards of three feet in length. C. armatus, ciliaris, gallus, etc., which have an exceedingly short and compressed body, with rudimentary spinous dorsal fin, and with some of the rays of the dorsal and anal prolonged into filaments.

Two species from the tropical Atlantic.

Micropteryx chrysurus is a semi-pelagic fish, and very common in the tropical Atlantic, less so in the Indian Ocean.

These fishes are often called “Yellow-tails,” and occur in nearly all the temperate and tropical seas, sometimes at a great distance from land. Twelve species are known, and the majority have a wide geographical range. The larger grow to a length of from four to five feet, and are esteemed as food, especially at St. Helena, the Cape of Good Hope, in Japan, Australia, and New Zealand.

Seriolella and Seriolichthys, the latter from the Indo-Pacific, and distinguished by a finlet behind the dorsal and anal, are allied genera.

The “Pilot-fish” (N. ductor) is a truly pelagic fish, known in all tropical and temperate seas. Its name is derived from its habit of keeping company with ships and large fish, especially Sharks. It is the Pompilus of the ancients, who describe it as pointing out the way to dubious or embarrassed sailors, and as announcing the vicinity of land by its sudden disappearance. It was therefore regarded as a sacred fish. The connection between the Shark and the Pilot-fish has received various interpretations, some observers having perhaps added more sentiment than is warranted by the actual facts. It was stated that the Shark never seized the Pilot-fish, that the latter was of great use to its big companion in conducting it and showing it the way to its food. Dr. Meyen in his “Reise um die Erde” states: “The pilot swims constantly in front of the Shark; we ourselves have seen three instances in which the Shark was led by the Pilot. When the Shark neared the ship the Pilot swam close to the snout, or near one of the pectoral fins of the animal. Sometimes he darted rapidly forwards or sidewards as if looking for something, and constantly went back again to the Shark. When we threw overboard a piece of bacon fastened on a great hook, the Shark was about twenty paces from the ship. With the quickness of lightning the Pilot came up, smelt at the dainty, and instantly swam back again to the Shark, swimming many times round his snout and splashing, as if to give him exact information as to the bacon. The Shark now began to put himself in motion, the Pilot showing him the way, and in a moment he was fast upon the hook.[42] Upon a later occasion we observed two Pilots in sedulous attendance on a Blue Shark, which we caught in the Chinese Sea. It seems probable that the Pilot feeds on the Sharks’ excrements, keeps his company for that purpose, and directs his operations solely from this selfish view.” We believe that Dr. Meyen’s opinion, as expressed in his last words, is perfectly correct. The Pilot obtains a great part of his food directly from the Shark, in feeding on the parasitic crustaceans with which Sharks and other large fish are infested, and on the smaller pieces of flesh which are left unnoticed by the Shark when it tears its prey. The Pilot also, being a small fish, obtains greater security when in company of a Shark, which would keep at a distance all other fishes of prey that would be likely to prove dangerous to the Pilot. Therefore, in accompanying the Shark, the Pilot is led by the same instinct which makes it follow a ship. With regard to the statement that the Pilot itself is never attacked by the Shark all observers agree as to its truth; but this may be accounted for in the same way as the impunity of the swallow from the hawk, the Pilot-fish being too nimble for the unwieldy Shark.

The Pilot-fish does not always leave the vessels on their approach to land. In summer, when the temperature of the sea-water is several degrees above the average, Pilots will follow ships to the south coast of England into the harbour, where they are generally speedily caught. Pilot-fish attain a length of 12 inches only. When very young their appearance differs so much from the mature fish that they have been described as a distinct genus, Nauclerus. This fry is exceedingly common in the open ocean, and constantly obtained in the tow-net; therefore the Pilot-fish retains its pelagic habits also during the spawning season, and some of the spawn found by voyagers floating on the surface is, without doubt, derived from this species.

Twelve species are known from the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific; some enter brackish water, whilst others are more numerous at some distance from the shore. They attain to a length of from 2 to 4 feet. In the young, which have been described as Porthmeus, the spines and finlets are connected by membrane with the rest of the fin.

Lichia is an allied genus from the Mediterranean, tropical Atlantic, and the coast of Chili; five species.

Temnodon saltator, sometimes called “Skip-jack,” is spread over nearly all the tropical and sub-tropical seas; it frequents principally the coasts, but is also met with in the open sea. On the coasts of the United States it is well known by the name of “Blue-fish,” being highly esteemed as food, and furnishing excellent sport. It is one of the most rapacious fishes, destroying an immense number of other shore-fishes, and killing many more than they can devour. It grows to a length of 5 feet, but the majority of those brought to market are not half that length.

Ten species are known from the tropical Atlantic and Indo-Pacific; they rarely exceed a length of 20 inches. Some of the most common marine fishes belong to this genus, for instance T. ovatus, which ranges over the entire tropical zone.

Pammelas (perciformis) is allied to the preceding genus; from the coast of New York.

Only three species are known; one, P. sebæ, from the west coast of Africa, the two others from the Indo-Pacific. P. argenteus is a very common fish, attaining to a length of about 10 inches.

These fishes are called “Sea-bats,” from the extraordinary length of some portion of their dorsal and anal fins and of their ventrals. These long lobes are generally of a deep black colour. In mature and old individuals the fin-rays are much shorter than in the young, which have been described as distinct species. There are probably not more than seven species of “Sea-bats,” if so many, and they all belong to the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, where they are very common.

One species (Z. cornutus), which is extremely common in the Indo-Pacific. It is easily recognised by its snout, which is produced like that of Chelmon, and by the broad black bands crossing the yellow ground-colour. It attains to a length of eight inches, and undergoes during growth similar changes as Acanthurus.

This genus, of which one species only is known (A. palpebratus), represents the family of Horse-Mackerels in the depths of the sea; but we do not know, at present, at what depth it lives. Only six specimens have been obtained hitherto from the vicinity of Amboyna, the Fidji, and Paumotu Islands; the largest was twelve inches long.

The “Boar-fish” (C. aper) is common in the Mediterranean, and not rarely found on the south coast of England.

Allied are Antigonia and Diretmus, known from a few individuals obtained at Madeira and Barbadoes; they are probably fishes which but rarely come to the surface.

Small species, abundant in the Indo-Pacific, disappearing on the coasts of Japan and Australia. Some eighteen species have been described.

Gazza is very similar to Equula, but armed with canine teeth in the jaws.

Other genera referred to this family are Lactarius (L. delicatulus, common, and eaten on the East Indian coasts), Seriolella, Paropsis, and Platystethus.

Third Family—Cyttidæ.

Body elevated, compressed, covered with small scales, or with bucklers, or naked; eye lateral. Teeth conical, small. No bony stay for the præoperculum. Dorsal fin composed of two distinct portions. Ventrals thoracic. No prominent papilla near the vent. Gill-opening wide. More than ten abdominal and more than fourteen caudal vertebræ.

The fishes of the “Dory” family are truly marine, and inhabit the temperate zone of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Some fossils from tertiary formations (one from Licata) belong to the genus Zeus.

“John Dorys” are found in the Mediterranean, on the eastern temperate shores of the Atlantic, on the coasts of Japan and Australia. Six species are known, all of which are highly esteemed for the table. The English name given to one of the European species (Zeus faber) seems to be partly a corruption of the Gascon “Jau,” which signifies cock, “Dory” being derived from the French Dorée, so that the entire name means Gilt-Cock. Indeed, in some other localities of Southern Europe it bears the name of Gallo. The same species occurs also on the coasts of South Australia and New Zealand. The fishermen of Roman Catholic countries hold this fish in special respect, as they recognise in a black round spot on its side the mark left by the thumb of St. Peter when he took the piece of money from its mouth.

Three species are known from Madeira, South Australia, and New Zealand.

Fourth Family—Stromateidæ.

Body more or less oblong and compressed, covered with very small scales; eye lateral. Dentition very feeble; œsophagus armed with numerous horny, barbed processes. No bony stay for the præoperculum. Dorsal fin single, long, without distinct spinous division. More than ten abdominal and more than fourteen caudal vertebræ.

This small family consists of strictly marine and partly pelagic species referred to two genera, Stromateus and Centrolophus. The former lacks ventral fins, at least in the adult stage, and is represented by about ten species in almost all the tropical and warmer seas. Centrolophus, hitherto known from two or three European species only (of which one occasionally reaches the south coast of England, where it is named “Black-fish”), has recently been discovered on the coast of Peru, and has probably a much wider range.

Fifth Family—Coryphænidæ.

Body compressed; eye lateral. Teeth small, conical, if present; œsophagus smooth. No bony stay for the præoperculum. Dorsal fin single, long, without distinct spinous division. More than ten abdominal and more than fourteen caudal vertebræ.

All the members of this family have pelagic habits. Representatives of it have been recognized in some fossil remains: thus Goniognathus from the Isle of Sheppey, and the living genus Mene (Gastrocnemus) at Monte Bolca.

Generally, though by misapplication of the name, called “Dolphins.” About six species are known, each of which is probably distributed over all the tropical and sub-tropical seas. Strictly pelagic in their habits, they are most powerful swimmers; they congregate in shoals, and pursue unceasingly the Flying-Fish, which try to escape their enemies by long flying leaps. They attain to a length of six feet, and are eagerly caught by sailors on account of their well-flavoured flesh. The beauty of their, unfortunately fugitive, colours has ever been a subject of admiration. As far as the colours are capable of description, those of the common species (C. hippurus), which is often seen in the Mediterranean, are silvery blue above, with markings of a deeper azure, and reflections of pure gold, the lower parts being lemon-yellow, marked with pale blue. The pectoral fins are partly lead colour, partly yellow; the anal is yellow, the iris of the eye golden. These iridescent colours change rapidly whilst the fish is dying, as in the Mackerel. The form of the body, and especially of the head, changes considerably with age. Very young specimens, from one to six inches in length, are abundant in the open sea, and frequently obtained in the tow-net. Their body is cylindrical, their head as broad as high, and the eye relatively very large, much longer than the snout. As the fish grows the body is more compressed, and finally a high crest is developed on the head, and the anterior part of the dorsal fin attains a height equal to that of the body.

Pelagic fishes which, like the allied genus Taractes, range over almost all the tropical and temperate seas.

The “Sun-fish” (L. luna) is one of the most beautiful fishes of the Atlantic. It attains to the large size of four feet in length, is bluish on the back, with round silvery spots, which colour prevails on the lower parts; the fins are of a deep scarlet. It is said to be excellent eating. It is a pelagic fish, not rare about Madeira, but extending far northwards in the Atlantic; it seems to be rarer in the Mediterranean. All the specimens hitherto obtained were full-grown or nearly so. The skeleton exhibits several peculiarities, viz. an extraordinary development and dilatation of the humeral arch, and great strength of the numerous and closely-set ribs.

Other Coryphænoid genera are Pteraclis, Schedophilus, Diana, Ausonia, and Mene; all pelagic forms.

Sixth Family—Nomeidæ.

Body oblong, more or less compressed, covered with cycloid scales of moderate size; eye lateral. No bony stay for the præoperculum. Dorsal fin with a distinct spinous portion separated from the soft; sometimes finlets; caudal forked. More than ten abdominal, and more than fourteen caudal vertebræ.

Marine fishes; pelagic, at least when young.

G. melampus, from the coast of New Zealand; scarce.

N. gronovii is a common pelagic fish in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans; of small size.

Other genera belonging to this family are Psenes and Cubiceps.

Seventh Family—Scombridæ.

Body oblong, scarcely compressed, naked or covered with small scales; eye lateral. Dentition well developed. No bony stay for the præoperculum. Two dorsal fins; generally finlets. Ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five rays. More than ten abdominal, and more than fourteen caudal vertebræ.

The fishes of the “Mackerel” family are pelagic forms, abundant in all the seas of the tropical and temperate zones. They are one of the four families of fishes which are the most useful to man, the others being the Gadoids, Clupeoids, and Salmonoids. They are fishes of prey, and unceasingly active, their power of endurance in swimming being equal to the rapidity of their motions. Their muscles receive a greater supply of blood-vessels and nerves than in other fishes, and are of a red colour, and more like those of birds or mammals. This energy of muscular action causes the temperature of their blood to be several degrees higher than in other fishes. They wander about in shoals, spawn in the open sea, but periodically approach the shore, probably in the pursuit of other fishes on which they feed.[43]

Scombridæ are well represented in tertiary formations: in the Eocene schists of Glaris two extinct genera, Palimphyes and Isurus, have been discovered. In Eocene and Miocene formations Scomber, Thynnus, and Cybium are not uncommon.

Mackerels proper are found in almost all temperate and tropical seas, with the exception of the Atlantic shores of temperate South America, where they have not been found hitherto. In Europe, and probably also on the coast of England, three species occur: S. scomber, the common Mackerel, which lacks an air-bladder; S. pneumatophorus, a more southern species, with an air-bladder; and S. colias, like the former, but with a somewhat different coloration, and often called “Spanish” Mackerel. On the Cape of Good Hope, in Japan, on the coast of California, in South Australia, and New Zealand, Mackerels are abundant, which are either identical with, or very closely allied to, the European species. On the coasts of the United States the same species occur which tenant the western parts of the Atlantic. Altogether seven species are known.

The best-known species of this genus is the “Tunny” (Thynnus thynnus), abundant in the Mediterranean, and ranging to the south coast of England and to Tasmania. It is one of the largest fishes of the ocean, attaining to a length of 10 feet, and to a weight of more than 1000 lbs. The fishery of the Tunny is systematically carried on in the Mediterranean, and dates from the most remote antiquity. Its salted preparation was esteemed by the Romans under the name of Saltamentum sardicum. Its flesh is extensively eaten now, fresh as well as preserved.

Thynnus pelamys, or the “Bonito,” is equally well known, and ranges over all the tropical and temperate seas; it eagerly pursues the Flying-fish, and affords welcome sport and food to the sailor. In its form it resembles the Tunny, but is more slender and rarely above three feet long.

Some of the other species are provided with very long pectoral fins, and generally called by sailors “Albacore.” They are said to grow to a length of six feet; Bennett in his “Whaling Voyage,” vol. ii. p. 278, makes the following observations on Th. germo, from the Pacific: “Ships when cruising slowly in the Pacific Ocean, are usually attended by myriads of this fish for many successive months. A few days’ rapid sailing is, nevertheless, sufficient to get rid of them, however numerous they may be, for they seldom pay more than very transient visits to vessels making a quick passage. When the ship is sailing with a fresh breeze they swim pertinaciously by her side and take the hook greedily, but should she be lying motionless or becalmed they go off to some distance in search of prey, and cannot be prevailed upon to take the most tempting bait the sailor can devise. It is probably as a protection from their chief enemy, the Sword-fish, that they seek the society of a ship. I am not aware that the Shark is also their enemy; but they seemed to have an instinctive dread of this large fish, and when it approached the ship, would follow it in shoals, and annoy it in the same manner as the smaller birds may be seen to annoy those of a larger and predaceous kind, as the hawk or owl. They are very voracious and miscellaneous feeders. Flying-fish, Calmars, and small shoal-fish are their most natural food; though they do not refuse the animal offal from a ship. Amongst the other food contained in their maw, we have found small Ostracions, File-fish, Sucking-fish, Janthina shells, and pelagic crabs; in one instance a small Bonita, and in a second a Dolphin eight inches long, and a Paper-nautilus shell containing its sepia-tenant. It was often amusing to watch an Albacore pursuing a Flying-fish, and to mark the precision with which it swam beneath the feeble æronaut, keeping him steadily in view, and preparing to seize him at the moment of his descent. But this the Flying-fish would often elude by instantaneously renewing his leap, and not unfrequently escape by extreme agility.”

Five species are known, of which P. sarda is common in the Atlantic and Mediterranean.

Auxis rochei common in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Indian Ocean.

Twelve species from the tropical Atlantic and Indian Ocean; frequenting more the coast-region than the open sea; attaining to a length of four or five feet.

Elacate nigra, a coast fish common in the warmer parts of the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean.

This genus is closely allied to the preceding, from which it differs only by the transformation of the spinous dorsal fin into a sucking organ. The spines being composed of two halves, each half is bent down towards the right and the left, forming a support to a double series of transverse lamellæ, rough on their edges, the whole disk being of an oval shape and surrounded by a membranous fringe. Each pair of lamellæ is formed out of one spine, which, as usual, is supported at the base by an interneural spine. By means of this disk the “Sucking-fishes” or “Suckers” are enabled to attach themselves to any flat surface, a series of vacuums being created by the erection of the usually recumbent lamellæ. The adhesion is so strong that the fish can only be dislodged with difficulty, unless it is pushed forward by a sliding motion. The Suckers attach themselves to sharks, turtles, ships, or any other object which serves their purpose. They cannot be regarded as parasites, inasmuch as they obtain their food independently of their host. Being bad swimmers they allow themselves to be carried about by other animals or vessels endowed with a greater power of locomotion. They were as well known to the ancients as they are to the modern navigators. Aristotle and Aelian mention the Sucker under the name of φθεὶρ, or the Louse; “In the sea between Cyrene and Egypt there is a fish about the Dolphin (Delphinus), which they call the Louse; this becomes the fattest of all fishes, because it partakes of the plentiful supply of food captured by the Dolphin.” Later writers, then, repeat a story, the source of which is unknown, viz. that the “Remora” is able to arrest vessels in their course, a story which has been handed down to our own time. It need not be stated that this is an invention, though it cannot be denied that the attachment of one of the larger species may retard the progress of a sailing vessel, especially when, as is sometimes the case, several individuals accompany the same ship. An account of a somewhat ingenious way of catching sleeping turtles by means of a Sucking-fish held by a ring fastened round its tail, appears to have originated rather from an experiment than from regular practice.

Ten different species are known, of which Echeneis remora and Echeneis naucrates are the most common. The former is short and grows to a length of eight inches only, the latter is a slender fish, not rarely found three feet long. The bulkiest is Echeneis scutata, which attains to a length of two feet; individuals of that size weighing about eight lbs.

The number of pairs of lamellæ varies in the various species, from 12 to 27. The caudal fin of some of the species undergoes great changes with age. In young specimens the middle portion of the fin is produced into a long filiform lobe. This lobe becomes gradually shorter, and the fin shows a rounded margin in individuals of middle age. When the fish approaches the mature state, the upper and lower lobes are produced, and the fin becomes subcrescentic or forked.