English compositors called upon to set up German should have clear directions beforehand as to the founts to be used, whether English or German. If the manuscript is in well-written German script, and the compositor is acquainted with the German characters, he will find little difficulty in setting this up in German type. It is otherwise if he has to set German in its own characters from manuscript in Roman characters. This is owing principally to the numerous digraphs and the long and short sβs used. The following rules will be found of use in both cases:
1. Capitals and lower-case.βAll German substantives are written with capital initial letters; and capital letters are also used for adjectives in geographical designations, e.g. π‘ππ° ππΕΏππ¦ΕΏ[π π₯]π’ ππ’π’π― (the Caspian Sea), or in adjectives derived from proper names, e.g. π‘π¦π’ ππ―π¦πͺπͺπ°[π π₯]π’π« ππΜπ―[π π₯]π’π« (Grimmβs Fairy Tales); but as a rule adjectives, even when relating to nationality, have lower-case initials, not excepting titles of books, &c., thus: π‘ππ° π‘π’π²π±ΕΏ[π π₯]π’ πππ±π’π―π©ππ«π‘, π‘π¦π’ π£π―ππ«π·π¬ΜΕΏπ¦ΕΏ[π π₯]π’ βπ’π³π¬π©π²π±π¦π¬π« (the German Fatherland, the French Revolution).
The π³π¬π« in German names of persons begins with a small letter (unless of course when it commences a sentence), e.g. βπ’π―π― π³π¬π« π π²Μπ©π¬π΄.
The π³π¬π« in such cases requires only a thin space after it: ππ’ΕΏ[π π₯]π―π¦π’ππ’π« π³π¬π« π³π¬π« βπ¦[π π₯]π±π’π― (written by von Richter).
2. The Reformed German Spelling of 1902.βAll words of German origin ending in π±π₯, as ππ²π±π₯, βππ±π₯, now drop the π₯ and become ππ²π±, βππ±, &c. ππ₯ππ± has become πππ±, ππ₯π¬π― is now ππ¬π―. ππ¦π©π©π¨π²Μπ₯π― has become ππ¦π©π©π¨π²Μπ―. ππ₯π’π’ is now spelt ππ’π’. But ππ₯π―π¬π«, ππ₯π’ππ±π’π―, &c., being derived from Greek, keep π±π₯. Also ππ₯ in words of German origin is now supplemented by π£, thus ππ£π’π² (for πππ₯π’π²); ππ‘π¬π©π£, βπ²π‘π¬π©π£, ππ’ΕΏπ±π£ππ©π’π« (for ππ‘π¬π©ππ₯, βπ²π‘π¬π©ππ₯, ππ’ΕΏπ±ππ₯ππ©π’π«). Likewise ππ©π’π£ππ«π±, ππΕΏππ«, ππ¬π£π. But ππ₯π¬π«π¬π€π―πππ₯, ππ₯π¦π©π¬ΕΏπ¬ππ₯, ππΆπͺππ₯π¬π«π¦π’, being learned words of Greek origin. β¨ is more and more used for β, thus: β¨π’π«π±π―π²πͺ for βπ’π«π±π―π²πͺ; β¨π’π«π±π«π’π―, β¨π¦π―π¨π²π°. ππ’, ππ’, ππ’, are always rendered πΜ, πΜ, πΜ.
Three identical letters should not come together before a vowel. Consequently print ππ π₯π¦π£π£ππ₯π―π±, not ππ π₯π¦[π£π£]π£ππ₯π―π± (but in dividing print ππ π₯π¦π£π£=π£ππ₯π―π±). ππ¦π±π±ππ€, π‘π’π«π«π¬[π π₯] (from ππ¦π±π±=π±ππ€, π‘π’π«π«=π«π¬[π π₯]), are invariable. The plural of ππ’π’ is no longer ππ’π’π’π«, but ππ’π’π«; in narrow measure divide ππ’π’=π’π«.
The suffix =π«π¦[ΕΏπ·] is now =π«π¦π°: βπ¦π«π‘π’π―π«π¦π°.
The verbal suffix =π¦π―π’π« is now uniformly written =π¦π’π―π’π«, thus: ππ‘π‘π¦π’π―π’π«, π°π²ππ±π―ππ₯π¦π’π―π’π«, πͺπ²π©π±π¦ππ©π¦π·π¦π’π―π’π«, π‘π¦π³π¦π‘π¦π’π―π’π«, πͺππ―ΕΏ[π π₯]π¦π’π―π’π«.
A detailed list of the new German, Austrian, and Swiss orthographies[87] may be obtained through any bookseller. A few German writers still object to the modern spelling; in such cases, of course, copy should be followed.
3. Hyphens in German.βIf two or more words follow one another, relating to a common part of speech with which they form a compound, all except the last take a hyphen, thus: βπ²π±- π²π«π‘ ππ―ππ΄ππ±π±π’π«π£πππ―π¦π¨ππ«π± (hat and tie manufacturer). Compound words in German are now printed as one word.
4. Division of words in German.βPrefixes should of course remain intact, such as ππ«, ππ²π£, π’π«π±, π’πͺπ, π’π―, π³π’π―, π³π¬π―, π²Μππ’π―, π·π’π―. Thus: ππ«=π£ππ«π€π’π«, ππ²π£=π£ππ₯π―π’π«, π’π«π±=π·π΄π’π¦π’π«, π’πͺπ=π£π¦π«π‘π’π«, π’π―=π£ππ₯π―π’π«, π³π’π―=πΜπ«π‘π’π―π«, π³π¬π―=π―π²Μ[π π¨]π’π«, π²Μππ’π―=π―π’π‘π’π«, π·π’π―=ΕΏπ±π¬[ΕΏπ·]π’π«. In narrow measure divide π€π’=ππ’π«, π±π―π=π€π’π«, π₯π’=ππ²π«π€, π©π’=ππ’π«π‘, πͺπΜ=π₯π’π«, ΕΏπ=π€π’π«, ππ²Μ=[π π₯]π’π―, π©π¬Μ=ΕΏ[π π₯]π’π«. (See under paragraph 2 of this Appendix, βReformed Spellingβ, for three identical letters coming together. See also under 7, 11, 14.)
5. Spaced words.βIn these the following compound letters should never be spaced: [π π₯], [π π¨], [ΕΏπ±], [ΕΏπ·], [π±π·]. The following are spaced: π£π£, π£π¦, π£π©, π©π©, ΕΏπ¦, ΕΏΕΏ. That is, two different consonants coming together (except π£ and π©) are not spaced; but a consonant and vowel, and double consonants, are to be spaced.
6. Prepositional and other prefixes in German.βWhen ππ²π£ precedes a part of speech commencing with π£, the two π£βs should not form one letter. Print ππ²π£π£ππ₯π―π’π«, not ππ²[π£π£]ππ₯π―π’π«.
So also, when ππ²π° is prefix to a part of speech beginning with an ΕΏ, it should not form with the latter an [ΕΏπ·] or [ΕΏΕΏ] if German type is used. Print ππ²π°ΕΏππ―π’[π π₯]π’π«, not ππ²[ΕΏπ·]ππ―π’[π π₯]π’π« or ππ²[ΕΏΕΏ]ππ―π’[π π₯]π’π«.
If π’π«π± precedes a part of speech beginning with π·, the π± and π· do not form one letter, but remain separate: π’π«π±π·π΄π’π¦π’π«, not π’π«[π±π·]π΄π’π¦π’π«.
7. Suffixes π©π¦[π π₯], π·π¦π€.βThe letter π© in the former should not be joined to a preceding π£, nor the letter π· in the latter to a preceding π±. Print π³π’π―π΄π’π―π£π©π¦[π π₯], not π³π’π―π΄π’π―[π£π©]π¦[π π₯]; π[π π₯]π±π·π’π₯π«, π[π π₯]π±π·π¦π€, not π[π π₯][π±π·]π’π₯π«, π[π π₯][π±π·]π¦π€. So also, in dividing, put π³π’π―π΄π’π―π£=π©π¦[π π₯] (or π³π’π―=π΄π’π―π£π©π¦[π π₯]) and π[π π₯]π±=π·π’π₯π«, π[π π₯]π±=π·π¦π€.
8. German in Roman type.βIn Roman type [ΕΏπ·] is now rendered Γ (better than ΕΏs)[88]; [ΕΏΕΏ] becomes ss; and in spaced words all letters (except Γ) are separated. When Roman capital letters are used, [ΕΏπ·] becomes SZ. Thus MASZE (ππ[ΕΏπ·]π’, measures) (with long a), not MASSE (ππΕΏΕΏπ’, substance) (with short a).
9. Metal-rules in German.βSpaces are always put before and after a rule in a sentence, wide spaces in a widely spaced line, thin spaces in a narrowly spaced one, exactly as with words, thus: ππ― ΕΏππ€π±π’ β π«π¦[π π₯]π± π¬π₯π«π’ β¨ππ²π‘π’π―π« β, π‘π[ΕΏπ·] π’π― π€π’π₯π’π« πͺπ²ΜΕΏΕΏπ’.[89]
Rules are not put after colons.
10. Quotation marks in German.βThe commencement of a quotation is indicated by commas followed by a thin space; the close by turned commas. A quotation within a quotation is usually rendered by a single Roman comma at commencement, and by a turned Roman comma at the end[90]; thus: ππ― ΕΏππ€π±π’ πͺπ¦π―: βππ’π₯π’ π«π¦[π π₯]π± π₯π¦π«, π‘π’π«π« π’π° π₯π’π¦[ΕΏπ·]π±, π‘π[ΕΏπ·] π’π° π‘π¬π―π± π³π¬π« ,ππ’π¦π°π±π’π―π«β ΕΏππ²π¨π±.β[91]
11. [π©π©].βThis is always printed as one letter at the end of a syllable or word, as also in the body of a word if the latter is not a compound, thus: ππ π₯π[π©π©]π©π¬[π π₯] (now, however, written ππ π₯π[π©π©]π¬[π π₯], but divided ππ π₯π[π©π©]=π©π¬[π π₯]); π΄π¦[π©π©], ΕΏπ¬[π©π©]; π΄π¬[π©π©]π’π«, ΕΏπ¬[π©π©]π’π«. But in compound words, in which the first π© ends a syllable and the second π© commences the next one, the two π©βs must be separated, thus: π³π¦π’π©π©π’π¦[π π₯]π± (divided π³π¦π’π©=π©π’π¦[π π₯]π±).
12. ΕΏΕΏ, π°ΕΏ.βBoth in Roman type = ss. The first (ΕΏΕΏ) is used after short vowels, thus: π’ΕΏΕΏπ’π«, πͺπ²ΜΕΏΕΏπ’π«.
The second (π°ΕΏ) is employed when the first s ends one syllable and the second commences the next, each syllable giving sense taken singly, i.e. in compounds, thus: ππ¦π°ΕΏ[π π₯]π¬π©π©π’ (ice-block), π‘ππ°ΕΏπ’π©ππ’, π‘π’π°ΕΏπ’π©ππ’π«.
13. [ΕΏπ·].βAfter long vowels or diphthongs and if followed by π’ or π¦ of a less strongly accented syllable[92]: ΕΏππ[ΕΏπ·]π’π«, π€π―π²Μ[ΕΏπ·]π’π«, ππ’π¦[ΕΏπ·]π’π«, ππ²Μ[ΕΏπ·]π¦π€π¨π’π¦π±; also after short or long vowels or diphthongs if followed by π±: π₯π[ΕΏπ·]π±, ΕΏππ[ΕΏπ·]π±, π¨π²Μ[ΕΏπ·]π±, π€π―π²Μ[ΕΏπ·]π±, π¦[ΕΏπ·]π±, π€π’π«π¦π’[ΕΏπ·]π±, ππ’π¦[ΕΏπ·]π±; and also at the end of words or first part of compounds, whether the preceding vowel be long or short: π[π π₯]π©π¬[ΕΏπ·], π€π―π¬[ΕΏπ·], π’[ΕΏπ·]πππ―, π£π[ΕΏπ·]π©π¦[π π₯].
14. Double letters.β[π π₯], [π π¨], [π£π£], [π£π¦], [π£π©], [π©π©], [ΕΏπ¦], [ΕΏΕΏ], [ΕΏπ±], [ΕΏπ·], [π±π·]. No triple letters, like the English ο¬, ο¬, are used in German.βο¬, ssi, are usually printed π£[π£π¦], ΕΏ[ΕΏπ¦], as π[π£π¦]π£[π£π¦]π€, ππ¦ΕΏ[ΕΏπ¦]π€; ο¬ is printed π£π£π©, as π±π―π’π£π£π©π¦[π π₯].
As regards [π£π©], the π£ and π© must be separated if the latter belongs to a suffix, thus: ΕΏ[π π₯]π©ππ£π©π¬π°, not ΕΏ[π π₯]π©π[π£π©]π¬π°.
15. ΕΏ, π°.βThe long s is used at the beginning, the short s at the end of syllables (ΕΏππ€π’π«, π©πΕΏπ’π«, π©ππ°, π‘ππ°, βπΜπ²π°π π₯π’π«).
16. Abbreviations in German.βThe most common are: π²ΕΏπ΄. (= π²π«π‘ ΕΏπ¬ π΄π’π¦π±π’π―, and so on, et cetera); π·. π . (= π·π²πͺ π π’π¦ΕΏππ¦π’π©, for example); π‘. π₯. (= π‘ππ° π₯π’π¦[ΕΏπ·]π±, that is to say); π‘. π¦. (= π‘ππ° π¦ΕΏπ±, that is); π‘π€π©. (= π‘π’π―π€π©π’π¦[π π₯]π’π«, such like, similar cases); π². π. πͺ. (= π²π«π‘ ππ«π‘π’π―π’ πͺπ’π₯π―, and others); ΕΏ. (= ΕΏπ¦π’π₯π’, see); ΕΏ. π¬. (= ΕΏπ¦π’π₯π’ π¬ππ’π«, see above); ΕΏ. π². (= ΕΏπ¦π’π₯π’ π²π«π±π’π«, see below); π². π¬Μ. (= π²π«π‘ π¬Μπ£π±π’π―, passim); ΕΏπ¬π€. (= ΕΏπ¬π€π’π«ππ«π«π±, so-called); ππ·π΄. (= ππ’π·π¦π’π₯π²π«π€π°π΄π’π¦ΕΏπ’, respectively); ππ²[π£π©]. (= ππ²[π£π©]ππ€π’, unaltered edition); ππ²π°π€. (= ππ²π°π€πππ’, revised edition); πππ±. (= πππ±π’π¦π©π²π«π€, division); ππΕΏπ π₯π«. (= ππΕΏ[π π₯]π«π¦π±π±, section); π. π. π. (= ππͺ ππ«π€π’π£π²Μπ₯π―π±π’π« ππ―π±π’, in the place cited); π π‘. (= π ππ«π‘, volume); βπ°. (= βππ«π‘ΕΏ[π π₯]π―π¦π£π±, manuscript); βπ°π°. (= βππ«π‘ΕΏ[π π₯]π―π¦π£π±π’π«, manuscripts)[93].
After ordinal numbers a full point is put where we put β1st, 2ndβ, &c., thus: 1. βπ’π£π± (or 1. β., = π’π―ΕΏπ±π’π° βπ’π£π±, first number); 2. π ππ«π‘ (or 2. π π‘., = π·π΄π’π¦π±π’π― π ππ«π‘, second volume). This full point is often mistaken by compositors and readers for a full stop.
For & in β&c.β the Germans have a special character &, thus: &π .; but π²ΕΏπ΄. now generally takes its place.
17. The Apostrophe.βPrint π¦ΕΏπ±βπ°, π€π’π₯π±βπ° (for π¦ΕΏπ± π’π°, π€π’π₯π± π’π°); but where a preposition and the article π‘ππ° are merged, omit the apostrophe; thus ππ«π° (for ππ« π‘ππ°), π¦π«π° (for π¦π« π‘ππ°), π‘π²π―[π π₯]π° (for π‘π²π―[π π₯] π‘ππ°), π£π²Μπ―π° (for π£π²Μπ― π‘ππ°), (not ππ«βπ°, π¦π«βπ°, π‘π²π―[π π₯]βπ°, π£π²Μπ―βπ°).
After proper names ending in π°, [ΕΏπ·], π·, used possessively, put an apostrophe, omitting the apostrophal s; thus ππ¬[ΕΏπ·]β ππ²π¦ΕΏπ’, ππ’πͺπ¬ΕΏπ±π₯π’π«π’π°β βπ’π‘π’π«, βπ¬π―ππ·β ππ‘π’π« (Vossβs Louise, Demosthenesβ Speeches, Horaceβs Odes). But put ππ π₯π¦π©π©π’π―π° ππ’π‘π¦[π π₯]π±π’ (Schillerβs Poems).
18. The Comma.βIn German, commas must invariably be put before π‘π[ΕΏπ·] and before relative clauses (beginning with π‘π’π―, π‘π¦π’, π‘ππ°, π΄π’π©[π π₯]π’π―, π΄π’π©[π π₯]π’, π΄π’π©[π π₯]π’π°, π΄π¬πͺπ¦π±, π΄π¬π‘π²π―[π π₯], π΄π¬π―ππ«, π΄π¬π―ππ²π°, &c. &c.). This is frequently forgotten by English compositors.
19. Β§.βThis mark (in English, βsectionβ) is called in German βParagraphβ.