See BRITAIN: 6TH CENTURY.
GWLEDIG.
A Welsh title, signifying ruler, or prince, which was taken by
the native leader in Britain after the Romans left. He was the
successor of the Roman Duke of Britain.
J. Rhys,
Celtic Britain,
chapter 3.
See, also, ARTHUR, KING.
GWYNEDD.
See BRITAIN: 6TH CENTURY.
GYLIPPUS, and the defense of Syracuse.
See SYRACUSE: B. C. 415-413.
GYMNASIA, German.
See EDUCATION, MODERN:
EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.—PRUSSIA: A. D. 1874.
GYMNASIA, Greek.
"Amongst public buildings [of the ancient Greeks] we mentioned
first the gymnasia, which, originating in the requirements of
single persons, soon became centre-points of Greek life.
Corporeal exercise was of great importance amongst the Greeks,
and the games and competitions in the various kinds of bodily
skill … formed a chief feature of their religious feasts.
This circumstance reacted on both sculpture and architecture,
in supplying the former with models of ideal beauty, and in
setting the task to the latter of providing suitable places
for these games to be celebrated. For purposes of this kind
(as far as public exhibition was not concerned) the palæstrai
and gymnasia served. In earlier times these two must be
distinguished. In the palæstra … young men practised
wrestling and boxing. As these arts were gradually developed,
larger establishments with separate compartments became
necessary. Originally such places were, like the schools of
the grammarians, kept by private persons; sometimes they
consisted only of open spaces, if possible near a brook and
surrounded by trees. Soon, however, regular
buildings—gymnasia—became necessary. At first they
consisted of an uncovered, court surrounded by colonnades,
adjoining which lay covered spaces, the former being used for
running and jumping, the latter for wrestling. In the same
degree as these exercises became more developed, and as
grown-up men began to take an interest in these youthful
sports, and spent a great part of their day at the gymnasia,
these grew in size and splendour. They soon became a necessary
of life, and no town could be without them, larger cities
often containing several."
E. Guhl and W. Koner,
Life of the Greeks and Romans,
section 25.
Of gymnasia "there were many at Athens; though three only,
those of the Academy, Lyceum, and Cynosarges, have acquired
celebrity: The site of the first of these gymnasia being low
and marshy was in ancient times infested with malaria, but
having been drained by Cimon and planted with trees it became
a favourite promenade and place of exercise. Here, in walks
shaded by the sacred olive, might be seen young men with
crowns of rushes in flower upon their heads, enjoying the
sweet odour of the smilax and the white poplar, while the
platanos and the elm mingled their murmurs in the breeze of
spring. The meadows of the Academy, according to Aristophanes
the grammarian, were planted with the Apragmosune, a sort of
flower so called as though it smelt of all kind of fragrance
and safety, like our heart's-ease or flower of the Trinity.
This place is supposed to have derived its name from Ecadamos,
a public-spirited man who bequeathed his property for the
purpose of keeping it in order. … The name of the Lyceum,
sometimes derived from Lycus, son of Pandion, probably owed
its origin to the temenos of Lycian Apollo there situated. It
lay near the banks of the Ilissos, and was adorned with
stately edifices, fountains and groves. … In this place
anciently the Polemarch held his court and the forces of the
republic were exercised before they went forth to war.
Appended to the name of the Cynosarges, or third gymnasium
surrounded with groves, was a legend which related that when
Diomos was sacrificing to Hestia, a white dog snatched away a
part of the victim from the altar, and running straightway out
of the city deposited it on the spot where this gymnasium was
afterwards erected."
J. A. St. John,
The Hellenes,
book 2, chapter 5.
"The name of that most illustrious of the Athenian gymnasia,
the Academy, has been preserved through the dark ages, and
exactly in the situation indicated by ancient testimony. We
are informed that the Academy was six or eight stades distant
from a gate in the wall of the asty named Dipylum, and that
the road from thence to the Academy led through that part of
the outer Cerameicus, in which it was a custom to bury the
Athenian citizens who had fallen in battle on important
occasions. Dipylum was the gate from whence began the Sacred
Way from Athens to Eleusis. … It appears also that the
Academy lay between the Sacred Way and the Colonus Hippius, a
height near the Cephissus, sacred to Neptune, and the scene of
the Œdipus Coloneus of Sophocles; for the Academy was not far
from Colonus, and the latter was ten stades distant from the
city. That part of the plain which is near the olive-groves,
on the northeastern side of Athens, and is now called
Akadhimia, is entirely in conformity with these data. It is on
the lowest level, where some water-courses from the ridges of
Lycabettus are consumed in gardens and olive plantations."
W. M. Leake,
Topography of Athens,
section 2.
See, also,
EDUCATION, ANCIENT: GREECE.
{1620}
GYMNASIARCH.
See LITURGIES.
GYPSIES, The.
"Having in various and distant countries lived in habits of
intimacy with these people, I have come to the following
conclusions respecting them: that wherever they are found,
their manners and customs are virtually the same, though
somewhat modified by circumstances, and that the language they
speak amongst themselves, and of which they are particularly
anxious to keep others in ignorance, is in all countries one
and the same, but has been subjected more or less to
modification; and lastly, that their countenances exhibit a
decided family resemblance, but are darker or fairer according
to the temperature of the climate, but invariably darker, at
least in Europe, than the natives of the countries in which
they dwell, for example, England and Russia, Germany and
Spain. The names by which they are known differ with the
country, though, with one or two exceptions, not materially;
for example, they are styled in Russia, Zigani; in Turkey and
Persia, Zingarri; and in Germany, Zigeuner; all which words
apparently spring from the same etymon, which there is no
improbability in supposing to be 'Zincali,' a term by which
these people, especially those of Spain, sometimes designate
themselves, and the meaning of which is believed to be, 'The
black men of Zend or Ind.' In England and Spain they are
commonly known as Gypsies and Gitanos, from a general belief
that they were originally Egyptians, to which the two words
are tantamount; and in France as Bohemians, from the
circumstance that Bohemia was the first country in civilized
Europe where they made their appearance; though there is
reason for supposing that they had been wandering in the
remote regions of Sclavonia for a considerable time previous,
as their language abounds with words of Sclavonic origin,
which could not have been adopted in a hasty passage through a
wild and half populated country. But they generally style
themselves and the language which they speak, Rommany. This
word … is of Sanscrit origin, and signifies, 'The Husbands,'
or that which pertaineth unto them. From whatever motive this
appellation may have originated, it is perhaps more applicable
than any other to a sect or caste like them, who have no love
and no affection beyond their own race; who are capable of
making great sacrifices for each other, and who gladly prey
upon all the rest of the human species, whom they detest, and
by whom they are hated and despised. It will perhaps not be
out of place to observe here, that there is no reason for
supposing that the word Roma or Rommany is derived from the
Arabic word which signifies Greece or Grecians, as some people
not much acquainted with the language of the race in question
have imagined. … Scholars have asserted that the language
which they speak proves them to be of Indian stock, and
undoubtedly a great number of their words are Sanscrit. …
There is scarcely a part of the habitable world where they are
not to be found; their tents are alike pitched on the heaths
of Brazil and the ridges of the Himalayan hills, and their
language is heard at Moscow and Madrid, in the streets of
London and Stamboul."
G. Borrow,
The Zincali,
volume 1, pages 2-5.
"One day, 450 years ago, or thereabouts, there knocked at the
gates of the city of Lüneburg, on the Elbe, as strange a
rabble rout as had ever been seen by German burgher. There
were 300 of them, men and women, accompanied by an
extraordinary number of children. They were dusky of skin,
with jet-black hair and eyes; they wore strange garments; they
were unwashed and dirty even beyond the liberal limits
tolerated by the cold-water-fearing citizens of Lüneburg; they
had with them horses, donkeys, and carts; they were led by two
men whom they described as Duke and Count. … All the
Lüneburgers turned out to gaze open-mouthed at these pilgrims,
while the Duke and the Count told the authorities their tale,
which was wild and romantic. … Many years before, they
explained, while the tears of penitence stood in the eyes of
all but the youngest children, they had been a Christian
community, living in orthodoxy, and therefore happiness, in a
far-off country known as Egypt. … They were then a happy
Christian flock. To their valley came the Saracens, an
execrable race, worshipping Mahound. Yielding, in an evil
hour, to the threats and persecutions of their conquerors,
they—here they turned their faces and wept aloud—they
abjured Christ. But thereafter they had no rest or peace, and
a remorse so deep fell upon their souls that they were fain to
arise, leave their homes, and journey to Rome in hope of
getting reconciliation with the Church, They were graciously
received by the Pope, who promised to admit them back into the
fold after seven years of penitential wandering. They had
letters of credit from King Sigismund—would the Lüneburgers
kindly look at them?—granting safe conduct and recommending
them to the protection of all honest people. The Lüneburg folk
were touched at the recital of so much suffering in a cause so
good; they granted the request of the strangers. They allowed
them to encamp, … The next day the strangers visited the
town. In the evening a good many things were missed,
especially those unconsidered trifles which a housewife may
leave about her doorway. Poultry became suddenly scarce; eggs
doubled in price; it was rumoured that purses had been lost
while their owners gazed at the strangers; cherished cups of
silver were not to be found. … While the Lüneburgers took
counsel, in their leisurely way, how to meet a case so
uncommon, the pilgrims suddenly decamped, leaving nothing
behind them but the ashes of their fires and the picked bones
of the purloined poultry. … This was the first historical
appearance of Gipsies. It was a curious place to appear in.
The mouth of the Elbe is a long way from Egypt, even if you
travel by sea, which does not appear to have been the case;
and a journey on laud not only would have been infinitely more
fatiguing, but would, one would think, have led to some notice
on the road before reaching Lüneburg. There, however, the
Gipsies certainly are first heard of, and henceforth history
has plenty to say about their doings. From Lüneburg they went
to Hamburg, Lübeck, Rostock, Griefswald, travelling in an
easterly direction. They are mentioned as having appeared in
Saxony, where they were driven away, as at Lüneburg, for their
thievish propensities. They travelled through Switzerland,
headed by their great Duke Michael, and pretending to have
been expelled from Egypt by the Turks, Their story in these
early years, though it varied in particulars, remained the
same in essentials.
{1621}
In Provence they called themselves Saracens; in Swabia they
were Egyptians doomed to everlasting wanderings for having
refused hospitality to the Virgin and Joseph; at Bâle, where
they exhibited letters of safe conduct from the Pope, they
were also Egyptians. Always the Land of the Nile; always the
same pretence, or it may be reminiscence, of sojourn in Egypt;
always, to soothe the suspicions of priests, faithful and
submissive sons of the Church. From the very first their real
character was apparent. They lie, cheat, and steal at
Lüneburg; they lie and steal everywhere; they tell fortunes
and cut purses, they buy and sell horses, they poison pigs,
they rob and plunder, they wander and they will not work. They
first came to Paris in the year 1427, when more people went to
see them, we are told, than ever crowded to the Fair of
Laudet. … They remained at St. Denis for a month, when they
received peremptory orders to quit for the usual reason. …
In the 16th century trouble began for the Roman folk. By this
time their character was perfectly well known. They were
called Bohemians, Heathen, Gitanos, Pharaohites, Robbers,
Tartars, and Zigeuner. They had abandoned the old lying story
of the penitential wanderings; they were outcasts; their hand
was against every man's hand; their customs were the same then
as they are described now by Leland or Borrow."
Gipsies and their Friends
(Temple Bar, volume 47), pages 65-67.
"Since the publication of Pott's book upon the gypsies [Die
Zigeuner in Europa und Asien]—about 30 years ago—we have
come to regard the origin of this singular people with
considerable unanimity of opinion. Almost nobody doubts now
that they are Indians; and the assumption that all the gypsies
scattered throughout Europe are descended from one parent
stock meets with little contradiction. Both of these beliefs
are the outcome of the investigation of their language. …
Pott, in the introduction to his book, and quoting from the
'Shah-Name' of Firdousi, informs us that, during the 5th
century of our era, the Persian monarch, Behram Gour, received
from an Indian king 12,000 musicians of both sexes, who were
known as Luris. Now, as this is the name by which the gypsies
of Persia are known even at the present day, and as, moreover,
the author of the Persian work 'Modjmal at-tawarikh'
emphatically says that the Luris or Lulis of modern Persia are
the descendants of these same 12,000 musicians, there is no
hazard in the assumption that we have here the first recorded
gypsy migration. Confirmation of this is afforded by the
Arabian historian, Hamza of Ispahan, who wrote half a century
before Firdousi, and who was well versed in the history of the
Sassasinides. It is related by this author that Behram Gour
caused 12,000 musicians, called Zott, to be sent from India
for the benefit of his subjects. And 'Zott' is the name by
which the gypsies were known to the Arabs, and which they even
bear in Damascus at the present day. In the Arabic dictionary
'al-Kamus' this entry occurs: 'Zott, arabicized from Jatt, a
people of Indian origin. The word might be pronounced Zatt
with equal correctness.' … For the fatherland of these Zott,
or Jatt, we have not long to seek. Istakhri and Ibn-Haukal,
the celebrated 10th-century geographers, recount as follows:—
'Between al-Mansura and Mokran the waters of the Indus have
formed marshes, the borders of which are inhabited by certain
Indian tribes, called Zott; those of them who dwell near the
river live in huts, like the huts of the Berbers, and subsist
chiefly on fish and water-fowl; while those occupying the
level country further inland live like the Kurds, supporting
themselves on milk, cheese, and maize.' In these same regions
there are yet two more tribes placed by these geographers,
namely, the Bodha and the Meid. The former are properly,
according to Ibn-Haukal, a subdivision of the Zott. … In
course of time the Meds (to adopt the spelling favoured by Sir
Henry Elliott) overcame the Zotts, whom they treated with such
severity that they had to leave the country. The Zotts then
established themselves on the river Pehen, where they soon
became skilful sailors"; while those living farther to the
north, known as Kikan, became famed as breeders of horses and
herders of buffalos. When the Arabs, in their career of
conquest, came in contact with the Zotts, the latter joined
them, and large colonies of them were removed, for some
reason, to western Asia, and settled with their herds on the
lower Euphrates and Tigris, and in Syria. The Zotts on the
Tigris became strong and troublesome in time, and in 834 the
khalif Motacem, after subjugating them by force, removed them
from the country, to the number of 27,000, sending them to
Ainzarba, on the northern frontier of Syria. In 855, Ainzarba
was captured by the Byzantines, who carried off the Zotts,
with all their buffalo herds. "Here, then, we have the first
band of gypsies brought into the Greek Empire. … As regards
the destinies of the Zotts after they had been brought to Asia
Minor from Ainzarba, in the year 855, I have been unable—in
the course of a hurried search—to discover anything. But, now
that we know the year in which they entered Byzantine
territory, others may be more successful. Whether the name
Zott, or rather its Indian form Jatt (or Jaut), has also been
brought with them into Europe, I am, of course, as little able
to say."
M. J. de Goeje,
A Contribution to the History of the Gypsies
(In "Accounts of the Gypsies of India,"
edited by D. MacRitchie).
"Students of the gipsies, and especially those who have
interested themselves in the history of the race, will have
read with regret the announcement of the death, at Paris, on
March 1st, of the veteran 'tsiganologue,' M. Paul Bataillard.
For the last half century he had devoted his leisure time to
the study of the early notices of the presence of gipsies in
Europe. … It was his opinion that there have been gipsies in
Eastern Europe since prehistoric times, and that it is to them
Europe owes its knowledge of metallurgy. Heterodox although
this opinion may be, it has recently been observed by Mr. F.
H. Groome that 'Bataillard's theory is gaining favour with
foreign archæologists, among whom MM. Mortillet, Chantre, and
Burnouf had arrived independently at similar conclusions.'"
The Athenæum,
March 31, 1894.
ALSO IN:
C. G. Leland,
English Gipsies,
chapters 8-10.
W. Simson.
History of the Gipsies.
GYRWAS.
"Fen-folk"—the name taken by a body of Engle freebooters who
occupied the islands in the Fen district of England for a long
time before they were able to possess the Roman-British towns
and country on its border.
J. R. Green,
The Making of England,
chapter 2.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 547-633.
{1622}
H
HAARLEM: A. D. 1572-1573.
Siege and capture by Alva's Spaniards.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1572-1573.
HABEAS CORPUS, Act and Writ of.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1679 (MAY).
HABSBURG, or HAPSBURG, Origin of the House of.
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1246-1282.
HABSBURG-LORRAINE, The House of.
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1745 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).
HACKINSACKS, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
HADI, Al, Caliph, A. D. 786-809.
HADRIAN,
Roman Emperor, A. D. 117-138.
Hadrian I., Pope, 772-795.
Hadrian II., Pope, 867-872.
Hadrian III., Pope, 884-885.
Hadrian IV., Pope, 1154-1159.
Hadrian V., Pope, 1276, July to August.
HADRIANOPLE.
See ADRIANOPLE.
HADRIAN'S MAUSOLEUM.
See CASTLE ST. ANGELO.
HADRIAN'S WALL.
See ROMAN WALLS IN BRITAIN.
HADRUMETUM, OR ADRUMETUM.
See CARTHAGE, THE DOMINION OF.
HÆDUI, The.
See ÆDUI.
HÆMUS, Mount.
The ancient name of the Balkan chain of mountains.
HÆRRED, The.
See HUNDRED, THE.
HAGENAU, Treaty of (1330).
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1330-1364.
HAGUE, The:
Origin and Name.
"Unlike other Dutch cities, the Hague owed its importance, not
to commerce or manufactures, but to having early been made the
seat of government of the United Provinces, and to the
constant presence of the officers of state and the foreign
ministers accredited to the republic. For four centuries the
abode of the counts of Holland, it derives its name from the
'Haeg 'or hedge encircling the magnificent park which formed
their ancient hunting ground, and the majestic trees in which,
at this day, attract the admiration of Europe."
J. R. Brodhead,
History of the State of New York,
volume 1, page 61.
HAGUENAU: Cession to France.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.
HAIDAS, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SKITTAGETAN FAMILY.
HAIDERABAD, OR HYDERABAD, The Nizam of.
See INDIA: A. D. 1662-1748; and 1877.
HAINAULT.
Hainault, the region of the Netherlands occupied anciently by
the Nervii, became a county under hereditary lords in the 9th
century. In the 11th century it was joined by marriage to the
territories of the counts of Flanders, and so remained, until
the beginning of the 14th century. In 1300 Hainault and
Holland became joined under the same family of counts.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 922-1345.
HAITI.
See HAYTI.
HAKO, OR HAKON I. (called the Good),
King of Norway, A. D. 940-963.
Hako II. (Jarl), King of Norway, 977-995.
Hako III., King of Norway, 1202-1204.
Hako IV., King of Norway, 1207-1263.
Hako V., King of Norway, 1299-1319.
Hako VI., King of Norway, 1343-1380.
HALF-BREEDS.
See STALWARTS.
HALFWAY COVENANT, The.
See BOSTON: A. D. 1657-1669.
HALIARTUS, Battle of (B. C. 395).
See GREECE: B. C. 399-387.
HALICARNASSUS.
See CARIANS;
and ASIA MINOR;
THE GREEK COLONIES;
also, MACEDONIA: B. C. 334-330.
HALIDON HILL, Battle of (1333).
See BERWICK-UPON-TWEED: A. D. 1293-1333;
and SCOTLAND: A. D. 1332-1333.
HALIFAX: A. D. 1749.
The founding of the city.
"In the year [1749] after the peace [of Aix-la-Chapelle] the
land forces in Great Britain were reduced to little more than
18,000 men; those in Minorca, Gibraltar, and the American
plantations, to 10,000; while the sailors retained in the
Royal Navy were under 17,000. From the large number both of
soldiers and seamen suddenly discharged, it was feared that
they might be either driven to distress or tempted to
depredation. Thus, both for their own comfort and for the
quiet of the remaining community, emigration seemed to afford
a safe and excellent resource. The province of Nova Scotia was
pitched upon for this experiment, and the freehold of fifty
acres was offered to each settler, with ten acres more for
every child brought with him, besides a free passage, and an
exemption from all taxes during a term of ten years. Allured
by such advantages, above 4,000 persons, with their families,
embarked under the command of Colonel Cornwallis, and landed
at the harbour of Chebuetow. The new town which soon arose
from their labours received its name from the Earl of Halifax,
who presided at the Board of Trade, and who had the principal
share in the foundation of this colony. In the first winter
there were but 300 huts of wood, surrounded by a palisade."
Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope),
History of England, 1713-1783,
chapter 31 (volume 4).
See, also,
NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1749-1755.
HALIFAX CURRENCY.
"For many years Canada used what was called 'Halifax
currency,' in which the nomenclature of sterling money was
that employed, but having a pound of this currency valued at
four dollars."
G. Bryce,
Short History of the Canadian People,
page 433.
HALIFAX FISHERY AWARD.
See FISHERIES, NORTH AMERICAN: A. D. 1877-1888.
HALLECK, General Henry W. Command in Missouri.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (JULY-NOVEMBER).
Command in the Valley of the Mississippi.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (FEBRUARY-APRIL: TENNESSEE);
(APRIL-MAY: TENNESSEE-MISSISSIPPI);
(JUNE-OCTOBER: TENNESSEE-KENTUCKY).
Command of all the armies.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER: MISSISSIPPI).
HAMADAN.
The capital city of ancient Media.
HAMATH, Kingdom of.
"It is impossible to doubt that the Hamathites are identical
with the Canaanitish tribe that was settled in the town of
Hamath, afterwards called Epiphania, on the Orontes, between
the Hittites and the Amorites of Kadesh. After the time of
David they were succeeded in that town by the Arimæans."
F. Lenormant,
Manual of Ancient History of the East,
book 6, chapter 1 (volume 2).
{1623}
----------HAMBURG: Start----------
HAMBURG:
The origin of the city, its freedom and commercial rise.
See HANSA TOWNS.
HAMBURG: A. D. 1801-1803.
One of six Free Cities which survived the Peace of Luneville.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.
HAMBURG: A. D. 1806.
Occupied and oppressed by the French.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1806 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
HAMBURG: A. D. 1810.
Annexation to France.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1810 (FEBRUARY-DECEMBER).
HAMBURG: A. D. 1810-1815.
Loss and recovery of the autonomy of a Free City.
See CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE, OF GERMANY.
HAMBURG: A. D. 1813.
Expulsion of the French.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1812-1813.
HAMBURG: A. D. 1813.
Defense by Marshal Davoust.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
HAMBURG: A. D. 1815.
Once more a Free City and a member of the Germanic
Confederation.
See VIENNA, THE CONGRESS OF.
HAMBURG: A. D. 1888.
Surrender of free privileges.
Absorption in the Zollverein and Empire.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1888.
----------HAMBURG: End----------
HAMILCAR BARCA, and the First Punic War.
See PUNIC WAR, THE FIRST.
HAMILTON, Alexander,
The framing and adoption of the Federal Constitution.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1787, and 1787-1789.
HAMILTON, Alexander:
Financial organization of the United States Government.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1789-1792;
also, TARIFF LEGISLATION (UNITED STATES):
A. D. 1789-1791.
HAMILTON, Alexander:
The Federal Party.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1789-1792,
and 1797-1799.
HAMILTON, Alexander:
Fatal duel with Aaron Burr.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1806-1807.
HAMITES.—HAMITIC LANGUAGES.
The name Hamites, as now used among ethnologists, is
restricted more closely than it once was to certain African
races, whose languages are found to be related. The languages
classed as Hamitic are those of the ancient Egyptians and the
modern Copts, most of the Abyssinian tribes, the Gallas and
the Berbers. Some of the older writers, Lenormant, for
example, embraced the Phœnicians and all their Canaanite
neighbors among the Hamites; but this is not now an accepted
view. It was undoubtedly formed under the influence of the
theory from which the name Hamites came, namely that the
people so designated were descendants of Ham; and it sought to
adjust a division of the Hamitic family to four lines of
descent, indicated by the Biblical account of the four sons of
Ham,—Cush, Mizraim, Phut, and Canaan. This hypothesis
identified the Cushites with the Ethiopians (modern
Abyssinians and Nubians), the descendants of Mizraim with the
Egyptians, those of Phut with the Libyans, and those of Canaan
with the Canaanites, including the Phœnicians. Some held that
the Hamites occupied originally a great part of western and
southern Asia; that they were the primitive inhabitants of
southern Mesopotamia, or Chaldea, southern Persia, and
southern Arabia, and were displaced by the Semites; also that
they once inhabited the most of Asia Minor, and that the
Carians were a surviving remnant of them. But the more
conservative sense in which the term Hamite is now used
restricts it, as stated above, to certain races which are
grouped together by a relationship in their languages. Whether
or not the Hamitic tongues have an affinity to the Semitic
seems still an open question; and, in fact, the whole subject
is in an undetermined state, as may be inferred from the
following extract: "The so-called Hamitic or sub-Semitic
languages of Northern Africa … exhibit resemblances to the
language of ancient Egypt as well as to those of the Semitic
family. In the Libyan dialects we find the same double verbal
form employed with the same double function as in Assyrian,
and throughout the 'Hamitic' languages the causative is
denoted by a prefixed sibilant as it was in the parent Semitic
speech. We cannot argue, however, from language to race, …
and the Libyans have ethnologically no connection with the
Semites or the Egyptians. Moreover, in several instances the
Hamitic' dialects are spoken by tribes of negro or Nubian
origin, while the physiological characteristics of the
Egyptians are very different from those of the Semite."
A. H. Sayce,
The Races of the Old Testament,
chapter 4.
HAMPDEN, John.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1634-1637; 1640-1641;
1642 (JANUARY), (OCTOBER-DECEMBER);
and 1643 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).
HAMPDEN CLUBS.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1816-1820.
HAMPTON COURT CONFERENCE.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1604.
HAMPTON ROADS PEACE CONFERENCE.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (FEBRUARY).
HANAU, Battle of.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
HANCOCK, John, and the American Revolution.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1775 (MAY-AUGUST); and 1776 (JULY).
HANDVESTS.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1559-1562.
HANES.
An ancient Egyptian city, once mentioned in the Bible by that
name (Isaiah xxx. 4). Its ruins have been identified, about 70
miles above Cairo, on the western bank of the Nile. The
Egyptian name of the city was Chenensu; the Greek name
Heracleopolis.
R. S. Poole,
Cities of Egypt,
chapter 3.
HANNIBAL, The war of, with Rome.
See PUNIC WAR, THE SECOND.
----------HANOVER: Start--------
HANOVER, OR BRUNSWICK-LÜNEBURG:
Origin of the Kingdom and House.
See SAXONY: THE OLD DUCHY,
and A. D. 1178-1183.
HANOVER:
The Guelf connection.
See GUELFS AND GHIBELLINES;
and ESTE, HOUSE OF.
HANOVER: A. D. 1529.
The Duke joins in the Protest which gave origin to the name
Protestants.
See PAPACY: A. D. 1525-1529.
HANOVER: A. D. 1546.
Final separation from the Wolfenbüttel branch of the House.
The two principalities of Brunswick and Lüneburg, which had
been divided, were reunited by Ernest, called the Confessor.
On his death, in 1546, they were again divided, the heir of
his elder son taking Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, or Brunswick, and
the younger receiving Brunswick-Lüneburg, or Hanover. From the
latter branch sprang the Electoral House of Hanover, and the
present royal family of England; from the former descended the
Ducal Brunswick family.
Sir A. Halliday,
Annals of the House of Hanover,
book 9 (volume 2).
{1624}
HANOVER: A. D. 1648.
Losses and acquisitions in the Peace of Westphalia.
The alternating Bishopric.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.
HANOVER: A. D. 1692.
Rise to Electoral rank.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1648-1705; and 1125-1152.
HANOVER: A. D. 1694-1696.
The war of the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV.
See FRANCE: A.D. 1694; and 1695-1696.
HANOVER: A. D. 1701.
Settlement of the Succession of the Brunswick-Lüneberg line to
the English Crown.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1701.
HANOVER: A. D. 1714.
Succession of the Elector to the British Crown.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1714.
HANOVER: A. D. 1720.
Acquisition of the duchies of Bremen and Verden by the
Elector.
See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1719-1721.
HANOVER: A. D. 1741.
The War of the Austrian Succession: Neutrality declared.
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1741 (AUGUST-NOVEMBER).
HANOVER: A. D. 1745.
The English-Hanoverian defeat at Fontenoy.
See NETHERLANDS (THE AUSTRIAN PROVINCES): A. D. 1745.
HANOVER: A. D. 1757-1762.
French attack and British defense of the electorate in the
Seven Years War.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1757 (JULY-DECEMBER), to 1761-1762.
HANOVER: A. D. 1763.
The Peace of Paris, ending the Seven Years War.
See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES.
HANOVER: A. D. 1776.
Troops hired to Great Britain for service in the American War.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1776 (JANUARY-JUNE).
HANOVER: A. D. 1801-1803.
Annexation of Osnabruck.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.
HANOVER: A. D. 1803-1806.
Seizure by the French.
Cession to Prussia.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1802-1803;
and GERMANY: 1806 (JANUARY-AUGUST).
HANOVER: A. D. 1807.
Absorbed in the kingdom of Westphalia.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1807 (JUNE-JULY).
HANOVER: A. D. 1810.
Northern part annexed to France.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1810 (FEBRUARY-DECEMBER).
HANOVER: A. D. 1813.
Deliverance from Napoleon.
Restoration to the King of England.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
HANOVER: A. D. 1815.
Raised to the rank of a kingdom, with territorial enlargement.
See VIENNA, THE CONGRESS OF.
HANOVER: A. D. 1837,
Separation of the Crown from that of Great Britain.
"From the hour that the Crown of these kingdoms [Great Britain
and Ireland] devolved upon Queen Victoria, dates a change
which was a real blessing in the relations of the Sovereign to
the Continent of Europe. Hanover was at that instant wholly
separated from Great Britain. By the law of that country a
female could not reign except in default of heirs male in the
Royal family. But in addition to the great advantage of
separating the policy of England wholly from the intrigues and
complications of a petty German State, it was an immediate
happiness that the most hated and in some respects the most
dangerous man in these islands was removed to a sphere where
his political system might be worked out with less danger to
the good of society than amongst a people where his influence
was associated with the grossest follies of Toryism and the
darkest designs of Orangeism. On the 24th of June the duke of
Cumberland, now become Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover, left
London. On the 28th he made a solemn entrance into the capital
of his states, and at once exhibited to his new subjects his
character and disposition by refusing to receive a deputation
of the Chambers, who came to offer him their homage and their
congratulations. By a proclamation of the 5th of July he
announced his intention to abolish the representative
constitution, which he had previously refused to recognize by
the customary oath. We shall have little further occasion to
notice the course of this worst disciple of the old school of
intolerance and irresponsible government, and we may therefore
at once state that he succeeded in depriving Hanover of the
forms of freedom under which she had begun to live; ejected
from their offices and banished some of the ablest professors
of the University of Gottingen, who had ventured to think that
letters would flourish best in a free soil; and reached the
height of his ambition in becoming the representative of
whatever in sovereign power was most repugnant to the spirit
of the age."
C. Knight,
Popular History of England,
volume 8, chapter 23.
HANOVER: A. D. 1866.
Extinction of the kingdom.
Absorption by Prussia.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.
----------HANOVER: End--------
HANOVER, The Alliance of.
See SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1725.
HANOVER JUNCTION, Engagement at.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 18112 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA).
HANSA TOWNS, The.
"In consequence of the liberty and security enjoyed by the
inhabitants of the free towns [of Germany—see CITIES:
IMPERIAL AND FREE, OF GERMANY], while the rest of the country
was a prey to all the evils of feudal anarchy and oppression,
they made a comparatively rapid progress in wealth and
population. Nuremberg, Augsburg, Worms, Spires, Frankfort, and
other cities, became at an early period celebrated alike for
the extent of their commerce, the magnificence of their
buildings, and the opulence of their citizens. … The
commercial spirit awakened in the north about the same time as
in the south of Germany. Hamburgh was founded by Charlemagne
in the beginning of the ninth century, in the intention of
serving as a fort to bridle the Saxons, who had been
subjugated by the emperor. Its favourable situation on the
Elbe necessarily rendered it a commercial emporium. Towards
the close of the twelfth century, the inhabitants, who had
already been extensively engaged in naval enterprizes, began
to form the design of emancipating themselves from the
authority of their counts, and of becoming a sovereign and
independent state; and in 1189 they obtained an Imperial
charter which gave them various privileges, including among
others the power of electing councillors, or aldermen, to
whom, in conjunction with the deputy of the count, the
government of the town was to be entrusted. Not long after
Hamburgh became entirely free. In 1224 the citizens purchased
from Count Albert the renunciation of all his rights, whether
real or pretended, to any property in or sovereignty over the
town, and its immediate vicinity. And the government was thus
early placed on that liberal footing on which it has ever
since remained. Lubeck, situated on the Trave, was founded
about the middle of the twelfth century. It rapidly grew to be
a place of great trade.
{1625}
It became the principal emporium for the commerce of the
Baltic, and its merchants extended their dealings to Italy and
the Levant. At a period when navigation was still imperfect,
and when the seas were infested with pirates, it was of great
importance to be able to maintain a safe intercourse by land
between Lubeck and Hamburgh, as by that means the difficult
and dangerous navigation of the Sound was avoided. And it is
said by some, that the first political union between these
cities had the protection of merchandize carried between them
by land for its sole object. But this is contradicted by
Lambec in his 'Origines Hamburgenses' (lib. xi., pa. 26). …
But whatever may have been the motives which led to the
alliance between these two cities, it was the origin of the
famous Hanseatic League, so called from the German word
'hansa,' signifying a corporation. There is no very distinct
evidence as to the time when the alliance in question was
established; but the more general opinion seems to be that it
dates from the year 1241. … From the beginning of the
twelfth century, the progress of commerce and navigation in
the north was exceedingly rapid. The countries which stretch
along the bottom of the Baltic from Holstein to Russia, and
which had been occupied by barbarous tribes of Sclavonic
origin, were then subjugated by the Kings of Denmark, the
Dukes of Saxony, and other princes. The greater part of the
inhabitants being exterminated, their place was filled by
German colonists, who founded the towns of Stralsund, Rostock,
Wismar, etc. Prussia and Poland were afterwards subjugated by
the Christian princes, and the Knights of the Teutonic order.
So that in a comparatively short period, the foundations of
civilization and the arts were laid in countries whose
barbarism had ever remained impervious to the Roman power. The
cities that were established along the coasts of the Baltic,
and even in the interior of the countries bordering upon it,
eagerly joined the Hanseatic confederation. They were indebted
to the merchants of Lubeck for supplies of the commodities
produced in more civilized countries, and they looked up to
them for protection against the barbarians by whom they were
surrounded. The progress of the league was in consequence
singularly rapid. Previously to the end of the thirteenth
century it embraced every considerable city in all those vast
countries extending from Livonia to Holland; and was a match
for the most powerful monarchs. The Hanseatic confederacy was
at its highest degree of power and splendour during the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It then comprised from
sixty to eighty cities, which were distributed into four
classes or circles. Lubeck was at the head of the first
circle, and had under it Hamburgh, Bremen, Rostock, Wismar,
etc. Cologne was at the head of the second circle, with
twenty-nine towns under it. Brunswick was at the head of the
third circle, consisting of thirteen towns. Dantzic was at the
head of the fourth circle, having under it eight towns in its
vicinity, besides several that were more remote. The supreme
authority of the League was vested in the deputies of the
different towns assembled in Congress. In it they discussed
all their measures; decided upon the sum that each city should
contribute to the common fund; and upon the questions that
arose between the confederacy and other powers, as well as
those that frequently arose between the different members of
the confederacy. The place for the meeting of Congress was not
fixed, but it was most frequently held at Lubeck, which was
considered as the capital of the League, and there its
archives were kept. … Besides the towns already mentioned,
there were others that were denominated confederated cities,
or allies. … The Golden Bull proscribed all sorts of leagues
and associations, as contrary to the fundamental laws of the
empire, and to the subordination due to the emperor and the
different princes. But Charles IV., the author of this famous
edict, judged it expedient to conciliate the Hanseatic League;
and his successors seem generally to have followed his
example. As the power of the confederated cities was increased
and consolidated, they became more ambitious. Instead of
limiting their efforts to the mere advancement of commerce and
their own protection, they endeavoured to acquire the monopoly
of the trade of the North, and to exercise the same sort of
dominion over the Baltic that the Venetians exercised over the
Adriatic. For this purpose they succeeded in obtaining, partly
in return for loans of money, and partly by force, various
privileges and immunities from the Northern sovereigns which
secured to them almost the whole foreign commerce of
Scandinavia, Denmark, Prussia, Poland, Russia, etc. They
exclusively carried on the herring-fishery of the Sound, at
the same time that they endeavoured to obstruct and hinder the
navigation of foreign vessels in the Baltic. … The Kings of
Denmark, Sweden and Norway were frequently engaged in
hostilities with the Hanse towns. They regarded, and it must
be admitted not without pretty good reason, the privileges
acquired by the League in their kingdoms as so many
usurpations. But their efforts to abolish these privileges
served, for more than two centuries, only to augment and
extend them. … Waldemar III., who ascended the Danish throne
in 1340, engaged in a furious contest with the League. Success
seemed at first rather to incline to his arms. Ultimately,
however, he was completely defeated by the forces of the
League and its allies, and was even obliged to fly from his
kingdom. In his exile he prevailed on the Emperor and the Pope
to interpose in his favour. But neither the imperial rescripts
nor the thunders of the Vatican were able to divert the
confederated cities from their purposes. At length, in 1370,
the regents, to whom the government of Denmark had been
intrusted during the absence of the monarch, concluded a peace
with the League on the conditions dictated by the latter; one
of which was that most of the strong places in the kingdom
should be given up to the League for fifteen years, in
security for the faithful performance of the treaty. Waldemar
having assented to these humiliating terms, returned soon
after to Denmark. In the early part of the fifteenth century
the Hanse towns having espoused the side of the Count of
Holstein, who was at war with Eric X., King of Denmark, sent
an armament of upwards of 200 ships, having more than 12,000
troops on board, to the assistance of their ally. This
powerful aid decided the contest in his favour. Nearly at the
same time the League raised their ally, Albert of
Mecklenburgh, to the throne of Norway, who confirmed to them
several important commercial privileges.
{1626}
In their contests with Sweden, during the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, the League were equally successful. Such,
indeed, was their ascendancy in that kingdom, that they were
authorized to nominate some of the principal magistrates in
most of the Swedish maritime towns of any importance! … The
town of Wisby, situated on the west coast of the island of
Gothland, became, during the ascendancy of the League, one of
its principal depots, and also one of the best frequented
emporiums of the North. But Wisby is chiefly famous from its
name having become identified with the code of maritime laws
that was long of paramount authority in the Baltic. … The
principal Northern jurists and historians regard the Wisby
code, or compilation, as anterior to the code, or compilation,
denominated the Rules or Judgments of Oleron, and as being in
fact the most ancient monument of the maritime laws of the
middle ages. But no learning or ingenuity can give
plausibility to so improbable a theory. … In order to
facilitate and extend their commercial transactions, the
League established various factories in foreign countries, the
principal of which were at Novogorod in Russia, London in
England, Bruges in the Netherlands, and Bergen in Norway.
Novogorod, situated at the confluence of the Volkof with the
Imler Lake, was, for a lengthened period, the most renowned
emporium in the north-eastern parts of Europe. … The
merchants of the Hanse towns, or Hansards, as they were then
commonly termed, were established in London at a very early
period, and their factory here was of considerable magnitude
and importance. They enjoyed various privileges and
immunities; they were permitted to govern themselves by their
own laws and regulations; the custody of one of the gates of
the city (Bishopsgate) was committed to their care; and the
duties on various sorts of imported commodities were
considerably reduced in their favour. These privileges
necessarily excited the ill-will and animosity of the English
merchants. … The League exerted themselves vigorously in
defence of their privileges; and having declared war against
England, they succeeded in excluding our vessels from the
Baltic, and acted with such energy, that Edward IV. was glad
to come to an accommodation with them, on terms which were
anything but honourable to the English. In the treaty for this
purpose, negotiated in 1474, the privileges of the merchants
of the Hanse towns were renewed, and the king assigned to
them, in absolute property, a large space of ground, with the
buildings upon it, in Thames Street, denominated the Steel
Yard, whence the Hanse merchants have been commonly
denominated the Association of the Steel Yard. … In 1498,
all direct commerce with the Netherlands being suspended, the
trade fell into the hands of the Hanse merchants, whose
commerce was in consequence very greatly extended. But,
according as the spirit of commercial enterprise awakened in
the nation, and as the benefits resulting from the prosecution
of foreign trade came to be better known, the privileges of
the Hanse merchants became more and more obnoxious. They were
in consequence considerably modified in the reigns of Henry
VII. and Henry VIII., and were at length wholly abolished in
1597. The different individuals belonging to the factory in
London, as well as those belonging to the other factories of
the League, lived together at a common table, and were
enjoined to observe the strictest celibacy. … By means of
their factory at Bergen, and of the privileges which had been
either granted to or usurped by them, the League enjoyed for a
lengthened period the monopoly of the commerce of Norway. But
the principal factory of the League was at Bruges in the
Netherlands. Bruges became, at a very early period, one of the
first commercial cities of Europe, and the centre of the most
extensive trade carried on to the north of Italy. The art of
navigation in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was so
imperfect, that a voyage from Italy to the Baltic and back
again could not be performed in a single season, and hence,
for the sake of their mutual convenience, the Italian and
Hanseatic merchants determined on establishing a magazine or
store-house of their respective products in some intermediate
situation. Bruges was fixed upon for this purpose, a