that he had "never voluntarily borne arms against the United
   States"; that he had "voluntarily given no aid, countenance,
   counsel, or encouragement to persons engaged in armed
   hostility to the National Government"; that he had "neither
   sought nor accepted, nor attempted to exercise the functions
   of any office whatever under authority or pretended authority
   in hostility to the United States"; that he had "never yielded
   a voluntary support to any pretended Government within the
   United States, hostile or inimical thereto."

      J. G. Blaine,
      Twenty Years of Congress,
      volume 2, page 88.
IRONSIDES, Cromwell's.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1643 (MAY).

"IRONSIDES, Old."

   A name popularly given to the American frigate "Constitution."

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1814.

IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY, The.

   According to their traditions, the founder of the League or
   confederacy which united the five nations of the Iroquois—the
   Mohawks, the Onondagas, the Oneidas, the Cayugas, and the
   Senecas, was Hiawatha, the hero of Iroquois legend.

      See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

   He was an Onondaga chief, and is supposed to have lived about
   the middle of the 15th century. "Hiawatha had long beheld with
   grief the evils which afflicted not only his own nation, but
   all the other tribes about them, through the continual wars in
   which they were engaged, and the misgovernment and miseries at
   home which these wars produced. With much meditation he had
   elaborated in his mind the scheme of a vast confederation
   which would ensure universal peace. In the mere plan of a
   confederation there was nothing new. There are probably few,
   if any, Indian tribes which have not, at one time or another,
   been members of a league or confederacy. It may almost be said
   to be their normal condition. But the plan which Hiawatha had
   evolved differed from all others in two particulars. The
   system which he devised was to be not a loose and transitory
   league, but a permanent government. While each nation was to
   retain its own council and its management of local affairs,
   the general control was to be lodged in a federal senate,
   composed of representatives elected by each nation, holding
   office during good behavior, and acknowledged as ruling chiefs
   throughout the whole confederacy. Still further, and more
   remarkably, the confederation was not to be a limited one. It
   was to be indefinitely expansible. The avowed design of its
   proposer was to abolish war altogether. He wished the
   federation to extend until all the tribes of men should be
   included in it, and peace should everywhere reign. Such is the
   positive testimony of the Iroquois themselves: and their
   statement, as will be seen, is supported by historical
   evidence. … His conceptions were beyond his time, and beyond
   ours; but their effect, within a limited sphere, was very
   great. For more than three centuries the bond which he devised
   held together the Iroquois nations in perfect amity. It
   proved, moreover, as he intended, elastic. The territory of
   the Iroquois, constantly extending as their united strength
   made itself felt, became the 'Great Asylum' of the Indian
   tribes. … Among the interminable stories with which the
   common people [of the Five Nations] beguile their winter
   nights, the traditions of Atotarho and Hiawatha became
   intermingled with the legends of their mythology. An
   accidental similarity, in the Onondaga dialect, between the
   name of Hiawatha and that of one of their ancient divinities,
   led to a confusion between the two, which has misled some
   investigators. This deity bears, in the sonorous Canienga
   tongue, the name of Taronhiawagon, meaning 'the Holder of the
   Heavens.' The Jesuit missionaries style him 'the great god of
   the Iroquois.' Among the Onondagas of the present day, the
   name is abridged to Taonhiawagi, or Tahiawagi. The confusion
   between this name and that of Hiawatha (which, in another
   form, is pronounced Tahionwatha) seems to have begun more than
   a century ago. … Mr. J. V. H. Clark, in his interesting
   History of Onondaga, makes the name to have been originally
   Ta-own-ya-wat-ha, and describes the bearer as 'the deity who
   presides over fisheries and hunting-grounds.' He came down
   from heaven in a white canoe, and after sundry adventures,
   which remind one of the labors of Hercules, assumed the name
   of Hiawatha (signifying, we are told, 'a very wise man'), and
   dwelt for a time as an ordinary mortal among men, occupied in
   works of benevolence. Finally, after founding the confederacy
   and bestowing many prudent counsels upon the people, he
   returned to the skies by the same conveyance in which he had
   descended. This legend, or, rather, congeries of intermingled
   legends, was communicated by Clark to Schoolcraft, when the
   latter was compiling his 'Notes on the Iroquois.' Mr.
   Schoolcraft, pleased with the poetical cast of the story, and
   the euphonious name, made confusion worse confounded by
   transferring the hero to a distant region and identifying him
   with Manabozho, a fantastic divinity of the Ojibways.
   Schoolcraft's volume, which he chose to entitle 'The Hiawatha
   Legends,' has not in it a single fact or fiction relating
   either to Hiawatha himself or to the Iroquois deity
   Taronhiawagon. Wild Ojibway stories concerning Manabozho and
   his comrades form the staple of its contents. But it is to
   this collection that we owe the charming poem of Longfellow;
   and thus, by an extraordinary fortune, a grave Iroquois
   lawgiver of the fifteenth century has become, in modern
   literature, an Ojibway demigod, son of the West Wind, and
   companion of the tricksy Paupukkeewis, the boastful Iagoo, and
   the strong Kwasind. If a Chinese traveler, during the middle
   ages, inquiring into the history and religion of the western
   nations, had confounded King Alfred with King Arthur, and both
   with Odin, he would not have made a more preposterous
   confusion of names and characters than that which has hitherto
   disguised the genuine personality of the great Onondaga
   reformer."

      H. Hale, editor,
      The Iroquois Book of Rites
      (Brinton's Library of Aboriginal American Literature,
      number 2, pages 21-36).
{1803}

IRREDENTISTS.

   "This is the name given to a political organisation formed in
   1878, with the avowed object of freeing all Italians from
   foreign rule, and of reuniting to the Italian kingdom all
   those portions of the Italy of old which have passed under
   foreign dominion. The operations of the 'Italia Irredenta'
   party are chiefly carried on against Austria, in consequence
   of the retention by that Empire of Trieste and the Southern
   Tyrol. Until these territories have been relinquished, Italy,
   or at least a certain part of it, will remain unsatisfied."

      J. S. Jeans,
      Italy (National Life and Thought, chapter 8).
ISAAC II. (Comnenus),
   Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. D. 1057-1059.

   Isaac II. (Angelus), Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or
   Greek), 1185-1195.

ISABELLA,
   Queen of Castile
   (wife of Ferdinand II., King of Aragon), A. D. 1474-1504.

   Isabella I., Queen of Spain, 1833-1868.

ISABELLA.
   The city founded by Columbus on the island of Hispaniola, or
   Hayti.

      See AMERICA: A. D. 1493-1496.

ISANDLANA, The English disaster at (1879).

      See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1877-1879.

ISASZEG, Battle of (1849).

      See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1848-1849.

ISAURIAN DYNASTY, The.

      See BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D. 717-797.

ISAURIANS, The.

   The Isaurians were a fierce and savage race of mountaineers,
   who occupied anciently a district in Asia Minor, between
   Cilicia and Pamphylia on the south and Phrygia on the north.
   They were persistently a nation of robbers, living upon the
   spoils taken from their neighbors, who were never able to
   punish them justly in their mountain fastnesses. Even the iron
   hand of the Romans failed to reduce the Isaurians to order,
   although P. Servilius, in 78 B. C., destroyed most of their
   strongholds, and Pompey, eleven years later, in his great
   campaign against the pirates, put an end to the lawless
   depredations on sea and land of the Cilicians, who had become
   confederated with the Isaurians. Five centuries afterwards, in
   the days of the Eastern Empire, the Isaurians were the best
   soldiers of its army, and even gave an emperor to the throne
   at Constantinople in the person of Zeno or Zenon.

      E. W. Brooks,
      The Emperor Zenon and the Isaurians
      (English Historical Review, April, 1893).
ISCA.

   The name of two towns in Roman Britain, one of which is
   identified with modern Exeter and the other with
   Caerleon-on-Usk. The latter was the station of the 2d legion.

      T. Mommsen,
      History of Rome,
      book 8, chapter 5.
      See EXETER, ORIGIN OF;
      also, CAERLEON.

ISHMAELIANS, The.
   See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 908-1171;
   also, ASSASSINS;
   and CARMATHIANS.

ISIDORE, The False Decretals of.

      See PAPACY: A. D. 829-847.

ISINÆ.

      See CAUSENNÆ.

ISLAM.

   "The religion founded by Mahomet is called Islam, a word
   meaning 'the entire surrender of the will to God'; its
   professors are called Mussulmans—'those who have surrendered
   themselves,' or 'Believers,' as opposed to the 'Rejectors' of
   the Divine messengers, who are named 'Kafirs,' or 'Mushrikin,'
   that is, 'those who associate, are [not?] companions or
   sharers with the Deity.' Islam is sometimes divided under the
   two heads of Faith and Practical Religion.

   I. Faith (Iman) includes a belief in one God, omnipotent,
   omniscient, all-merciful, the author of all good; and in
   Mahomet as his prophet, expressed in the formula 'There is no
   God but God, and Mahomet is the Prophet of God.' It includes,
   also, a belief in the authority and sufficiency of the Koran,
   in angels, genii, and the devil, in the immortality of the
   soul, the resurrection, the day of judgment and in God's
   absolute decree for good and evil.

   II. Practical religion (Din) consists of five observances:
   (1) Recital of the formula of Belief,
   (2) Prayer with Ablution,
   (3) Fasting,
   (4) Almsgiving,
   (5) the Pilgrimage.

   … The standard of Moslem orthodoxy is essentially the Koran
   and to it primary reference is made; but … some more
   extended and discriminating code became necessary. The
   deficiency was supplied by the compilation of the 'Sunnah,' or
   Traditional Law, which is built upon the sayings and practices
   of Mahomet, and, in the opinion of the orthodox, is invested
   with the force of law, and with some of the authority of
   inspiration. … In cases where both the Koran and the Sunnah
   afford no exact precept, the 'Rule of Faith' in their dogmatic
   belief, as well as the decisions of their secular courts, is
   based upon the teaching of one of the four great Imams, or
   founders of the orthodox sects, according as one or another of
   these prevails in any particular country. … The great Sunni
   sect is divided among the orthodox schools mentioned above,
   and is so called from its reception of the 'Sunnah,' as having
   authority concurrent with and supplementary to the Koran. In
   this respect it differs essentially from the Shias, or
   partisans of the house of Ali [the nephew of Mahomet and
   husband of his daughter Fatima] who, adhering to their own
   traditions, reject the authority of the 'Sunnah.' These two
   sects, moreover, have certain observances and matters of
   belief peculiar to themselves, the chief of which is the Shia
   doctrine, that the sovereign Imamat, or temporal and spiritual
   lordship over the faithful, was by divine right vested in Ali
   and in his descendants, through Hasan and Hosein, the children
   of Fatima, the daughter of the prophet. And thus the Persian
   Shias add to the formula of belief the confession, 'Ali is the
   Caliph of God.' In Persia the Shia doctrines prevail, and
   formerly so intense was sectarian hatred that the Sunni
   Mahometans paid a higher capitation tax there than the
   infidels. In Turkey the great majority are Sunni. In India the
   Shias number about one in twenty. The Shias, who reject this
   name, and call themselves Adliyah, or the 'Society of the
   Just,' are subdivided into a great variety of minor sects; but
   these … are united in asserting that the first three
   Caliphs, Abu Bekr, Omar, and Othman were usurpers, who had
   possessed themselves of the rightful and inalienable
   inheritance of Ali."

      J. W. H. Stobart,
      Islam and its Founder,
      chapter 10.
   "The twelve Imams, or pontiffs, of the Persian creed, are Ali,
   Hassan, Hosein, and the lineal descendants of Hosein to the ninth
   generation. Without arms, or treasures, or subjects, they
   successively enjoyed the veneration of the people and provoked
   the jealousy of the reigning caliphs. … The twelfth and last
   of the Imams, conspicuous by the title of Mahadi, or the
   Guide, surpassed the solitude and sanctity of his
   predecessors. He concealed himself in a cavern near Bagdad:
   the time and place of his death are unknown; and his votaries
   pretend that he still lives and will appear before the day of
   judgment."

      E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapter 50.
      ALSO IN:
      E. Sell,
      The Faith of Islam.
      S. Lane-Poole,
      Studies in a Mosque,
      chapters 3 and 7.
      R. D. Osborn,
      Islam under the Arabs,
      part 2, chapter 1.
      W. C. Taylor,
      History of Mohammedanism,
      chapters 5-13.
      R. Bosworth Smith,
      Mohammed and Mohammedanism
      T. Nöldeke,
      Sketches from Eastern History,
      chapter 3.
      See, also,
      MAHOMETAN CONQUEST.

{1804}

ISLAM, Dar-ul-, and Dar-ul-harb.

      See DAR-UL-ISLAM.

ISLAND NUMBER TEN, The capture of.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862
      (MARCH-APRIL: ON THE MISSISSIPPI).

ISLE OF FRANCE.

   The old French province containing Paris. Also the French name
   of Mauritius island, taken by England in 1810.

ISLE ROYALE.

      See CAPE BRETON: A. D. 1720-1745.

ISLES, Lords of the.

      See HEBRIDES: A. D. 1346-1504,
      and HARLAW, BATTLE OF.

ISLES OF THE BLESSED.

      See CANARY ISLANDS.

ISLY, Battle of (1843).

      See BARBARY STATES: A. D. 1830-1846.

ISMAIL, Khedive of Egypt, The reign and the fall of.

      See EGYPT: A. D. 1840-1869; 1870-1883;
      and 1875-1882.

   Ismail I., Shah of Persia, A. D. 1502-1523.

   Ismail II., Shah of Persia, 1576-1577.

ISMAIL, Siege and capture of (1790).

      See TURKS: A. D. 1776-1792.

ISMAILEANS, OR ISHMAELIANS.

      See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 908-1171;
      also, ASSASSINS;
      and CARMATHIANS.

ISONOMY.
ISOTIMY.
ISAGORIA.

   "The principle underlying democracy is the struggle for a
   legalised equality which was usually described [by the ancient
   Greeks] by the expressions Isonomy, or equality of law for
   all,—Isotimy, or proportionate regard paid to all,
   —Isagoria, or equal freedom of speech, with special reference
   to courts of justice and popular assemblies."

      G. F. Schömann,
      Antiquity of Greece: The State,
      part 2, chapter 12.
ISONZO, Battle of the (A. D. 489).

      See ROME: A. D. 488-526.

ISOPOLITY.

   "Under Sp. Cassius [B. C. 493], Rome concluded a treaty with
   the Latins, in which the right of isopolity or the 'jus
   municipi' was conceded to them. The idea of isopolity changed
   in the course of time, but its essential features in early
   times were these: between the Romans and Latins and between
   the Romans and Caerites there existed this arrangement, that
   any citizen of the one state who wished to settle in the
   other, might forthwith be able to exercise there the rights of
   a citizen."

      B. G. Niebuhr,
      Lectures on the History of Rome,
      lecture 13 (volume 1).
ISRAEL.

      See JEWS.

ISRAEL, Lost Ten Tribes of.

      See JEWS: THE KINGDOMS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH.

ISSUS, Battle of (B. C. 333).

      See MACEDONIA: B. C. 334-330.

ISTÆVONES, The.

      See GERMANY: AS KNOWN TO TACITUS.

ISTAKR, OR STAKR.

   The native name under the later, or Sassanian, Persian empire,
   of the ancient capital, Persepolis.

      G. Rawlinson,
      Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy,
      chapter 3, footnote.
ISTER, The.

   The ancient Greek name of the Danube, below the junction of
   the Theiss and the Save.

ISTHMIAN GAMES.

      See NEMEAN.

   ----------ISTRIA: Start--------

ISTRIA:
   Slavonic Occupation of.

      See SLAVONIC PEOPLES: SIXTH AND SEVENTH CENTURIES.

ISTRIA: A. D. 1797.
   Acquisition by Austria.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1797 (MAY-OCTOBER).

   ----------ISTRIA: End--------

ISTRIANS, The.

      See ILLYRIANS.

ISURIUM.

   A Roman town in Britain, which had previously been the chief
   town of the British tribe of the Brigantes. It is identified
   with Aldborough, Yorkshire, "where the excavator meets
   continually with the tessellated floors of the Roman houses."

      T. Wright,
      Celt, Roman and Saxon,
      chapter 5.
ITALI, The.

      See ŒNOTRIANS.

ITALIAN WAR, The.

      See ROME: B. C. 90-88.

ITALIOTES.

      See SICELIOTEB.

   ----------ITALY: Start--------