governs a kingdom of 80,000 square miles and 10,000,000
inhabitants. Some of the petty chieftains of Kathiawar
exercise authority over only a few acres. It is, however,
necessary to draw a line sharply circumscribing the native
states, as a class, from British territory. Every native chief
possesses a certain measure of local authority, which is not
derivative but inherent. English control, when and as
exercised, is not so much of an administrative as of a
diplomatic nature. In Anglo-Indian terminology this shade of
meaning is expressed by the word 'political.' … As a general
proposition, and excepting the quite insignificant states, it
may be stated that the government is carried on not only in
the name but also by the initiative of the native chief.
{1748}
At all the large capitals, and at certain centres round which
minor states are grouped, a British officer is stationed under
the style of Resident or Agent. Through him all diplomatic
affairs are conducted. He is at once an ambassador and a
controller. His duty is to represent the majesty of the
suzerain power, to keep a watchful eye upon abuses, and to
encourage reforms."
J. S. Cotton,
Colonies and Dependencies,
part 1, chapter 3.
"The supremacy of the British Government over all the Native
States in India was declared in 1877, in a more emphatic form
than it had received before, by the assumption by the Queen of
the title of Kaisar-i-Hind, Empress of India. No such
gathering of chiefs and princes has taken place in historical
times as that seen at Delhi in January, 1877, when the rulers
of all the principal States of India formally acknowledged
their dependence on the British Crown. The political effect of
the assertion of the supremacy of the paramount power, thus
formally made for the first time in India, has been marked and
extremely important."
Sir J. Strachey,
India,
lecture 11.
ALSO IN:
G. B. Malleson,
Historical Sketch of the Native States of India.
INDIA: A. D. 1878-1881.
The second Afghan War.
See AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1869-1881.
INDIA: A. D. 1880-1893.
Recent Viceroys.
On the defeat of the Conservative Beaconsfield Ministry in
England, in 1880, Lord Lytton resigned the Viceroyalty and was
succeeded by the Marquis of Ripon, who gave place in turn to
the Marquis of Dufferin in 1884. In 1888, the Marquis of
Lansdowne succeeded Lord Dufferin, and was himself succeeded
in 1893 by Sir Henry Norman.
INDIA: A. D. 1893.
Suspension of the free coinage of silver.
In June, 1893, the Indian Government, with the approval of the
British Cabinet, stopped the free coinage of silver, with a
view to the introduction of a gold standard. The Government,
it was announced, while stopping the coinage of the declining
metal for private persons, would continue on its own account
to coin rupees in exchange for gold at a ratio then fixed at
sixteen pence sterling per rupee. "The closing of the mints of
British India to the coinage of silver coins of
full-debt-paying power is the most momentous event in the
monetary history of the present century. It is the final and
disastrous blow to the use of silver as a measure of value and
as money of full-debt-paying power, and the relegation of it
to the position of a subsidiary, or token metal. It is the
culmination of the evolution from a silver to a gold standard
which has been progressing with startling rapidity in recent
years. … The remarkable series of events which have
characterized, or made manifest, this evolution from a silver
to a gold standard are nearly all condensed in the brief
period of twenty years, and are probably without a parallel in
ancient or modern monetary history. … With the single
exception of England, all Europe forty years ago had the
silver standard, not only legally but actually—silver coins
constituting the great bulk of the money of actual
transactions. To-day, not a mint in Europe is open to the
coinage of full-debt-paying silver coins, and the gateways of
the Orient have been closed against it. Twenty years ago one
ounce of gold exchanged in the markets of the world for
fifteen and one-half ounces of silver; to-day, one ounce of
gold will buy nearly thirty ounces of silver. … There is a
general impression that silver has been the money of India
from remote generations. This is a fallacy. It has not been a
great many years since India adopted the silver standard. The
ancient money of the Hindoos was gold, which in 1818 was
supplemented by silver, but gold coins remained legal tender
until 1835, when silver was made the sole standard of value
and legal tender money in British India, and gold was
demonetized. … During the last fifty odd years, India has
absorbed vast quantities of silver."
E. O. Leech,
The Doom of Silver
(The Forum, August, 1893).
----------INDIA: End--------
INDIAN EMPIRE, The Order of the.
An Order instituted by Queen Victoria in 1878.
----------INDIAN TERRITORY: Start--------
INDIAN TERRITORY: 1803.
Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase.
See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.
INDIAN TERRITORY: A. D. 1824.
Set off from Arkansas Territory.
See ARKANSAS: A. D. 1819-1836.
----------INDIAN TERRITORY: End--------
INDIANA.
The Aboriginal Inhabitants.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY,
ALLEGHANS, and DELAWARES.
INDIANA: A. D. 1700-1735.
Occupation by the French.
See CANADA: A. D. 1700-1735.
INDIANA: A. D. 1763.
Cession to Great Britain.
See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES.
INDIANA: A. D. 1763.
The King's proclamation excluding settlers.
See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1763.
INDIANA: A. D. 1765.
Possession taken by the English.
See ILLINOIS: A. D. 1765.
INDIANA: A. D. 1774.
Embraced in the Province of Quebec.
See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.
INDIANA: A. D. 1778-1779.
Conquest from the British by the Virginian General Clark, and
annexation to the Kentucky district of Virginia.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1778-1779, CLARK'S CONQUEST.
INDIANA: A. D. 1784.
Included in the proposed states of Assenisipia, Metropotamia,
Illinoia and Polypotamia.
See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1784.
INDIANA: A. D. 1786.
Partially covered by the western land claims of Connecticut,
ceded to the United States.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.
INDIANA: A. D. 1787.
The Ordinance for the government of the Northwest Territory.
Perpetual exclusion of Slavery.
See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1787.
INDIANA: A. D. 1790-1795.
Indian War.
Disastrous expeditions of Harmar and St. Clair, and Wayne's
decisive victory.
See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1790-1795.
INDIANA: A. D. 1800.
The Territory of Indiana organized.
See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1788-1802.
{1749}
INDIANA: A. D. 1800-1818.
Successive partitions of the Territory.
Michigan and Illinois detached.
The remaining Indiana admitted as a State.
"Indiana Territory as originally organized [in 1800] …
included the county of Knox, upon the Wabash, from which has
sprung the State of Indiana; the county of St. Clair, on the
Upper Mississippi, or Illinois River, from which has sprung
the State of Illinois; and the county of Wayne, upon the
Detroit River, from which has sprung the State of Michigan.
… At this time, the inhabitants contained in all of them did
not amount to more than 5,640 souls, while the aggregate
number of the Indian tribes within the extreme limits of the
territory was more than 100,000. … By successive treaties,
the Indian title was extinguished gradually to all the country
lying upon the waters of the White River, and upon all the
lower tributaries of the Wabash, upon the Little Wabash, the
Kaskaskia, and east of the Mississippi, below the mouth of the
Illinois. Thus, before the close of the year 1805, nearly all
the southern half of the present State of Indiana, and one
third of the State of Illinois, was open to the advance of the
enterprising pioneer. … In 1807, the Federal government, in
like manner, purchased from the Indians extensive regions west
of Detroit River, and within the present State of Michigan,
far beyond the limits of the white settlements in that
quarter. Meantime, the settlements formerly comprised in Wayne
county, having increased in inhabitants and importance, had
been erected into a separate territorial government, known and
designated as the 'Territory of Michigan.' On the 1st of July,
1805, the territory entered upon the first grade of
territorial government, under the provisions of the ordinance
of 1787; and William Hull, formerly a lieutenant in the
Revolutionary army, was made the first governor. … Detroit
… was made the seat of the territorial government. … By
the close of the year 1808, the Indiana Territory east of the
Wabash had received such an increase in numbers that it was
desirable to assume the second grade of territorial
government. Having a population of 5,000 free white males,
Congress, with a view to a future state government, by an act
approved February 3d, 1809, restricted its limits, and
authorized a territorial Legislature. … The Indiana
Territory, from this time, was bounded on the west by a line
extending up the middle of the Wabash, from its mouth to
Vincennes, and thence by a meridian due north to the southern
extremity of Lake Michigan. On the north, it was bounded by
the southern line of the Michigan Territory. That portion west
of the Wabash was erected into a separate territorial
government of the first grade, known and designated as the
'Illinois Territory.' The inhabitants of the Indiana Territory
soon began to augment more rapidly. … In 1810 the people had
increased in numbers to 24,500, and in the newly-erected
Territory of Illinois there was an aggregate of 12,300
persons." In 1816 "it was ascertained that the Indiana
Territory possessed a population which entitled it to an
independent state government. Congress authorized the election
of a convention to form a state Constitution," and "the new
'State of Indiana' was formally admitted into the Union on the
19th of April, 1816." Two years later, on the 3d of December,
1818, the Territory of Illinois was similarly transformed and
became one of the states of the Union.
J. W. Monette,
The Discovery and Settlement of the Mississippi Valley,
book 5, chapter 16 (volume 2).
ALSO IN:
J. B. Dillon,
History of Indiana,
chapters 31-47.
A. Davidson and B. Stuvé,
History of Illinois,
chapters 20-26.
T. M. Cooley,
Michigan,
chapter 8.
INDIANA: A. D. 1811.
General Harrison's campaign against Tecumseh and his League.
The Battle of Tippecanoe.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1811.
INDIANA: A. D. 1863.
John Morgan's Rebel Raid.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JULY: KENTUCKY).
----------INDIANS: Start--------
INDIANS:
American: The Name.
"As Columbus supposed himself to have landed on an island at
the extremity of India, he called the natives by the general
appellation of Indians, which was universally adopted before
the true nature of his discovery was known, and has since been
extended to all the aboriginals of the New World."
W. Irving,
Life and Voyages of Columbus,
book 4, chapter 1 (volume 1).
"The Spanish writers from the outset, beginning with Columbus
in his letters, call the natives of America, Indians, and
their English translators do the same. So, too, Richard Eden,
the earliest English writer on American travel, applies the
name to the natives of Peru and Mexico. It is used in the same
way, both in translations and original accounts, during the
rest of the century, but it is always limited to those races
with whom the Spaniards were in contact. In its wider and
later application the word does not seem to have established
itself in English till the next century. The earliest instance
I can find, where it is applied to the natives of North
America generally in any original work, is by Hakluyt. In 1587
he translated Laudonnière's 'History of the French Colony in
Florida,' and dedicated his translation to Sir Walter Raleigh.
In this dedication he once uses the term Indian for the
natives of North America. Heriot and the other writers who
describe the various attempts at settlement in Virginia during
the sixteenth century, invariably call the natives 'savages.'
Perhaps the earliest instance where an English writer uses the
name Indian specially to describe the occupants of the land
afterwards colonized by the English is in the account of
Archer's voyage to Virginia in 1602. This account, written by
James Rosier, is published in Purchas (volume iv. b. viii.).
From that time onward the use of the term in the wider sense
becomes more common. We may reasonably infer that the use of
it was an indication of the growing knowledge of the fact that
the lands conquered by the Spaniards and those explored by the
English formed one continent."
J. A. Doyle,
The English in America: Virginia, &c.,
appendix A.
INDIANS: The tribes and families.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES.
----------INDIANS: End--------
INDICTIONS, The.
The indiction "was a cycle of 15 years, used only by the
Romans, for appointing the times of certain public taxes; as
appears from the title in the Code, 'De tributo indicto.' It
was established by Constantine, A. D. 312, in the room of the
heathen Olympiads; and was used in the acts of the General
Councils, Emperors, and Popes."
W. Hales,
New Analysis of Chronology,
volume 1, book 1.
"The indictions consisted of a revolution of 15 years, which
are separately reckoned as indiction 1, indiction 2, &c., up
to 15; when they recommence with indiction 1. … Doubt exists
as to the commencement of the indictions; some writers
assigning the first indiction to the year 312; the greater
number to the year 313; others to 314; whilst some place it
in the year 315.
{1750}
In 'L'Art de vérifier les Dates,' the year 313 is fixed upon
as that of the first indiction. There are four descriptions of
indictions. The first is that of Constantinople, which was
instituted by Constantine in A. D. 312, and began on the 1st
of September. The second, and more common in England and
France, was the Imperial or Cæsarean indiction, which began on
the 24th of September. The third kind of indiction is called
the Roman or Pontifical, from its being generally used in
papal bulls, at least from the ninth to the fourteenth
century; it commences on the 25th of December or 1st of
January, accordingly as either of these days was considered
the first of the year. The fourth kind of indiction, which is
to be found in the register of the parliaments of Paris, began
in the month of October. … After the 12th century, the
indiction was rarely mentioned in public instruments. … But
in France, in private charters, and in ecclesiastical
documents, the usage continued until the end of the 15th
century."
Sir H. Nicolas,
Chronology of History,
pages 6-7.
ALSO IN:
E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 17.
INDO-EUROPEAN.
INDO-GERMANIC.
See ARYAN.
INDULGENCE: Declarations of: by Charles II.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1672-1673.
INDULGENCE: By James II.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1687-1688.
INDULGENCES: The Doctrine.
Tetzel's sale.
Luther's attack.
See PAPACY: A. D. 1516-1517; and 1517.
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.
See EDUCATION, MODERN: REFORMS, &c.: A. D. 1865-1886.
INE, Laws of (or Dooms of).
See DOOMS OF INE.
INEXPIABLE WAR, The.
See CARTHAGE: B. C. 241-238.
INFALLIBILITY, Promulgation of the Dogma of Papal.
See PAPACY: A. D. 1869-1870.
INGÆVONES, The.
See GERMANY: AS KNOWN TO TACITUS.
INGAGO, Battle of (1881).
See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881.
INGE I.,
King of Norway, A. D. 1157-1161.
Inge I. (called the Good), King of Sweden, 1090-1112.
Inge II., King of Norway, 1205-1207.
Inge II., King of Sweden, 1118-1129.
INGENUI.
LIBERTINI.
"Free men [among the Romans] might be either persons born free
(ingenui) and who had never been in slavery to a Roman, or
persons who had once been slaves but had been emancipated
(libertini)."
W. Ramsay,
Manual of Roman Antiquity,
chapter 3.
INI, King of West Saxons, A. D. 688-726.
INIS-FAIL.
INIS-EALGA.
See IRELAND: THE NAME.
INITIATIVE, The Swiss.
See REFERENDUM.
INKERMANN, Battle of.
See RUSSIA: A. D. 1854 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).
INNOCENT II., Pope, A. D. 1130-1143.
Innocent III., Pope, 1198-1216.
Innocent IV., Pope, 1243-1254.
Innocent V., Pope, 1276, January to June.
Innocent VI., Pope, 1352-1362.
Innocent VII., Pope, 1404-1406.
Innocent VIII., Pope, 1484-1492.
Innocent IX., Pope, 1591, October to December.
Innocent X., Pope, 1644-1655.
Innocent XI., Pope, 1676-1689.
Innocent XII., Pope, 1691-1700.
Innocent XIII., Pope, 1721-1724.
INNUITS, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ESKIMAUAN FAMILY.
----------INQUISITION: Start----------
INQUISITION, The: A. D. 1203-1525.
Origin of the Holy Office.
St. Dominic and the Dominicans.
The Episcopal Inquisition.
The Apostolical or Papal Inquisition.
The Spanish Inquisition and its terrible rule.
Estimate of victims.
Expulsion of Jews and Moors.
"In the earlier ages of the Church, the definition of heresy
had been committed to episcopal authority. But the cognisance
of heretics and the determination of their punishment remained
in the hands of secular magistrates. At the end of the 12th
century the wide diffusion of the Albigensian heterodoxy
through Languedoc and Northern Italy alarmed the chiefs of
Christendom, and furnished the Papacy with a good pretext for
extending its prerogatives. Innocent III. in 1203 empowered
two French Cistercians, Pierre de Castelnau and Raoul, to
preach against the heretics of Provence. In the following year
he ratified this commission by a Bull, which censured the
negligence and coldness of the bishops, appointed the Abbot of
Citeaux Papal delegate in matters of heresy, and gave him
authority to judge and punish misbelievers. This was the first
germ of the Holy Office as a separate Tribunal. … Being a
distinct encroachment of the Papacy upon the episcopal
jurisdiction and prerogatives, the Inquisition met at first
with some opposition from the bishops. The people for whose
persecution it was designed, and at whose expense it carried
on its work, broke into rebellion; the first years of its
annals were rendered illustrious by the murder of one of its
founders, Pierre de Castelnau. He was canonised, and became
the first Saint of the Inquisition. … In spite of
opposition, the Papal institution took root and flourished.
Philip Augustus responded to the appeals of Innocent; and a
crusade began against the Albigenses, in which Simon de
Montfort won his sinister celebrity. During those bloody wars
the Inquisition developed itself as a force of formidable
expansive energy. Material assistance to the cause was
rendered by a Spanish monk of the Augustine order, who settled
in Provence on his way back from Rome in 1206. Domenigo de
Guzman, known to universal history as S. Dominic, organised a
new militia for the service of the orthodox Church between the
years 1215 and 1219. His order, called the Order of the
Preachers, was originally designed to repress heresy and
confirm the faith by diffusing Catholic doctrine and
maintaining the creed in its purity. It consisted of three
sections: the Preaching Friars; nuns living in conventual
retreat; and laymen, entitled the Third Order of Penitence or
the Militia of Christ, who in after years were merged with the
Congregation of S. Peter Martyr, and corresponded to the
familiars of the Inquisition. Since the Dominicans were
established in the heat and passion of a crusade against
heresy, by a rigid Spaniard who employed his energies in
persecuting misbelievers, they assumed at the outset a
belligerent and inquisitorial attitude. Yet it is not strictly
accurate to represent S. Dominic himself as the first Grand
Inquisitor.
{1751}
The Papacy proceeded with caution in its design of forming a
tribunal dependent on the Holy See and independent of the
bishops. Papal Legates with plenipotentiary authority were
sent to Languedoc, and decrees were issued against the
heretics, in which the Inquisition was rather implied than
directly named; nor can I find that S. Dominic, though he
continued to be the soul of the new institution until his
death, in 1221, obtained the title of Inquisitor.
Notwithstanding this vagueness, the Holy Office may be said to
have been founded by S. Dominic; and it soon became apparent
that the order he had formed was destined to monopolise its
functions. … This Apostolical Inquisition was at once
introduced into Lombardy, Romagna and the Marches of Treviso.
The extreme rigour of its proceedings, the extortions of
monks, and the violent resistance offered by the communes, led
to some relaxation of its original constitution. More
authority had to be conceded to the bishops; and the right of
the Inquisitors to levy taxes on the people was modified. Yet
it retained its true form of a Papal organ, superseding the
episcopal prerogatives, and overriding the secular
magistrates, who were bound to execute its biddings. As such
it was admitted into Tuscany, and established in Aragon.
Venice received it in 1289, with certain reservations that
placed its proceedings under the control of Doge and Council.
In Languedoc, the country of its birth, it remained rooted at
Toulouse and Carcassonne; but the Inquisition did not extend
its authority over central and northern France. In Paris its
functions were performed by the Sorbonne. Nor did it obtain a
footing in England, although the statute 'De Haeretico
Comburendo,' passed in 1401 at the instance of the higher
clergy, sanctioned the principles on which it existed. … The
revival of the Holy Office on a new and far more murderous
basis, took place in 1484. We have seen that hitherto there
had been two types of inquisition into heresy. The first,
which remained in force up to the year 1203, may be called the
episcopal. The second was the Apostolical or Dominican: it
transferred this jurisdiction from the bishops to the Papacy,
who employed the order of S. Dominic for the special service
of the tribunal instituted by the Imperial Decrees of
Frederick II. The third deserves no other name than Spanish,
though, after it had taken shape in Spain, it was transferred
to Portugal, applied in all the Spanish and Portuguese
colonies, and communicated with some modifications to Italy
and the Netherlands. Both the second and the third types of
inquisition into heresy were Spanish inventions, patented by
the Roman Pontiffs and monopolised by the Dominican order. But
the third and final form of the Holy Office in Spain
distinguished itself by emancipation from Papal and Royal
control, and by a specific organisation which rendered it the
most formidable of irresponsible engines in the annals of
religious institutions. … Castile had hitherto been free
from the pest. But the conditions of that kingdom offered a
good occasion for its introduction at the date which I have
named. During the Middle Ages the Jews of Castile acquired
vast wealth and influence. Few families but felt the burden of
their bonds and mortgages. Religious fanaticism, social
jealousy, and pecuniary distress exasperated the Christian
population; and as early as the year 1391, more than 5,000
Jews were massacred in one popular uprising. The Jews, in
fear, adopted Christianity. It is said that in the 15th
century the population counted some million of
converts—called New Christians, or, in contempt, Marranos: a
word which may probably be derived from the Hebrew Maranatha.
These converted Jews, by their ability and wealth, crept into
high offices of state, obtained titles of aristocracy, and
founded noble houses. … It was a Sicilian Inquisitor, Philip
Barberis, who suggested to Ferdinand the Catholic the
advantage he might secure by extending the Holy Office to
Castile. Ferdinand avowed his willingness; and Sixtus IV. gave
the project his approval in 1478. But it met with opposition
from the gentler-natured Isabella. … Then Isabella yielded;
and in 1481 the Holy Office was founded at Seville. It began
its work by publishing a comprehensive edict against all New
Christians suspected of Judaising, which offence was so
constructed as to cover the most innocent observance of
national customs. Resting from labour on Saturday; performing
ablutions at stated times; refusing to eat pork or puddings
made of blood; and abstaining from wine, sufficed to colour
accusations of heresy. … Upon the publication of this edict,
there was an exodus of Jews by thousands into the fiefs of
independent vassals of the crown—the Duke of Medina Sidonia,
the Marquis of Cadiz, and the Count of Arcos. All emigrants
were 'ipso facto' declared heretics by the Holy Office. During
the first year after its foundation, Seville beheld 298
persons burned alive, and 79 condemned to perpetual
imprisonment. A large square stage of stone, called the
Quemadero, was erected for the execution of those multitudes
who were destined to suffer death by hanging or by flame. In
the same year, 2,000 were burned and 17,000 condemned to
public penitence, while even a larger number were burned in
effigy, in other parts of the kingdom. … In 1483 Thomas of
Torquemada was nominated Inquisitor General for Castile and
Aragon. Under his rule a Supreme Council was established, over
which he presided for life. … In 1484 a General Council was
held, and the constitution of the Inquisition was established
by articles. … The two most formidable features of the
Inquisition as thus constituted were the exclusion of the
bishops from its tribunal and the secrecy of its procedure.
… In the autumn of 1484 the Inquisition was introduced into
Aragon; and Saragossa became its headquarters in that State.
… The Spanish Inquisition was now firmly grounded. Directed
by Torquemada, it began to encroach upon the crown, to insult
the episcopacy, to defy the Papacy, to grind the Commons, and
to outrage by its insolence the aristocracy. … The Holy
Office grew every year in pride, pretensions and exactions. It
arrogated to its tribunal crimes of usury, bigamy, blasphemous
swearing, and unnatural vice, which appertained by right to
the secular courts. It depopulated Spain by the extermination
and banishment of at least three million industrious subjects
during the first 139 years of its existence. … Torquemada
was the genius of evil who created and presided over this foul
instrument of human crime and folly.
{1752}
During his eighteen years of administration, reckoning from
1480 to 1498, he sacrificed, according to Llorente's
calculation, above 114,000 victims, of whom 10,220 were burned
alive, 6,860 burned in effigy, and 97,000 condemned to
perpetual imprisonment or public penitence. He, too, it was
who in 1492 compelled Ferdinand to drive the Jews from his
dominions. … The edict of expulsion was issued on the last
of March. Before the last of July all Jews were sentenced to
depart, carrying no gold or silver with them. They disposed of
their lands, houses, and goods for next to nothing, and went
forth to die by thousands on the shores of Africa and Italy.
… The exodus of the Jews was followed in 1502 by a similar
exodus of Moors from Castile, and in 1524 by an exodus of
Mauresques from Aragon. To compute the loss of wealth and
population inflicted upon Spain by these mad edicts would be
impossible. … After Torquemada, Diego Deza reigned as second
Inquisitor General from 1498 to 1507. In these years,
according to the same calculation, 2,592 were burned alive,
896 burned in effigy, 34,952 condemned to prison or public
penitence. Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros followed between 1507
and 1517. The victims of this decade were 3,564 burned alive.
… Adrian, Bishop of Tortosa, tutor to Charles V., and
afterwards Pope, was Inquisitor General between 1516 and 1525.
Castile, Aragon, and Catalonia, at this epoch, simultaneously
demanded a reform of the Holy Office from their youthful
sovereign. But Charles refused, and the tale of Adrian's
administration was 1,620 burned alive, 560 burned in effigy,
21,845 condemned to prison or public penitence. The total,
during 43 years, between 1481 and 1525, amounted to 234,526,
including all descriptions of condemned heretics. These
figures are of necessity vague, for the Holy Office left but
meagre records of its proceedings.".
J. A. Symonds,
Renaissance in Italy: The Catholic Reaction,
chapter 3 (part 1).
ALSO IN:
H. C. Lea,
History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages.
J. A. Llorente,
History of the Inquisition,
chapters 1-12.
W. H. Rule,
History of the Inquisition,
chapters 1-14.
W. H. Prescott,
History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella,
part 1, chapters 7 and 17.
See, also,
JEWS: 8TH-15TH CENTURIES; and MOORS: A. D. 1492-1609.
INQUISITION: A. D. 1521-1568.
Introduction and work in the Netherlands.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1521-1555; 1559-1562; and 1568.
INQUISITION: A. D. 1546.
Successful revolt against the Holy Office at Naples.
See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 1528-1570.
INQUISITION: A. D. 1550-1816.
Establishment in Peru.
See PERU: A. D. 1550-1816.
INQUISITION: A. D. 1814-1820.
Restoration and abolition in Spain.
See SPAIN: A. D. 1814-1827.
----------INQUISITION: End----------
INSTITUTES OF JUSTINIAN.
See CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS.
INSTRUMENT OF GOVERNMENT, The.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1653 (DECEMBER).
INSUBRIANS AND CENOMANIANS, The.
"North of the Po, in the country about Milan, dwelt [3d
century, B. C.] the great people of the Insubrians, while to
the east of these on the Mincio and the Adige lay the
Cenomanians; but these tribes, little inclined, seemingly, to
make common cause with their countrymen [the Boian and
Senonian Gauls] remained neutral in all the hostilities
against Rome." But the Insubrians were attacked and subdued,
B. C. 223.
W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 4, chapter 5 (volume 2).
See, also, ROME: B. C. 295-191.
INTERDICTS.
See EXCOMMUNICATIONS.
INTERIM OF CHARLES V., The.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1546-1552.
"INTERNATIONAL," The.
"The year of the London Exhibition, and under the auspices of
the Emperor Napoleon III., a number of Paris working-men
visited the English capital. They were welcomed by a London
Committee of artisans, and on this occasion the wish for a
closer union between the labourers of different countries was
expressed on both sides. Then the Polish insurrection broke
out, and masses of London and Paris working-men took steps
simultaneously to manifest sympathy with the insurgents. A
deputation was again sent over from Paris, and the result of
this measure was a resolution to delay preparations for
co-operation no longer. For some time the international idea
was carefully given prominence in labour circles in various
countries, and on September 28th, 1864, a congress of many
nations was held in St. Martin's Hall, London, under the
presidency of Professor Beesly. A committee was appointed,
representing England, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, and
Switzerland, for the drawing up of statutes for an
International Working Men's Association, whose seat should be
London. … It was not long before the International
Association became a power which caused alarm to not a few
European Governments."
W. H. Dawson,
German Socialism and Ferdinand Lassalle,
chapter 13.
INTERREGNUM, The Great.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1250-1272.
INTERREX.
A temporary king, in ancient Rome.
See ROME: B. C. 509; also, SENATE, ROMAN.
INTRANSIGENTISTS.
In European politics, the extreme radicals—the uncompromising
and irreconcilable factions—are frequently so called.
INVERLOCHY, Battle of (1645).
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1644-1645.
INVESTITURES, The War of.
See PAPACY: A. D. 1056-1122;
and GERMANY: A. D. 973-1122.
INVISIBLE EMPIRE, The.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1866-1871.
IONA, Monastery and Schools of.
See COLUMBAN CHURCH;
and EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: IRELAND AND SCOTLAND.
IONIA.
The Ionian cities on the coast of Asia Minor bore collectively
the name Ionia, though no national union was signified by the
designation.
See ASIA MINOR: THE GREEK COLONIES, and after.
IONIAN (DELIAN) CONFEDERACY, The.
See GREECE: B. C. 478-477;
and ATHENS: B. C. 466-454, and after.
----------IONIAN ISLANDS: Start--------
IONIAN ISLANDS:
To 1814.
Under Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Venetian and French rule.
"Acarnania, as a glance at the map will show, is the most
western part of continental Greece. But in close proximity to
the mainland there stretch along the west coast a number of
islands, some of them of considerable area, the history and
traditions of which are inseparably intertwined with those of
Hellas. They have long been known as the Ionian Islands,
deriving the name, in all likelihood, from the sea in which
they are situated; for their ancient inhabitants were not, so
far as is known, of Ionic descent.
{1753}
They are very numerous, but only six of them are of
any historic importance. The most northerly is Corcyra
(Corfu), a long, narrow island, which extends like a lofty
breakwater in front of the coast of Epirus." The other five
are Paxos (Paxo), Leucadia (Santa Maura), Cephallenia
(Cephalonia), Ithaca (Thiaki), Zacynthus (Zante), and Cythera
(Cerigo). "Though not the largest, Corcyra is the most
populous and important of the islands. It has a place in the
mythic tradition, and a still greater one in the ascertained
history, of ancient Hellas.
See KORKYRA;
also, GREECE: B. C. 435-432, and 432.
… With the other islands in the Ionian Sea, Corcyra passed
under the dominion of Rome, and subsequently became part of
the Eastern Empire. In 540 A. D. the fleet of the Gothic
leader Totila ravaged the coasts of the island, but did not
capture the city, the fortifications of which had been greatly
strengthened by the Romans. Five centuries later the island
and its capital fell into the hands of a more formidable
invader—the Norman Robert Guiscard, who captured them on his
way from Italy to prosecute that invasion of the Byzantine
Empire which was at one time so nearly attended with success.
The first Norman supremacy did not last long; but in 1144 A.
D., Roger, the Norman king of Sicily, took occasion of a
rising of the Corcyreans (or, as they now began to be called,
the Corfiotes) against the Byzantine Emperor Manuel to
introduce a garrison into the city. Four years later Manuel,
who was an energetic and warlike prince, laid siege to Corfu,
and was assisted by the Venetians. The Norman garrison offered
a most determined resistance, but were ultimately obliged to
surrender on honourable terms. After the overthrow of the
Byzantine emperors, in the early part of the 13th century,
Corfu, with the other Ionian Islands, became part of the
dominions of the Venetian republic, and so continued, with
brief intervals, for nearly 500 years. The Venetian rule was
on the whole favourable to the material prosperity of the
island: it was admirably cultivated, and became the centre of
a large commerce. Unlike most of the other possessions of
Venice in the eastern Mediterranean, Corfu never fell into the
hands of the Turks. They overran and ravaged the island in
1537, carrying off, according to their custom, many of the
young women and children as slaves; and they besieged the
capital, but its fortifications had been much strengthened by
the Venetians, and the garrison was able to offer a successful
resistance. In 1716 another memorable siege [see TURKS: A. D.
1714-1718] took place, during the war in which Sultan Achmet
III. engaged with Austria and the Venetian republic. A large
Ottoman army under Kara Mustapha beleaguered Corfu; but the
garrison was commanded by a distinguished soldier, Count
Schulemburg, who baffled an the efforts of the Turks, and at
last compelled them to withdraw to their ships after they had
lost 15,000 men. By the Treaty of Campo Formio, dictated in
1797 to Austria by Napoleon after his marvellous Italian
campaign, the Ionian Islands were transferred to France [see
FRANCE: A. D. 1797 (MAY-OCTOBER)], the rest of the Venetian
territories falling to the share of Austria. The French
garrisons were, however, expelled in 1799 by a Russo-Turkish
expedition, and the islands constituted a republic [called the
Republic of the Seven Islands]. But in 1807, when the course
of events had changed Russia into an ally of the French
emperor, the latter again obtained possession of the islands
under the Treaty of Tilsit. The English, being masters of the
Mediterranean, soon drove the French out of all the islands
except Corfu. This was under French rule till 1814; and it is
only fair to say that they did much for the improvement of the
island, constructing some substantial roads in the interior.
In 1814, during the general cataclysm of the gigantic empire
of Napoleon, the French garrison was driven out of the island
after a gallant resistance, and in the following year the
Ionian Islands were reconstituted a republic under British
protection and supremacy."
C. H. Hanson,
The Land of Greece,
chapter 4.
IONIAN ISLANDS: A. D. 1815-1862.
The British protectorate.
Its relinquishment.
Annexation to the kingdom of Greece.
"These seven islands [the Ionian] were constituted a sort of
republic or commonwealth by the Treaty of Vienna [1815]. But
they were consigned to the protectorate of Great Britain;
which had the right of maintaining garrisons in them. Great
Britain used to appoint a Lord High Commissioner, who was
generally a military man, and whose office combined the duties
of Commander-in-Chief with those of Civil Governor. The little
republic had a Senate of six members and a Legislative
Assembly of forty members. It seems almost a waste of words to
say that the islanders were not content with British
government. For good or ill, the Hellenes, wherever they are
found, are sure to be filled with an impassioned longing for
Hellenic independence. The people of the Ionian Islands were
eager to be allowed to enter into one system with the kingdom
of Greece. It was idle to try to amuse them by telling them
they constituted an independent republic, and were actually
governing themselves, … while they saw themselves presided
over by an English Lord High Commissioner who was also the
Commander-in-Chief of a goodly British army garrisoned in
their midst. … It is certain that they got a great deal of
material benefit from the presence of the energetic
road-making British power. But they wanted to be, above all
things, Greek. … Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton [who was
then—1858—Secretary for the Colonies in the British
Government] … thought the causes of the complaints and the
dissatisfaction were well worth looking into, and he resolved
on sending a statesman of distinction out to the islands to
make the enquiry. Mr. Gladstone had been for some years out of
office. He had been acting as an independent supporter of Lord
Palmerston's Government. It occurred to Sir Edward Bulwer
Lytton that Mr. Gladstone was the man best fitted to conduct
the enquiry. … He offered, therefore, to Mr. Gladstone the
office of Lord High Commissioner Extraordinary to the Ionian
Islands, and Mr. Gladstone accepted the offer and its duties."
Arriving in Corfu in November, 1858, "he called together the
Senate, and endeavoured to satisfy them as to the real nature
of his mission. He explained that he had not come there to
discuss the propriety of maintaining the English protectorate,
but only to enquire into the manner in which the just claims
of the Ionian Islands might be secured by means of that
protectorate."
{1754}
But "the population of the islands persisted in regarding him,
not as the commissioner of a Conservative English Government,
but as 'Gladstone the Philhellene.' He was received wherever
he went with the honours due to a liberator. … The visit of
Mr. Gladstone, whatever purpose it may have been intended to
fulfil, had the effect of making them [the Ionians] agitate
more strenuously than ever for annexation to the kingdom of
Greece. Their wish, however, was not to be granted yet. A new
Lord High Commissioner was sent out after Mr. Gladstone's
return. … Still … the idea held ground that sooner or
later Great Britain would give up the charge of the islands. A
few years after, an opportunity occurred for making the
cession. The Greeks got rid quietly of their heavy German king
Otho [see GREECE: A. D. 1830-1862], and on the advice chiefly
of England they elected as sovereign a brother of the Princess
of Wales. … The second son of the King of Denmark was made
King of Greece; and Lord John Russell, on behalf of the
English Government, then [1862] handed over to the kingdom of
Greece the islands of which Great Britain had had so long to
bear the unwilling charge."
J. McCarthy,
History of our Own Times,
chapter 39 (volume 3).
----------IONIAN ISLANDS: End--------
IONIAN REVOLT, The.
See PERSIA: B. C. 521-493.
IONIANS, The.
See DORIANS AND IONIANS.
IONIC (PAN-IONIC) AMPHIKTYONY.
"There existed at the commencement of historical Greece, in
776 B. C., besides the Ionians in Attica and the Cyclades,
twelve Ionian cities of note on or near the coast of Asia
Minor, besides a few others less important. Enumerated from
south to north, they stand—Milêtus, Myûs, Priênê, Samos,
Ephesus, Kolophôn, Lebedus, Teôs, Erythræ, Chios, Klazomenæ,
Phôkæa. … Milêtus, Myûs and Priênê were situated on or near
the productive plain of the river Mæander; while Ephesus was
in like manner planted near the mouth of the Kaïster … :
Kolophon is only a very few miles north of the same river.
Possessing the best means of communication with the interior,
these towns seem to have thriven with greater rapidity than
the rest; and they, together with the neighbouring island of
Samos, constituted in early times the strength of the
Pan-Ionic Amphiktyony. The situation of the sacred precinct of
Poseidôn (where this festival was celebrated) on the north
side of the promontory of Mykalê, near Priênê, and between
Ephesus and Milêtus, seems to show that these towns formed the
primitive centre to which the other Ionian settlements became
gradually aggregated. For it was by no means a centrical site
with reference to all the twelve. … Moreover, it seems that
the Pan-Ionic festival [the celebration of which constituted
the Amphiktyony], though still formally continued, had lost
its importance before the time of Thucydidês, and had become
practically superseded by the more splendid festival of the
Ephesia, near Ephesus, where the cities of Ionia found a more
attractive place of meeting."
G. Grote,
History of Greece
part 2, chapter 13 (volume 3).
----------IOWA: Start--------
IOWA: The Aboriginal Inhabitants.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALLEGHANS,
and ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
IOWA: A. D. 1803.
Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase.
See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.
IOWA: A. D. 1834-1838.
Joined to Michigan Territory;
then to Wisconsin;
then separately organized.
See WISCONSIN: A. D. 1805-1848.
IOWA: A. D. 1845.
Admission into the Union, with Florida for a slave-state
counterweight.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1845.
----------IOWA: End--------
IOWAS, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY,
and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.
IPSUS, Battle of (B. C. 301).
See MACEDONIA: B. C. 310-301.
IQUIQUE, Battle of (1891).
See CHILE: A. D. 1885-1891.
IRACA.
See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1536-1731.
IRAK.
At the time of the Mahometan conquest, "Chaldea and Babylonia
occupied the rich region south of the river Tigris, watered by
the Euphrates, and were known as Irak of the Arabs, as
distinguished from Irak of the Persians, which corresponded
somewhat nearly to the modern kingdom of Persia. … Irak of
Arabia was at this time under the jurisdiction of Persia, and
the wandering Arabs who roamed over the broad desert were
tributary to Persia when they pitched their tents on the
eastern side, and to Rome when sojourning on the side towards
Syria; though they were at no time trusty allies or subjects.
The region of Irak contains many relics of a former
civilization; there are the mounds that mark the site of old
Babylon."
A. Gilman,
Story of the Saracens,
pages 226-227.
IRAN, Table-Land of.
"Between the valley of the Indus and the land of the Euphrates
and Tigris, bounded on the south by the ocean and the Persian
Gulf, on the north by the broad steppes which the Oxus and
Jaxartes vainly attempt to fertilise, by the Caspian Sea and
the valley of the Aras [embracing modern Persia, Baluchistan,
Afghanistan and Russian Turkestan], lies the table-land of
Iran. Rising to an average height of 4,000 feet above the
level of the sea, it forms an oblong, the length of which from
east to west is something more than 1,500 miles. … As far
back as our information extends, we find the table-land of
Iran occupied by a group of nations closely related to each
other, and speaking dialects of the same language."
M. Duncker,
History of Antiquity,
book 7, chapter 1.
See, also, ARYANS.
IRDJAR, Russian defeat at.
See RUSSIA: A. D. 1859-1876.
----------IRELAND: Start--------
A Logical Outline of Irish History
In Which The Dominant Conditions And
Influences Are Distinguished By Colors.
Physical or material. (Red)
Ethnological. (Blue)
Social and political. (Green)
Intellectual, moral and religious. (Tan)
Foreign. (Black)
(Blue)
In the history of the two islands which form the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland there is a contrast of
fortune which nothing will account for save unexplainable
qualities of race. The Celtic warmth prevailing on one side of
St. George's Channel has worked ill in politics as against the
Teutonic coolness on the other; and it is probable that no
change of circumstances or conditions would have altered
greatly the relations of the two peoples. In their situation
as close neighbors, it was inevitable that one should dominate
the other. It seems to have been no less inevitable that the
mastery should settle where it did; and simply by the force of
more masterful qualities in the English race.
(Red)
If those who dwelt nearer to the mainland of Europe held
advantages over those of the farther island, they took nothing
from them in the earlier generations, but were overleaped and
passed by when the first movements of Christianity and
Christian culture into the West began; and it was Ireland, not
England, for three centuries, which nourished the purest faith
and the highest civilization of the age. If other advantages
belonged to the island which was richer in iron and coal, the
English were not helped by them to an ascendancy which they
had won before the mining of their riches began.
(Green)
In the early years of the eleventh century, when most of the
island had submitted to the rule of Brian Born, and when he
had shaken the grasp of the intruding Danes on the seaports of
the eastern and southern coasts, the state and prospects of
Ireland would have seemed to be well-nigh as good as those of
England at the same time. But that appearance vanished soon,
and it never returned. Among the English, the tendency toward
national union grew stronger with every generation; among the
Irish it got no growth. The political genius of the race,
remarkable to the present day in municipal politics, but
rarely successful in the greater political arenas, has always
been tribal or provincial in its range, and wanting in a
national comprehensiveness.
(Tan)
The Norman conquest of England was helpful to the
consolidation of an English kingdom. The Anglo-Norman conquest
of Ireland occurring a century later, promoted, on the
contrary, the divisions and disorders of the island. It
brought a new faction into Irish quarrels, instead of a new
sovereign to extinguish them. It was complete enough to forbid