for peace, he kept it with integrity. A just curiosity may ask
how many persons of foreign lineage had gathered in the valley
of the Illinois since its discovery by the missionaries.
Fraser was told that there were of white men, able to bear
arms, 700; of white women, 500; of their children, 850; of
negroes of both sexes, 900. The banks of the Wabash, we learn
from another source, were occupied by about 110 French
families, most of which were at Vincennes.
{1695}
Fraser sought to overawe the French traders with the menace of
an English army that was to come among them; but they pointed
to the Mississippi, beyond which they would be safe from
English jurisdiction [France having ceded to Spain her
territory on the western side of the river]. … With Croghan,
an Indian agent, who followed from Fort Pitt, the Illinois
nations agreed that the English should take possession of all
the posts which the French formerly held; and Captain
Stirling, with 100 men of the 42d regiment, was detached down
the Ohio, to relieve the French garrison. At Fort Chartres,
St. Ange, who had served for fifty years in the wilderness,
gave them a friendly reception; and on the morning of the 10th
of October he surrendered to them the left bank of the
Mississippi. Some of the French crossed the river, so that at
St. Genevieve there were at least five-and-twenty families,
while St. Louis, whose origin dates from the 15th of February
1764, and whose skilfully chosen site attracted the admiration
of the British commander, already counted about twice that
number, and ranked as the leading settlement on the western
side of the Mississippi. In the English portion of the distant
territory, the government then instituted was the absolute
rule of the British army, with a local judge to decide all
disputes among the inhabitants according to the customs of the
country, yet subject to an appeal to the military chief."
G. Bancroft,
History of the United States
(Author's last revision),
volume 3, pages 151-152.
ILLINOIS: A. D. 1765-1774.
Early years of English rule.
"Just before and during the first years of the English
domination, there was a large exodus of the French inhabitants
from Illinois. Such, in fact, was their dislike of British
rule that fully one-third of the population, embracing the
wealthier and more influential families, removed with their
slaves and other personal effects, beyond the Mississippi, or
down that river to Natchez and New Orleans. Some of them
settled at Ste. Genevieve, while others, after the example set
by St. Ange, took up their abode in the village of St. Louis,
which had now become a depot for the fur company of Louisiana.
… At the close of the year 1765, the whole number of
inhabitants of foreign birth or lineage, in Illinois,
excluding the negro slaves, and including those living at Post
Vincent on the Wabash, did not much exceed two thousand
persons; and, during the entire period of British possession,
the influx of alien population hardly more than kept pace with
the outflow. Scarcely any Englishmen, other than the officers
and troops composing the small garrisons, a few enterprising
traders and some favored land speculators, were then to be
seen in the Illinois, and no Americans came hither, for the
purpose of settlement, until after the conquest of the country
by Colonel Clark. All the settlements still remained
essentially French, with whom there was no taste for
innovation or change. But the blunt and sturdy Anglo-American
had at last gained a firm foot-hold on the banks of the great
Father of Rivers, and a new type of civilization, instinct
with energy, enterprise and progress, was about to be
introduced into the broad and fertile Valley of the
Mississippi. … Captain Thomas Stirling began the military
government of the country on October 10, 1765, with fair and
liberal concessions, calculated to secure the good-will and
loyalty of the French-Canadians, and to stay their further
exodus; but his administration was not of long duration. On
the 4th of the ensuing December, he was succeeded by Major
Robert Farmer, who had arrived from Mobile with a detachment
of the 34th British infantry. In the following year, after
exercising an arbitrary authority over these isolated and
feeble settlements, Major Farmer was displaced by Colonel
Edward Cole, who had commanded a regiment under Wolfe, at
Quebec. Colonel Cole remained in command at Fort Chartres
about eighteen months; but the position was not congenial to
him. … He was accordingly relieved at his own request, early
in the year 1768. His successor was Colonel John Reed, who
proved a bad exchange for the poor colonists. He soon became
so notorious for his military oppressions of the people that
he was removed, and gave place to Lieutenant-Colonel John
Wilkins, of the 18th, or royal regiment of Ireland, who had
formerly commanded at Fort Niagara. Colonel Wilkins arrived
from Philadelphia and assumed the command September 5, 1768.
He brought out with him seven companies of his regiment for
garrison duty. … One of the most noticeable features of
Colonel Wilkins' administration was the liberality with which
he parceled out large tracts of the domain over which he ruled
to his favorites in Illinois, Philadelphia, and elsewhere,
without other consideration than requiring them to re-convey
to him a certain interest in the same. Lieutenant Colonel
Wilkins' government of the Illinois country eventually became
unpopular, and specific charges were preferred against him,
including a misappropriation of the public funds. He asked for
an official investigation, claiming that he was able to
justify his public conduct. But he was deposed from office in
September, 1771, and sailed for Europe in July of the
following year. Captain Hugh Lord, of the 18th regiment,
became Wilkins' successor at Fort Chartres, and continued in
command until the year 1775. … On the 2d of June, 1774,
Parliament passed an act enlarging and extending the province
of Quebec to the Mississippi River so as to include the
territory of the Northwest. … Who was the immediate
successor of Captain Lord in command of the Illinois is not
positively determined."
J. Wallace,
History of Illinois and Louisiana Under the French Rule,
chapter 20.
ILLINOIS: A. D. 1774.
Embraced in the Province of Quebec.
See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.
ILLINOIS: A. D. 1778-1779.
Conquest from the British by the Virginian General Clark and
annexation to the Kentucky District of Virginia.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778-1779,
CLARK'S CONQUEST.
ILLINOIS: A. D. 1784.
Included in the proposed states of Assenisipia, Illinoia, and
Polypotamia.
See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784.
ILLINOIS: A. D. 1785-1786.
Partially covered by the western land claims of Massachusetts
and Connecticut, ceded to the United States.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.
ILLINOIS: A. D. 1787.
The Ordinance for the government of the Northwest Territory.
Perpetual exclusion of Slavery.
See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787.
ILLINOIS: A. D. 1809.
Detached from Indiana and organized as a distinct Territory.
See INDIANA: A. D. 1800-1818.
{1696}
ILLINOIS: A. D. 1818.
Admission into the Union as a State.
See INDIANA: A. D. 1800-1818;
and WISCONSIN: A. D. 1805-1848.
ILLINOIS: A. D. 1832.
The Black Hawk War.
"In 1830 a treaty was made with the tribes of Sacs and Foxes,
by which their lands in Illinois were ceded to the United
States. They were nevertheless unwilling to leave their
country. … Black Hawk, a chief of the Sacs, then about 60
years of age, refused submission, and the next year returned
with a small force. He was driven back by the troops at Rock
Island, but in March, 1832, he reappeared, at the head of
about 1,000 warriors,—Sacs, Foxes, and Winnebagos,—and
penetrated into the Rock river valley, declaring that he came
only to plant corn. But either he would not or could not
restrain his followers, and the devastation of Indian warfare
soon spread among the frontier settlements. … The force at
Rock Island was sent out to stay these ravages, and Generals
Scott and Atkinson ordered from Buffalo with a reënforcement,
which on the way was greatly diminished by cholera and
desertions. The Governor of Illinois called for volunteers,
and an effective force of about 2,400 men was soon marched
against the enemy. Black Hawk's band fled before it. General
Whiteside, who was in command, burned the Prophet's Town, on
Rock River, and pursued the Indians up that stream. … The
Indians were overtaken and badly defeated on Wisconsin River;
and the survivors, still retreating northward, were again
overtaken near Bad Axe River, on the left bank of the
Mississippi. … Many of the Indians were shot in the water
while trying to swim the stream; others were killed on a
little island where they sought refuge. Only about 50
prisoners were taken, and most of these were squaws and
children. The dispersion was complete, and the war was soon
closed by the surrender or capture of Black Hawk, Keokuk, and
other chiefs."
W. C. Bryant and S. H. Gay,
Popular History of the United States,
volume 4, chapter 12.
ALSO IN:
T. Ford,
History of Illinois,
chapters 4-5.
J. B. Patterson, editor,
History of Black Hawk, dictated by himself.
Wisconsin Historical Society Collections,
volume 10.
ILLINOIS: A. D. 1840-1846.
The settlement and the expulsion of the Mormons.
See MORMONISM: A. D. 1830-1846; and 1846-1848.
----------ILLINOIS: End--------
ILLUMINATI, The.
See ROSICRUCIANS.
ILLYRIA, Slavonic settlement of.
See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES:
7TH CENTURY (SERVIA, CROATIA, ETC.).
ILLYRIAN PROVINCES OF NAPOLEON.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).
ILLYRIANS, The.
"Northward of the tribes called Epirotic lay those more
numerous and widely extended tribes who bore the general name
of Illyrians, bounded on the west by the Adriatic, on the east
by the mountain-range of Skardus, the northern continuation of
Pindus, and thus covering what is now called Middle and Upper
Albania, together with the more northerly mountains of
Montenegro, Herzegovina, and Bosnia. Their limits to the north
and north-east cannot be assigned. … Appian and others
consider the Liburnians and Istrians as Illyrian, and
Herodotus even includes under that name the Eneti or Veneti at
the extremity of the Adriatic Gulf. … The Illyrians
generally were poor, rapacious, fierce and formidable in
battle. They shared with the remote Thracian tribes the custom
of tattooing their bodies and of offering human sacrifices:
moreover, they were always ready to sell their military
service for hire, like the modern Albanian Schkipetars, in
whom probably their blood yet flows, though with considerable
admixture from subsequent immigrations. Of the Illyrian
kingdom on the Adriatic coast, with Skodra (Scutari) for its
capital city, which became formidable by its reckless piracies
in the third century B. C., we hear nothing in the flourishing
period of Grecian history."
G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 25 (volume 3).
ALSO IN:
T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 8, chapter 6.
ILLYRICUM OF THE ROMANS.
"The provinces of the Danube soon acquired the general
appellation of Illyricum, or the Illyrian frontier, and were
esteemed the most warlike of the empire; but they deserve to
be more particularly considered under the names of Rhætia,
Noricum, Pannonia, Dalmatia, Dacia, Mœsia, Thrace, Macedonia,
and Greece. … Dalmatia, to which the name of Illyricum more
properly belonged, was a long but narrow tract, between the
Save and the Adriatic. … The inland parts have assumed the
Sclavonian names of Croatia and Bosnia."
E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 1.
See, also, ROME: A. D. 394-305.
IMAGE-BREAKING IN THE NETHERLANDS.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1566-1568.
IMAMS.
THE IMAMATE.
"When an assembly of Moslems meet together for prayer, an Imam
is chosen, who leads the prayer, and the congregation regulate
their motions by his, prostrating themselves when he does so,
and rising when he rises. In like manner, the khalif is set up
on high as the Imam, or leader of the Faithful, in all the
business of life. He must be a scrupulous observer of the law
himself, and diligent in enforcing it upon others. The
election of an Imam is imperative. … The qualities requisite
in an Imam are four: knowledge, integrity, mental and physical
soundness. … Among strict Moslems, it is a doctrine that
Islam has been administered by only four veritable Imams—the
'rightly-guided khalifs': Abou Bekr, Omar, Othman, and Ali.
But the Muhammadan world, in general, was not so exacting.
They recognized the Commander of the Faithful in the prince
who ruled with the title of khalif in Damascus or Baghdad, in
Cordova or Kairo. The one condition absolutely essential was
that the sovereign thus reigning should be a
member of the tribe of Kuraish [or Koreish]."
R. D. Osborn,
Islam under the Khalifs of Baghdad,
part 3, chapter 1.
See, also, ISLAM.
IMMACULATE CONCEPTION OF THE VIRGIN MARY,
Promulgation of the Dogma of the.
See PAPACY: A. D. 1854.
IMMÆ, Battle of (A. D. 217).
See ROME: A. D. 192-284.
IMMORTALS, The.
A select corps of cavalry in the army of the Persians, under
the Sassanian kings, bore this name. It numbered 10,000.
----------IMPEACHMENT: Start--------
IMPEACHMENT:
Acquisition of the right by the English House of Commons.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1413-1422.
{1697}
IMPEACHMENT:
Revival of the right.
In the English Parliament of 1620-21 (reign of James I.), "on
the motion of the Ex-Chief Justice, Sir Edward Coke, a
committee of inquiry into grievances had been early appointed.
The first abuse to which their attention was directed was that
of monopolies, and this led to the revival of the ancient
right of parliamentary impeachment—the solemn accusation of
an individual by the Commons at the bar of the Lords—which
had lain dormant since the impeachment of the Duke of Suffolk
in 1449. Under the Tudors impeachments had fallen into disuse,
partly through the subservience of the Commons, and partly
through the preference of those sovereigns for bills of
attainder, or of pains and penalties. Moreover, the power
wielded by the Crown through the Star Chamber enabled it to
inflict punishment for many state offences without resorting
to the assistance of Parliament. With the revival of the
spirit of liberty in the reign of James I., the practice of
impeachment revived also, and was energetically used by the
Commons in the interest alike of public justice and of popular
power."
T. P. Taswell-Langmead,
English Constitutional History,
chapter 13.
----------IMPEACHMENT: End--------
IMPEACHMENTS:
Warren Hastings.
See INDIA: A. D. 1785-1795.
President Johnson.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1868 (MARCH-MAY)
Strafford.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1640-1641.
----------IMPERATOR: Start--------
IMPERATOR.
"There can be no doubt that the title Imperator properly
signifies one invested with Imperium, and it may very probably
have been assumed in ancient times by every general on whom
Imperium had been bestowed by a Lex Curiata. It is, however,
equally certain, that in those periods of the republic with
the history and usages of which we are most familiar, the
title Imperator was not assumed as a matter of course by those
who had received Imperium, but was, on the contrary, a much
valued and eagerly coveted distinction. Properly speaking, it
seems to have been in the gift of the soldiers, who hailed
their victorious leader by this appellation on the field of
battle; but occasionally, especially towards the end of the
commonwealth, it was conferred by a vote of the Senate. …
But the designation Imperator was employed under the empire in
a manner and with a force altogether distinct from that which
we have been considering. On this point we have the distinct
testimony of Dion Cassius (xliii. 44, comp. liii. 17), who
tells us that, in B. C. 46, the Senate bestowed upon Julius
Cæsar the title of Imperator, not in the sense in which it had
hitherto been applied, as a term of military distinction, but
as the peculiar and befitting appellation of supreme power,
and in this signification it was transmitted to his
successors, without, however, suppressing the original import
of the word. … Imperator, when used to denote supreme power,
comprehending in fact the force of the titles Dictator and
Rex, is usually, although not invariably, placed before the
name of the individual to whom it is applied."
W. Ramsay,
Manual of Roman Antiquity,
chapter 5.
See, also,
ROME: B. C. 45-44.
IMPERATOR:
Final Signification of the Roman title.
"When the Roman princes had lost sight of the senate and of
their ancient capital, they easily forgot the origin and
nature of their legal power. The civil offices of consul, of
proconsul, of censor, and of tribune, by the union of which it
had been formed, betrayed to the people its republican
extraction. Those modest titles were laid aside; and if they
still distinguished their high station by the appellation of
Emperor, or Imperator, that word was understood in a new and
more dignified sense, and no longer denoted the general of the
Roman armies, but the sovereign of the Roman world. The name
of Emperor, which was at first of a military nature, was
associated with another of a more servile kind. The epithet of
Dominus, or Lord, in its primitive signification, was
expressive, not of the authority of a prince over his
subjects, or of a commander over his soldiers, but of the
despotic power of a master over his domestic slaves. Viewing
it in that odious light, it had been rejected with abhorrence
by the first Cæsars. Their resistance insensibly became more
feeble, and the name less odious; till at length the style of
'our Lord and Emperor' was not only bestowed by flattery, but
was regularly admitted into the laws and public monuments."
E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 13.
See ROME: B. C. 31-A. D. 14.
----------IMPERATOR: End--------
IMPERIAL CHAMBER, The.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1493-1519.
IMPERIAL CITIES OF GERMANY.
See CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE, OF GERMANY;
and (as affected by the Treaties of Westphalia)
GERMANY: A. D. 1648.
IMPERIAL FEDERATION.
See FEDERAL GOVERNMENT: BRITANNIC FEDERATION.
IMPERIAL INDICTIONS.
See INDICTIONS.
IMPERIUM, The.
"The supreme authority of the magistrates [in the Roman
Republic], the 'imperium,' embraced not only the military but
also the judicial power over the citizens. By virtue of the
imperium a magistrate issued commands to the army, and by
virtue of the imperium he sat in judgment over his
fellow-citizens."
W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 6, chapter 5 (volume 4).
IMPEY, Sir Elijah, Macaulay's injustice to.
See INDIA: A. D. 1773-1785.
IMPORTANTS, The.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1642-1643.
IMPRESSMENT OF AMERICAN SEAMEN BY BRITISH NAVAL OFFICERS.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1809; and 1812.
INCAS, OR YNCAS, The.
See PERU: THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS.
INCUNABULA.
See PRINTING: A. D. 1430-1456.
INDEPENDENCE, MO.,
Confederate capture of.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JULY-SEPTEMBER: MISSOURI-ARKANSAS).
INDEPENDENCE DAY.
The anniversary of the American Declaration of Independence,
adopted July 4, 1776.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (JULY).
INDEPENDENCE HALL.
The Liberty Bell.
The hall in the old State House of Pennsylvania, at
Philadelphia, within which the Declaration of American
Independence was adopted and promulgated by the Continental
Congress, on the 4th of July, 1776. The venerable State House,
which was erected between 1729 and 1734, is carefully
preserved, and the "Hall of Independence is kept closed,
except when curious visitors seek entrance, or some special
occasion opens its doors to the public.
{1698}
Nothing now remains of the old furniture of the hall except
two antique mahogany chairs, covered with red leather, one of
which was used by Hancock as president, and the other by
Charles Thomson as secretary of Congress, when the Declaration
of Independence was adopted. … I ascended to the steeple,
where hangs, in silent grandeur, the Liberty Bell. It is four
feet in diameter at the lip, and three inches thick at the
heaviest part. Its tone is destroyed by a crack, which extends
from the lip to the crown, passing directly through the names
of the persons who cast it. An attempt was made to restore
the tone by sawing the crack wider, but without success. …
The history of this bell is interesting. In 1752, a bell for
the State House was imported from England. On the first
trial-ringing, after its arrival, it was cracked. It was
recast by Pass and Stow, of Philadelphia, in 1753, under the
direction of Isaac Norris, Esq., the then speaker of the
Colonial Assembly. And that is the bell, 'the greatest in
English America,' which now hangs in the old State House
steeple and claims our reverence. Upon fillets around its
crown, cast there twenty-three years before the Continental
Congress met in the State House, are the words of Holy Writ:
'Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the
inhabitants thereof.' How prophetic! Beneath that very bell
the representatives of the thirteen colonies 'proclaimed
liberty.' Ay, and when the debates were ended, and the result
was announced, on the 4th of July, 1776, the iron tongue of
that very bell first 'proclaimed liberty throughout all the
land, unto all the inhabitants thereof,' by ringing out the
joyful annunciation for more than two hours."
B. J. Lossing,
Field-book of the Revolution,
volume 2, chapter 3.
ALSO IN:
J. T. Scharf and T. Westcott,
History of Philadelphia,
volume I, chapters 15 and 17.
INDEPENDENT REPUBLICANS.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1884.
----------INDEPENDENTS: Start--------
INDEPENDENTS, OR SEPARATISTS:
Their origin and opinions.
"The Puritans continued members of the church, only pursuing
courses of their own in administering the ordinances, and it
was not till about the middle of the reign of Elizabeth that
the disposition was manifested among them to break away from
the church altogether, and to form communities of their own.
And then it was but a few of them who took this course: the
more sober part remained in the church. The communities of
persons who separated themselves were formed chiefly in
London: there were very few in the distant counties, and those
had no long continuance. It was not till the time of the Civil
Wars that such bodies of Separatists, as they were called, or
Congregationalists, or Independents, became numerous. At first
they were often called Brownist churches, from Robert Brown, a
divine of the time, who was for a while a zealous maintainer
of the duty of separation."
J. Hunter,
The Founders of New Plymouth,
pages 12-13.
"The peculiar tenet of Independency … consists in the belief
that the only organization recognised in the primitive Church
was that of the voluntary association of believers into local
congregations, each choosing its own office-bearers and
managing its own affairs, independently of neighbouring
congregations, though willing occasionally to hold friendly
conferences with such neighbouring congregations, and to
profit by the collective advice. Gradually, it is asserted,
this right or habit of occasional friendly conference between
neighbouring congregations had been mismanaged and abused,
until the true independency of each voluntary society of
Christians was forgotten, and authority came to be vested in
Synods or Councils of the office-bearers of the churches of a
district or province. This usurpation of power by Synods or
Councils, it is said, was as much a corruption of the
primitive Church-discipline as was Prelacy itself. … So, I
believe, though with varieties of expression, English
Independents argue now. But, while they thus seek the original
warrant for their clews in the New Testament and in the
practice of the primitive Church, … they admit that the
theory of Independency had to be worked out afresh by a new
process of the English mind in the 16th and 17th centuries,
and they are content, I believe, that the crude immediate
beginning of that process should be sought in the opinions
propagated, between 1580 and 1590, by the erratic Robert
Brown, a Rutlandshire man, bred at Cambridge, who had become a
preacher at Norwich. … Though Brown himself had vanished
from public view since 1590, the Brownists, or Separatists, as
they were called, had persisted in their course, through
execration and persecution, as a sect of outlaws beyond the
pale of ordinary Puritanism, and with whom moderate Puritans
disowned connexion or sympathy. One hears of considerable
numbers of them in the shires of Norfolk and Essex, and
throughout Wales; and there was a central association of them
in London, holding conventicles in the fields, or shifting
from meeting-house to meeting-house in the suburbs, so as to
elude Whitgift's ecclesiastical police. At length, in 1592,
the police broke in upon one of the meetings of the London
Brownists at Islington. … There ensued a vengeance far more
ruthless than the Government dared against Puritans in
general. Six of the leaders were brought to the scaffold. …
Among the observers of these severities was Francis Bacon,
then rising into eminence as a politician and lawyer. His
feeling on the subject was thus expressed at the time: 'As for
those which we call Brownists, being, when they were at the
most, a very small number of very silly and base people here
and there in corners dispersed, they are now (thanks be to
God), by the good remedies that have been used, suppressed and
worn out, so as there is scarce any news of them.' … Bacon
was mistaken in supposing that Brownism was extinguished.
Hospitable Holland received and sheltered what England cast
out."
D. Masson,
Life of John Milton,
volume 2, book 4, sections 1-2.
"The name 'Brownist' had never been willingly borne by most of
those who had accepted the distinguishing doctrine of the
heresiarch to whom it related. Nor was it without reason that
a distinction was alleged, and a new name preferred, when,
relaxing the offensive severity of Brown's system, some who
had adopted his tenet of the absolute independence of churches
came to differ from him respecting the duty of avoiding and
denouncing dissentients from it as rebellious, apostate,
blasphemous, antichristian and accursed.
{1699}
To this amendment of 'Brownism' the mature reflections and
studies of the excellent Robinson of Leyden conducted him; and
with reference to it he and his followers were sometimes
called 'Semi-separatists.' Such a deference to reason and to
charity gave a new position and attractiveness to the sect,
and appears to have been considered as entitling Robinson to
the character of 'father of the Independents.' Immediately on
the meeting of the Long Parliament [1640], 'the Brownists, or
Independents, who had assembled in private, and shifted from
house to house for twenty or thirty years, resumed their
courage, and showed themselves in public.' During this period
of the obscurity of a sect which, when arrived at its full
vigor, was to give law to the mother country, the history of
the progress of its principles is mainly to be sought in New
England. … Their opponents and their votaries alike referred
to Massachusetts as the source of the potent element which had
made its appearance in the religious politics of England."
J. G. Palfrey,
History of New England,
book 2, chapter 2 (volume 2).
ALSO IN:
D. Neal,
History of the Puritans,
volume 2, chapters 1, 2 and 7.
L. Bacon,
Genesis of the New England Churches.
B. Hanbury,
Historical Memorials of the Independents,
volume 1.
G. Punchard,
History of Congregationalism,
volume 3.
H. M. Dexter,
The Congregationalism of the last 300 Years,
lectures 1-5.
See, also,
ENGLAND: A. D. 1638-1640, and PURITANS:
IN DISTINCTION FROM THE INDEPENDENTS, OR SEPARATISTS.
INDEPENDENTS: A. D. 1604-1617.
The church at Scrooby and its migration to Holland.
"The flimsiness of Brown's moral texture prevented him from
becoming the leader in the Puritan exodus to New England. That
honour was reserved for William Brewster, son of a country
gentleman who had for many years been postmaster at Scrooby."
After King James' Hampton Court Conference with the Puritan
divines, in 1604, and his threatening words to them,
nonconformity began to assume among the churches more
decidedly the form of secession. "The key-note of the conflict
was struck at Scrooby. Staunch Puritan as he was, Brewster had
not hitherto favoured the extreme measures of the Separatists.
Now he withdrew from the church, and gathered together a
company of men and women who met on Sunday for divine service
in his own drawing-room at Scrooby Manor. In organizing this
independent Congregationalist society, Brewster was powerfully
aided by John Robinson, a native of Lincolnshire. Robinson was
then thirty years of age, and had taken his master's degree at
Cambridge in 1600. He was a man of great learning and rare
sweetness of temper, and was moreover distinguished for a
broad and tolerant habit of mind too seldom found among the
Puritans of that day. Friendly and unfriendly writers alike
bear witness to his spirit of Christian charity and the
comparatively slight value which he attached to orthodoxy in
points of doctrine; and we can hardly be wrong in supposing
that the comparatively tolerant behaviour of the Plymouth
colonists, whereby they were contrasted with the settlers of
Massachusetts, was in some measure due to the abiding
influence of the teachings of this admirable man. Another
important member of the Scrooby congregation was William
Bradford, of the neighbouring village of Austerfield, then a
lad of seventeen years, but already remarkable for maturity of
intelligence and weight of character, afterward governor of
Plymouth for nearly thirty years, he became the historian of
his colony; and to his picturesque chronicle, written in pure
and vigorous English, we are indebted for most that we know of
the migration that started from Scrooby and ended in Plymouth.
It was in 1606—two years after King James's truculent
threat—that this independent church of Scrooby was organized.
Another year had not elapsed before its members had suffered
so much at the hands of officers of the law, that they began
to think of following the example of former heretics and
escaping to Holland. After an unsuccessful attempt in the
autumn of 1607, they at length succeeded a few months later in
accomplishing their flight to Amsterdam, where they hoped to
find a home. But here they found the English exiles who had
preceded them so fiercely involved in doctrinal controversies,
that they decided to go further in search of peace and quiet:
This decision, which we may ascribe to Robinson's wise
counsels, served to keep the society of Pilgrims from getting
divided and scattered. They reached Leyden in 1609, just as
the Spanish government had sullenly abandoned the hopeless
task of conquering the Dutch, and had granted to Holland the
Twelve Years Truce. During eleven of these twelve years the
Pilgrims remained in Leyden, supporting themselves by various
occupations, while their numbers increased from 300 to more
than 1,000. … In spite of the relief from persecution,
however, the Pilgrims were not fully satisfied with their new
home. The expiration of the truce with Spain might prove that
this relief was only temporary; and at any rate, complete
toleration did not fill the measure of their wants. Had they
come to Holland as scattered bands of refugees, they might
have been absorbed into the Dutch population, as Huguenot
refugees have been absorbed in Germany, England, and America.
But they had come as an organized community, and absorption
into a foreign nation was something to be dreaded. They wished
to preserve their English speech and English traditions, keep
up their organization, and find some favoured spot where they
might lay the corner-stone of a great Christian state. The
spirit of nationality was strong in them; the spirit of
self-government was strong in them; and the only thing which
could satisfy these feelings was such a migration as had not
been seen since ancient times, a migration like that of
Phokaians to Massilia or Tyrians to Carthage. It was too late
in the world's history to carry out such a scheme upon
European soil. Every acre of territory there was appropriated.
The only favourable outlook was upon the Atlantic coast of
America, where English cruisers had now successfully disputed
the pretensions of Spain, and where after forty years of
disappointment and disaster a flourishing colony had at length
been founded in Virginia."
J. Fiske,
The Beginnings of New England,
chapter 2.
ALSO IN:
G. Punchard,
History of Congregationalism,
volume 1, chapters 12-15.
G. Sumner,
Memoirs of the Pilgrims at Leyden
(Massachusetts Historical Society Collection, 3d series,
volume 9).
A. Steele,
Life and Time of Brewster,
chapters 8-14.
D. Campbell,
The Puritan in Holland, England, and America,
chapter 17 (volume 2).
{1700}
INDEPENDENTS: A. D. 1617-1620.
Preparations for the exodus to New England.
"'Upon their talk of removing, sundry of the Dutch would have
them go under them, and made them large offers'; but an inborn
love for the English nation and for their mother tongue led
them to the generous purpose of recovering the protection of
England by enlarging her dominions. They were 'restless' with
the desire to remove to 'the most northern parts of Virginia,'
hoping, under the general government of that province, 'to
live in a distinct body by themselves.' To obtain the consent
of the London Company, John Carver, with Robert Cushman, in
1617, repaired to England. They took with them 'seven
articles,' from the members of the church at Leyden, to be
submitted to the council in England for Virginia. These
articles discussed the relations which, as separatists in
religion, they bore to their prince; and they adopted the
theory which the admonitions of Luther and a century of
persecution had developed as the common rule of plebeian
sectaries on the continent of Europe. They expressed their
concurrence in the creed of the Anglican church, and a desire
of spiritual communion with its members. Toward the king and
all civil authority derived from him, including the civil
authority of bishops, they promised, as they would have done
to Nero and the Roman pontifex, 'obedience in all things,
active if the thing commanded be not against God's word, or
passive if it be.' They denied all power to ecclesiastical
bodies, unless it were given by the temporal magistrate. …
The London company listened very willingly to their proposal,
so that their agents 'found God going along with them'; and,
through the influence of 'Sir Edwin Sandys, a religious
gentleman then living,' a patent might at once have been
taken, had not the envoys desired first to consult 'the
multitude' at Leyden. On the 15th of December, 1617, the
pilgrims transmitted their formal request, signed by the hands
of the greatest part of the congregation. … The messengers
of the pilgrims, satisfied with their reception by the
Virginia company, petitioned the king for liberty of religion,
to be confirmed under the king's broad seal. But here they
encountered insurmountable difficulties. … Even while the
negotiations were pending, a royal declaration constrained the
Puritans of Lancashire to conform or leave the kingdom; and
nothing more could be obtained for the wilds of America than
an informal promise of neglect. On this the community relied,
being advised not to entangle themselves with the bishops. 'If
there should afterward be a purpose to wrong us,' thus they
communed with themselves, 'though we had a seal as broad as
the house-floor, there would be means enough found to recall
or reverse it. We must rest herein on God's providence.'
Better hopes seemed to dawn when, in 1619, the London company
for Virginia elected for their treasurer Sir Edwin Sandys, who
from the first had befriended the pilgrims. Under his
presidency, so writes one of their number, the members of the
company in their open court 'demanded our ends of going; which
being related, they said the thing was of God, and granted a
large patent.' As it was taken in the name of one who failed
to accompany the expedition [Mr. John Wincob], the patent was
never of any service. And, besides, the pilgrims, after
investing all their own means, had not sufficient capital to
execute their schemes. In this extremity, Robinson looked for
aid to the Dutch. He and his people and their friends, to the
number of 400 families, professed themselves well inclined to
emigrate to the country on the Hudson, and to plant there a
new commonwealth under the command of the stadholder and the
states general. The 'West India company was willing to
transport them without charge, and to furnish them with
cattle; but when its directors petitioned the states general
to promise protection to the enterprise against all violence
from other potentates, the request was found to be in conflict
with the policy of the Dutch republic, and was refused. The
members of the church of Leyden, ceasing 'to meddle with the
Dutch, or to depend too much on the Virginia company,' now
trusted to their own resources and the aid of private friends.
The fisheries had commended American expeditions to English
merchants; and the agents from Leyden were able to form a
partnership between their employers and men of business in
London. The services of each emigrant were rated as a capital
of £10, and belonged to the company; all profits were to be
reserved till the end of seven years, when the whole amount,
and all houses and land, gardens and fields, were to be
divided among the share-holders according to their respective
interests. The London merchant, who risked £100, would receive
for his money tenfold as much as the penniless laborer for his
services. This arrangement threatened a seven years' check to
the pecuniary prosperity of the community; yet, as it did not
interfere with civil rights or religion, it was accepted. And
now, in July, 1620, the English at Leyden, trusting in God and
in themselves, made ready for their departure."
G. Bancroft,
History of the United States
(Author's last revision),
part 1, chapter 12 (volume 1).
INDEPENDENTS: A. D. 1620.
The exodus of the Pilgrims to New England.
See MASSACHUSETTS (PLYMOUTH COLONY): A. D. 1620.
INDEPENDENTS: A. D. 1646-1649.
In the English Civil War.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1646 (MARCH);
1647 (APRIL-AUGUST), and after.
----------INDEPENDENTS: End--------
INDEX EXPURGATORIUS, The.
See PAPACY: A. D. 1559-1595.
----------INDIA: Start--------
INDIA.
The name.
"To us … it seems natural that the whole country which is
marked off from Asia by the great barrier of the Himalaya and
the Suleiman range should have a single name. But it has not
always seemed so. The Greeks had but a very vague idea of this
country. To them for a long time the word India was for
practical purposes what it was etymologically, the province of
the Indus. When they say that Alexander invaded India, they
refer to the Punjab. At a later time they obtained some
information about the valley of the Ganges, but little or none
about the Deccan. Meanwhile in India itself it did not seem so
natural as it seems to us to give one name to the whole
region. For there is a very marked difference between the
northern and southern parts of it.
{1701}
The great Aryan community which spoke Sanscrit and invented
Brahminism spread itself chiefly from the Punjab along the
great valley of the Ganges; but not at first far southward.
Accordingly the name Hindostan properly belongs to this
northern region. In the South or peninsula we find other races
and non-Aryan languages. … It appears then that India is not
a political name, but only a geographical expression like
Europe or Africa."
J. R. Seeley,
The Expansion of England,
pages 221-222.
"The name 'Hindustan' … is not used by the natives as it has
been employed by writers of books and map-makers in Europe.
… The word really means 'the land of the Hindus'; the
northern part of the Peninsula, distinguished from the
'Deccan,' from which it is parted by the river Narbada. …
The word Hindu' is of Zend (ancient Persian) origin, and may
be taken to denote 'river-people,' so named, perhaps, from
having first appeared on the line of the Indus, q. d., 'the
river.'"
E. G. Keene,
Sketch of the History of Hindustan,
page 1.
"Sinde, India, and Hindu-stan are various representatives of
the same native word. 'Hindu' is the oldest known form, since
it occurs in one of the most ancient portions of the
Zendavesta. The Greeks and Romans sometimes called the river
Sindus, instead of Indus."
G. Rawlinson,
Five Great Monarchies: Persia,
chapter 1, note.
INDIA:
The aboriginal inhabitants.
"Our earliest glimpses of India disclose two races struggling
for the soil. The one was a fair-skinned people, which had
lately entered by the north-western passes,—a people who
called themselves Aryan, literally of 'noble' lineage,
speaking a stately language, worshipping friendly and powerful
gods. These Aryans became the Brahmans and Rajputs of India.
The other race was of a lower type, who had long dwelt in the
land, and whom the lordly newcomers drove back into the
mountains, or reduced to servitude on the plains. The
comparatively pure descendants of these two races are now
nearly equal in numbers; the intermediate castes, sprung
chiefly from the ruder stock, make up the mass of the present
Indian population. … The victorious Aryans called the early
tribes Dasyus, or 'enemies,' and Dasas, or 'slaves.' The
Aryans entered India from the colder north, and prided
themselves on their fair complexion. Their Sanskrit word for
'colour' (varna) came to mean 'race' or 'caste.' The old Aryan
poets, who composed the Veda at least 3,000 and perhaps 4,000
years ago, praised their bright gods, who, 'slaying the
Dasyus, protected the Aryan colour;' who, 'subjected the
black-skin to the Aryan man.' They tell us of their own
'stormy deities, who rush on like furious bulls and scatter
the black-skin.' Moreover, the Aryan, with his finely-formed
features, loathed the squat Mongolian faces of the Aborigines.
One Vedic poet speaks of the non-Aryans as 'noseless' or
flat-nosed, while another praises his own 'beautiful-nosed'
gods. … Nevertheless all the non-Aryans could not have been
savages. We hear of wealthy Dasyus or non-Aryans; and the
Vedic hymns speak of their 'seven castles' and 'ninety forts.'
The Aryans afterwards made alliance with non-Aryan tribes; and
some of the most powerful kingdoms of India were ruled by
non-Aryan kings. … Let us now examine these primitive
peoples as they exist at the present day. Thrust back by the
Aryan invaders from the plains, they have lain hidden away in
the mountains, like the remains of extinct animals found in
hill-caves. India thus forms a great museum of races, in which
we can study man from his lowest to his highest stages of
culture. … Among the rudest fragments of mankind are the
isolated Andaman islanders, or non-Aryans of the Bay of
Bengal. The Arab and early European voyagers described them as
dog-faced man-eaters. The English officers sent to the islands
in 1855 to establish a settlement, found themselves in the
midst of naked cannibals; who daubed themselves at festivals
with red earth, and mourned for their dead friends by
plastering themselves with dark mud. … The Anamalai hills,
in Southern Madras, form the refuge of many non-Aryan tribes.
The long-haired, wild-looking Puliars live on jungle products,
mice, or any small animals they can catch; and worship demons.
Another clan, the Mundavers, have no fixed dwellings, but
wander over the innermost hills with their cattle. They
shelter themselves in caves or under little leaf sheds, and
seldom remain in one spot more than a year. The thick-lipped,
small-bodied Kaders, 'Lords of the Hills,' are a remnant of a
higher race. They live by the chase, and wield some influence
over the ruder forest-folk. These hills abound in the great
stone monuments (kistvaens and dolmens) which the ancient
non-Aryans erected over their dead. The Nairs, or hillmen of
South-Western India, still keep up the old system of
polyandry, according to which one woman is the wife of several
husbands, and a man's property descends not to his own sons,
but to his sister's children. This system also appears among
the non-Aryan tribes of the Himalayas at the opposite end of
India. In the Central Provinces, the non-Aryan races form a
large part of the population. In certain localities they
amount to one-half of the inhabitants. Their most important
race, the Gonds, have made advances in civilisation; but the
wilder tribes still cling to the forest, and live by the
chase. … The Maris fly from their grass-built huts on the
approach of a stranger. … Farther to the north-east, in the
Tributary States of Orissa, there is a poor tribe, 10,000 in
number, of Juangs or Patuas, literally the 'leaf-wearers.'
Until lately their women wore no clothes, but only a few
strings of beads around the waist, with a bunch of leaves
before and behind. … Proceeding to the northern boundary of
India, we find the slopes and spurs of the Himalayas peopled
by a great variety of rude non-Aryan tribes. Some of the Assam
hillmen have no word for expressing distance by miles or by
any land-measure, but reckon the length of a journey by the
number of plugs of tobacco or pan which they chew upon the
way. They hate work; and, as a rule, they are fierce, black,
undersized, and ill-fed. … Many of the aboriginal tribes,
therefore, remain in the same early stage of human progress as
that ascribed to them by the Vedic poets more than 3,000 years
ago. But others have made great advances, and form communities
of a well-developed type. These higher races, like the ruder
ones, are scattered over the length and breadth of India, and
I must confine myself to a very brief account of two of
them,—the Santals and the Kandhs. The Santals have their
home among the hills which abut on the valley of the Ganges in
Lower Bengal.
{1702}
They dwell in villages of their own, apart from the people of
the plains, and number about a million. Although still
clinging to many customs of a hunting forest tribe, they have
learned the use of the plough, and settled down into skilful
husbandmen. Each hamlet is governed by its own headman, who is
supposed to be a descendant of the original founder of the
village. … Until near the end of the last century, the
Santals lived by plundering the adjacent plains. But under
British rule they settled down into peaceful cultivators. …
The Kandhs, literally 'The Mountaineers,' a tribe about
100,000 strong, inhabit the steep and forest-covered ranges
which rise from the Orissa coast. Their idea of government is
purely patriarchal. The family is strictly ruled by the
father. The grown-up sons have no property during his life,
but live in his house with their wives and children, and all
share the common meal prepared by the grandmother. The head of
the tribe is usually the eldest son of the patriarchal family.
… The Kandh system of tillage represents a stage half way
between the migratory cultivation of the ruder non-Aryan
tribes and the settled agriculture of the Hindus. … Whence
came these primitive peoples, whom the Aryan invaders found in
the land more than 3,000 years ago, and who are still
scattered over India, the fragments of a pre-historic world?
Written annals they do not possess. Their traditions tell us
little. But from their languages we find that they belong to
three stocks. First, the Tibeto-Burman tribes, who entered
India from the north-east, and still cling to the skirts of
the Himalayas. Second, the Kolarians, who also seem to have
entered Bengal by the north-eastern passes. They dwell chiefly
along the north-eastern ranges of the three-sided tableland
which covers the southern half of India. Third, the
Dravidians, who appear, on the other hand, to have found their
way into the Punjab by the north-western passes. They now
inhabit the southern part of the three-sided tableland as far
down as Cape Comorin, the southernmost point of India. As a
rule, the non-Aryan races, when fairly treated, are truthful,
loyal, and kind. Those in the hills make good soldiers; while
even the thieving tribes of the plains can be turned into
clever police. The non-Aryan castes of Madras supplied the
troops which conquered Southern India for the British; and
some of them fought at the battle of Plassey, which won for us
Bengal. The gallant Gurkhas, a non-Aryan tribe of the
Himalayas, now rank among the bravest regiments in our Indian
army, and lately covered themselves with honour in
Afghanistan."
W. W. Hunter,
Brief History of the Indian People,
chapters 2-3.
ALSO IN:
R. Brown,
Races of Mankind,
volume 4, chapter 1.
R. G. Latham,
Ethnology of British Colonies and Dependencies,
chapter 3.
See, also,
TURANIAN RACES.
INDIA:
The immigration and conquests of the Aryas.
The hymns and prayers of their religion.
Vedism.
Brahmanism.
Hinduism
"The immigration of the Aryas into India took place from the
west. They stand in the closest relation to the inhabitants of
the table-land of Iran, especially the inhabitants of the
eastern half. These also call themselves Aryas, though among
them the word becomes Airya, or Ariya, and among the Greeks
Arioi. The language of the Aryas is in the closest connection
with that of the Avesta, the religious books of Iran, and in
very close connection with the language of the monuments of
Darius and Xerxes, in the western half of that region. The
religious conceptions of the Iranians and Indians exhibit
striking traits of a homogeneous character. A considerable
number of the names of gods, of myths, sacrifices, and
customs, occurs in both nations, though the meaning is not
always the same, and is sometimes diametrically opposed.
Moreover, the Aryas in India are at first confined to the
borders of Iran, the region of the Indus, and the Panjab.
Here; in the west, the Aryas had their most extensive
settlements, and their oldest monuments frequently mention the