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BOOK VI.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF CHEMISTRY.
Chap. I.  Attempts to conceive Elementary Composition3
Art. 1. Fundamental Ideas of Chemistry.
2. Elements.
3. Do Compounds resemble their Elements?
4. The Three Principles.
5. A Modern Errour.
6. Are Compounds determined by the Figure of Elements?
7. Crystalline Form depends on Figure of Elements.
8. Are Compounds determined by Mechanical Attraction of Elements?
9. Newton’s followers.
10. Imperfection of their Hypotheses.
Chap. II.  Establishment and Development of the Idea of Chemical Affinity 15
Art. 1. Early Chemists.
2. Chemical Affinity.
3. Affinity or Attraction?
4. Affinity preferable.
5. Analysis is possible.
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6. Affinity is Elective.
7. Controversy on this.
8. Affinity is Definite.
9. Are these Principles necessarily true?
10. Composition determines Properties.
11. Comparison on this subject.
12. Composition determines Crystalline Form.
Chap. III.  Of the Idea of Substance 29
Art. 1. Indestructibility of Substance.
2. The Idea of Substance.
3. Locke’s Denial of Substance.
4. Is all Substance heavy?
  Note on Sir W. Hamilton’s objections37
Chap. IV.  Application of the Idea of Substance in Chemistry 39
Art. 1. A Body is Equal to its Elements.
2. Lavoisier.
3. Are there Imponderable Elements?
4. Faraday’s views.
5. Composition of Water.
6. Heat in Chemistry.
Chap. V.  The Atomic Theory48
Art. 1. The Theory on Chemical Grounds.
2. Hypothesis of Atoms.
3. Its Chemical Difficulties.
4. Grounds of the Atomic Doctrine.
5. Ancient Atomists.
6. Francis Bacon.
7. Modern Atomists.
8. Arguments for and against.
9. Boscovich’s Theory.
10. Molecular Hypothesis.
11. Poisson’s Inference.
12. Wollaston’s Argument.
13. Properties are Permanent.
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BOOK VII.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF MORPHOLOGY, INCLUDING CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
Chap. I.  Explication of the Idea of Symmetry67
Art. 1. Symmetry, what.
2. Kinds of Symmetry.
3. Examples in Nature.
4. Vegetables and Animals.
5. Symmetry a Fundamental Idea.
6. Result of Symmetry.
Chap. II.  Application of the Idea of Symmetry to Crystals 75
Art. 1. ‘Fundamental Forms.’
2. Their use.
3. ‘Systems of Crystallization.’
4. Cleavage.
5. Other Properties.
Chap. III.  Speculations founded upon the Symmetry of Crystals 80
Art. 1. Integrant Molecules.
2. Difficulties of the Theory.
3. Merit of the Theory.
4. Wollaston’s Hypothesis.
5. Maxim for such Hypotheses.
6. Dalton’s Hypothesis.
7. Ampère’s Hypothesis.
8. Difficulty of such Hypotheses.
9. Isomorphism.
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BOOK VIII.
PHILOSOPHY OF THE CLASSIFICATORY SCIENCES.
Chap. I.  The Idea of Likeness as Governing the Use of Common Names95
Art. 1. Object of the Chapter.
2. Unity of the Individual.
3. Condition of Unity.
4. Kinds.
5. Not made by Definitions.
6. Condition of the Use of Terms.
7. Terms may have different Uses.
8. Gradation of Kinds.
9. Characters of Kinds.
10. Difficulty of Definitions.
11. ‘The Five Words.’
Chap. II. The Methods of Natural History, as regulated by the Idea of Likeness 108
Sect. I. Natural History in General.
Art. 1. Idea of Likeness in Natural History.
2. Condition of its Use.
Sect. II. Terminology.
Art. 3. Meaning of the word.
Sect. III. The Plan of the System.
Art. 4. Its Meaning.
5. Latent Reference to Natural Affinity.
6. Natural Classes.
7. Artificial Classes.
8. Are Genera Natural?
9. Natural History and Mathematics.
10. Natural Groups given by Type, not by Definition.
11. Physiography.
12. Artificial and Natural Systems.
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Sect. IV. Methods of framing Natural Systems.
Art. 13. Method of Blind Trial.
14. Method of General Comparison.
Sect. V. Gradation of Groups.
Art. 15. Series of Subdivisions.
16. What is a Species?
17. The words ‘Species’ and ‘Genus.’
18. Varieties. Races.
Sect. VI. Nomenclature.
Art. 19. Binary Nomenclature.
Sect. VII. Diagnosis.
Art. 20. Characteristick and Systematick.
Chap. III.  Application of the Natural History Method to Mineralogy 138
Art. 1. Mohs’s System.
2. His ‘Characteristick.’
3. Mineral Species not yet well fixed.
4. Orders of Minerals.
5. Nomenclature of Minerals.
6. M. Necker’s ‘Règne Mineral.’
7. Inconvenience of taking a Chemical Basis of Mineral Systems.
8. Relation of Natural History and Chemistry.
9. What is a Mineralogical Individual?
10. A well-formed Crystal is an Individual.
11. Not the Integrant Molecules,
12. Nor the Cleavage Forms.
13. Compound Crystals are not Individuals.
14. Crystalline Forms are sufficiently complete for this.
15. Including aggregate Masses.
16. Do Artificial Crystals belong to Mineralogy?
17. The Mineralogical Individual extends as far as the same Crystalline Axes extend.
18. Artificial Crystals do belong to Mineralogy:
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19. Cannot be excluded.
20. Species to be determined by the Crystalline Power.
21. Secondary Derivative Forms are Varieties:
22. Are not Species, as M. Necker holds.
Chap. IV.  Of the Idea of Natural Affinity159
Art. 1. The Idea of Affinity
2. Is not to be made out by Arbitrary Rules.
3. Functions of Living things are many,
4. But all lead to the same arrangement.
5. This is Cuvier’s principle:
6. And Decandolle’s.
7. Is this applicable to Inorganic Bodies?
8. Yes; by the agreement of Physical and Chemical Arrangement.
BOOK IX.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGY.
Chap. 1.  Analogy of Biology with other Sciences 169
Art. 1. Biology involves the Idea of Life.
2. This Idea to be historically traced.
3. The Idea at first expressed by means of other Ideas.
4. Mystical, Mechanical, Chemical, and Vital Fluid Hypotheses.
Chap. II.  Successive Biological Hypotheses174
Sect. I. The Mystical School.
Sect. II. The Iatrochemical School.
Sect. III. The Iatromathematical School.
Sect. IV. The Vital Fluid School.
Sect. V. The Psychical School.
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Chap. III.  Attempts to Analyse the Idea of Life195
Art. 1. Definitions of Life,
2. By Stahl, Humboldt, Kant.
3. Definition of Organization by Kant.
4. Life is a System of Functions.
5. Bichat. Sum of Functions.
6. Use of Definition.
7. Cuvier’s view.
8. Classifications of Functions.
9. Vital, Natural, and Animal Functions.
10. Bichat. Organic and Animal Life.
11. Use of this Classification.
Chap. IV.  Attempts to form Ideas of separate Vital Forces, and first, of Assimilation and Secretion203
Sect. I. Course of Biological Research.
Art. 1. Observation and New Conceptions.
Sect. II. Attempts to form a distinct Conception of Assimilation and Secretion.
Art. 2. The Ancients.
3. Buffon. Interior Mould.
4. Defect of this view.
5. Cuvier. Life a Vortex.
6. Defect of this view.
7. Schelling. Matter and Form.
8. Life a constant Form of circulating Matter, &c.
Sect. III. Attempts to conceive the Forces of Assimilation and Secretion.
Art. 9. Assimilation is a Vital Force.
10. The name ‘Assimilation.’
11. Several processes involved in Assimilation.
12. Absorption. Endosmose.
13. Absorption involves a Vital Force.
14. Secretion. Glands.
15. Motions of Vital Fluids.
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Sect. IV. Attempts to conceive the Process of Generation.
Art. 16. ‘Reproduction’ figuratively used for Generation.
17. Nutrition different from
18. Generation.
19. Generations successively included.
20. Pre-existence of Germs.
21. Difficulty of this view.
22. Communication of Vital Forces.
23. Close similarity of Nutrition and Generation.
24. The Identity of the two Processes exemplified.
Chap. V.  Attempts to form Ideas of separate Vital Forces, continued.—Voluntary Motion.222
Art. 1. Voluntary Motion one of the animal Functions.
2. Progressive knowledge of it.
3. Nervous Fluid not electric.
4. Irritability. Glisson.
5. Haller.
6. Contractility.
7. Organic Sensibility and Contractility not separable.
8. Improperly described by Bichat.
9. Brown.
10. Contractility a peculiar Power.
11. Cuvier’s view.
12. Elementary contractile Action.
13. Strength of Muscular Fibre.
14. Sensations become Perceptions
15. By means of Ideas;
16. And lead to Muscular Actions.
17. Volition comes between Perception and Action.
18. Transition to Psychology,
19. A center is introduced.
20. The central consciousness may be obscure.
21. Reflex Muscular Action.
22. Instinct.
23. Difficulty of conceiving Instinct.
24. Instinct opposed to Insight.
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Chap. VI.  Of the Idea of Final Causes 239
Art. 1. Organization. Parts are Ends and Means.
2. Not merely mutually dependent.
3. Not merely mutually Cause and Effect.
4. Notion of End not derived from Facts.
5. This notion has regulated Physiology.
6. Notion of Design comes from within.
7. Design not understood by Savages.
8. Design opposed to Morphology.
9. Impression of Design when fresh.
10. Acknowledgement of an End by adverse Physiologists.
11. This included in the Notion of Disease.
12. It belongs to organized Creatures only.
13. The term Final Cause.
14. Law and Design.
15. Final Causes and Morphology.
16. Expressions of physiological Ends.
17. The Conditions of Existence.
18. The asserted presumption of Teleology.
19. Final Causes in other subjects.
20. Transition to Palætiology.
BOOK X.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PALÆTIOLOGY.
Chap. I.  Of Palætiological Sciences in General257
Art. 1. Description of Palætiology.
2. Its Members.
3. Other Members.
4. Connexion of the whole subject.
5. We shall take Material Sciences only;
6. But these are connected with others.
Chap. II.  Of the Three Members of a Palætiological Science 263
Art. 1. Divisions of such Sciences.
2. The Study of Causes.
3. Ætiology.
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4. Phenomenology requires Classification. Phenomenal Geology.
5. Phenomenal Uranology.
6. Phenomenal Geography of Plants and Animals.
7. Phenomenal Glossology.
8. The Study of Phenomena leads to Theory.
9. No sound Theory without Ætiology.
10. Causes in Palætiology.
11. Various kinds of Cause.
12. Hypothetical Order of Palætiological Causes.
13. Mode of Cultivating Ætiology:—In Geology:
14. In the Geography of Plants and Animals:
15. In Languages.
16. Construction of Theories.
17. No sound Palætiological Theory yet extant.
Chap. III.  Of the Doctrine of Catastrophes and the Doctrine of Uniformity284
Art. 1. Doctrine of Catastrophes.
2. Doctrine of Uniformity.
3. Is Uniformity probable a priori?
4. Cycle of Uniformity indefinite.
5. Uniformitarian Arguments are Negative only.
6. Uniformity in the Organic World.
7. Origin of the present Organic World.
8. Nebular Origin of the Solar System.
9. Origin of Languages.
10. No Natural Origin discoverable.
Chap. IV.  Of the Relation of Tradition to Palætiology297
Art. 1. Importance of Tradition.
2. Connexion of Tradition and Science.
3. Natural and Providential History of the World.
4. The Sacred Narrative.
5. Difficulties in interpreting the Sacred Narrative.
6. Such Difficulties inevitable.
7. Science tells us nothing concerning Creation.
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8. Scientific views, when familiar, do not disturb the authority of Scripture.
9. When should Old Interpretations be given up?
10. In what Spirit should the Change be accepted?
11. In what Spirit should the Change be urged?
12. Duty of Mutual forbearance.
13. Case of Galileo.
Chap. V.  Of the Conception of a First Cause316
Art. 1. The Origin of things is not naturally discoverable;
2. Yet has always been sought after.
3. There must be a First Cause.
4. This is an Axiom.
5. Involved in the proof of a Deity.
6. The mind is not satisfied without it.
7. The Whole Course of Nature must have a Cause.
8. Necessary Existence of God.
9. Forms of the Proof.
10. Idea of a First Cause is Necessary.
11. Conception of a First Cause.
12. The First Cause in all Sciences is the same.
13. We are thus led to Moral Subjects.
Conclusion of this History.