Any new material will in the course of time be applied to the uses for which it has special advantages, displacing older materials which formerly served those purposes. The resulting product may sometimes be used in the same manner as before, or the properties of the substitute material may widen the usefulness of the finished product, or even make possible a product almost wholly new.
Before the development of molded synthetic resins, electrical plugs and sockets were usually made of porcelain or molded of marble dust and shellac. In this use substitution has been almost complete. Wall plates for electric switches and outlets were usually of brass. Today molded tar-acid or molded urea resins are substituted in part. In neither of these examples has the substituted material any important effect upon the use of the product.
An example of a substitute material widening the usefulness of the product is afforded by a new computing scale, where a molded urea resin casing (substituted for metal in the older model) has aided in decreasing the weight and has improved the appearance. Another example is the use of laminated synthetic resin coil forms in radio frequency transformers which, because of their better electrical properties at high frequencies, have aided in the design of more compact units.
Examples of synthetic resins making possible a wholly new product are more difficult to find, but the following will serve as illustrations: Cast acrylate sheets to form curved cockpit enclosures for airplanes; molded acrylate buttons for reflecting road markers; and new special coatings, which make possible the use of metal cans for preserving foods and beverages hitherto impossible to can without loss of flavor.
One of the most important reasons why a manufacturer may decide to substitute a synthetic resin for another material is the resulting economy in the sense of economy in total costs. As a rule, the synthetic resin will be more expensive pound for pound than the material for which it is substituted; but frequently the manufacturing cost is enough lower to more than make good the difference in material cost, because the resin part will come from the mold almost in finished form, whereas the part made of wood or metal will require considerable fabrication. In some cases there may be a saving in marketing costs. For example, the shades for large office fixture lights are now made of synthetic resin as well as of opal glass. The resin shades are less expensive to ship because they are lighter and require less expensive packing.
Another incentive toward substitution is to give novelty, and hence sales appeal, to an old product. In many cases the use of synthetic resins fits in with the present tendency to redesign an old-style product so that it will be more compact, have more pleasing lines, and more color.
Still another incentive toward substitution is to give the product greater usefulness, or lower costs in use. The great expansion in the use of synthetic resins in surface coatings has come about because, with these materials, coatings can be developed to fit special purposes, and dry rapidly, which means an important saving to those who use them.
The wide range of uses to which synthetic resins are now applied implies that the materials displaced are numerous. For example, cast or wrought iron or steel is displaced in timing gears and in many small machine parts, such as cradle-type telephones; nonferrous metals in small machine parts and novelties, such as inexpensive bracelets; glass in lamp shades and in cosmetic containers; natural resins in lacquers; plastics, such as cellulose acetate in safety glass or cellulose nitrate in colored lacquers; other adhesives in bonding plywood; and cork or metal in bottle closures.
In general, the quantity of material displaced is a very small part of that material’s total market. Frequently, however, industries producing the finished product have had to make substantial changes in their equipment in order to use synthetic resins. This has been true in the button industry, in the bottle closure industry, in the varnish and lacquer industry, and in the various electrical supply industries; and readjustment is now proceeding in the fancy container industry and in the safety glass industry.
Any particular synthetic resin must compete for its market with other synthetic resins, as well as with other materials. The basis of choice or substitution will be the same as that which has already been briefly discussed in connection with the displacement of other materials by resins. As between a number of resins with properties fitting them for a particular use, the total costs of using each will be compared and the choice will go to the least expensive; but where a resin has special advantages in a particular use it may win out over a less expensive resin.
It should be emphasized that this battle of materials for markets is a never-ending one. The fact that a specific synthetic resin has achieved a certain position is no guarantee that it may not lose it wholly or in part to some newer resin or other material. Thus cast phenolic resin was for a time the only resin available in light colors but urea resins became available in pastel shades and more recently water-clear polystyrene and acrylate resins have come on the market. Until recently tar-acid resins were without competition in laminating, but urea resins now are used to some extent for the surface laminae and the tar-acid resins now face a potential threat in a new product offered to laminators. If the use of this cellulose sheet, which looks much like blotting paper and which has lignin incorporated in it to act as a binder in the press, should materially decrease the cost of laminated sheets, it will mean serious new competition for the tar-acid laminating resins.
The general effect of the increase in number of types of synthetic resin has been to modify the market outlook of the producers of each type. They are now more inclined to view the market as being limited by the price at which they can supply their product and by the physical properties of each resin rather than attempt to exploit it as a universal resin for all purposes.
At present the resins produced in largest volume are the alkyd resins for use in surface coatings; the tar-acid resins for molding, laminating, and surface coatings; the urea resins, chiefly for moldings; and the cast phenolic resins. Roughly, the price per pound of pure resin material[12] for these various resins may be compared as follows:
| Type of resin: | Average sales price of net resin, 1937 (per pound) |
|---|---|
| Cast phenolic | $0.41 |
| Tar-acid: | |
| For molding | .18 |
| For laminating | .13 |
| For coatings | .17 |
| Alkyd | .20 |
| Urea | .45 |
Because the cost of the filler is less per pound than the cost of the resin, the cost of the tar-acid and urea molding powders will be less than the figures given for the pure resin. On the other hand, wholesale prices paid by consumers will include transportation and distribution costs not included in the figures of manufacturers’ sales.
Vinyl resins, acrylate resins, and polystyrene resins are at present produced in much smaller volume than those just listed. If and when the volume of production is increased the price may be decreased. In 1937, the price per pound of pure resin[12] was as follows:
| Type of resin: | Average sales price of net resin, 1937 (per pound) |
|---|---|
| Vinyl | $0.69 |
| Acrylate | 1.66 |
Early in 1938, acrylate resins were being offered for sale at 85 cents per pound for molding powder and $1.25 per pound for the cast material; polystyrene resins at 72 cents per pound.
Petroleum resins, in 1937, sold for an average of 2 cents per pound net resin content.[12] This low price puts them beyond competition of the other synthetic resins in the uses in laminating and coating to which they are adapted.
A more expensive resin will be used in preference to a cheaper one, only if the higher cost is more than offset by some physical property, such as color, which makes it more desirable in a particular use. The most common molding resin at present is the tar-acid type, but it is available only in the darker colors and therefore has been at a disadvantage, where a light color is desired, in competition with cellulose nitrate (celluloid) and cellulose acetate plastics or with urea and cast phenolic resins. In recent years the production of cellulose acetate molding compounds and of urea resins has increased rapidly, largely under this stimulus. The desire for color also promises well for the future of the acrylate and polystyrene resins which are produced in water-clear grades or colored with dyes or pigments.
Table 17.—Synthetic resins and other plastics: Properties that affect appearance
1 Specified refractive degree.
Note.—The values for the properties in this table are based upon maximum and minimum figures submitted to Modern Plastics by a number of manufacturers of each type of material. Differences in test procedures and sizes of test specimens may lead to erroneous conclusions in some cases if direct comparisons are attempted. Special grades of materials are often available which excel in one particular property.
Source: Modern Plastics, vol. 15, no. 2, opp. p. 120. October 1937.
Table 18.—Synthetic resins and other plastics: Molding properties
| Type. | General molding qualities | Compression molding temperature | Compression molding pressure | Injection molding temperature | Injection molding pressure | Compression ratio | Mold shrinkage | Effect on metal inserts |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| °F. | Pounds per square inch |
°F. | Pounds per square inch |
Inches per inch | ||||
| Synthetic resins: | ||||||||
| Tar-acid—Formaldehyde: | ||||||||
| Molded, wood flour filler | Excellent | 280-360 | 1,600-4,500 | 275-375 | 2,000-10,000 | 2.5-3.0 | 0.006-0.010 | Inert. |
| Molded, mineral filler | Excellent to fair | 270-350 | 1,600-6,000 | 275-350 | 2,000-15,000 | 2.2-7.1 | .002-.006 | Do. |
| Molded, fabric filler | Good to fair | 270-330 | 3,000-8,000 | 2.5-11.0 | .003-.007 | Do. | ||
| Laminated, paper base | 250-365 | 1,000-3,000 | 1.5-3.0 | Do. | ||||
| Laminated, fabric base | 250-365 | 1,000-3,000 | 1.5-3.0 | Do. | ||||
| Laminated, asbestos cloth base | 250-325 | 1,000-3,000 | Do. | |||||
| Cast | Do. | |||||||
| Tar-acid—Furfural: | ||||||||
| Wood flour filler | Excellent | 330-400 | 1,000-3,000 | 250-290 | 300-5,000 | 2.5-3.0 | .005-.009 | Do. |
| Mineral filler | do | 330-360 | 1,000-3,000 | 250-290 | 300-5,000 | 2.5-6.0 | .002-.006 | Do. |
| Fabric filler | Good to fair | 300-360 | 1,000-3,000 | 250-290 | 300-50,000 | 4.0-15.0 | .0025-.006 | Do. |
| Urea—Formaldehyde (alpha cellulose filler) | Excellent | 290-325 | 1,500-6,000 | 3.0 | .007-.011 | Do. | ||
| Vinyl, unfilled | Good | 240-275 | 1,500-2,000 | 2.0 | .001 | Not used. | ||
| Vinyl, filled | Excellent | 250-300 | 2,000-2,500 | 1.5-3.5 | .000 | Inert. | ||
| Acrylate | do | 285-315 | 1,500-5,000 | 325-475 | 3,000-30,000 | 2.0 | .002-.003 | |
| Polystyrene | Good | 280-325 | 300-2,000 | 300-375 | 3,000-30,000 | 2.5 | .002-.0025 | |
| Other plastics: | ||||||||
| Shellac compound | do | 240 | 1,000-1,200 | .002 | Do. | |||
| Cold molded: | ||||||||
| Nonrefractory | Fair | 4,000-12,000 | 2.5 | .000-.022 | Do. | |||
| Refractory | do | 4,000-12,000 | 3.5 | .000 | Do. | |||
| Rubber compounds: | ||||||||
| Chlorinated rubber | do | 200-225 | 2,000-5,000 | 2.0-3.0 | ||||
| Modified isomerized rubber | Good | 260-300 | 1,200-4,000 | 3.0 | .000 | Do. | ||
| Hard rubber | Fair | 285-350 | 1,200-1,800 | 180-220 | 2,000-5,000 | 4.0-6.0 | ||
| Casein | Poor | 200-225 | 2,000-2,500 | |||||
| Cellulose compounds: | ||||||||
| Ethyl cellulose | Excellent | 212-300 | 1,000-5,000 | 2.2-2.9 | .0003-.0007 | Do. | ||
| Cellulose acetate sheet | do | 210-320 | 500-5,000 | (1) | Do. | |||
| Cellulose acetate molding | do | 250-350 | 500-5,000 | 300-440 | 3,000-30,000 | 2.0-2.8 | (1) | Do. |
| Cellulose nitrate | Good | 185-250 | 2,000-5,000 |
1 Positive and injection 0.002-0.003; semipositive 0.005-0.007; flash 0.008-0.009.
Note.—The values for the properties in this table are based upon maximum and minimum figures submitted to Modern Plastics by a number of manufacturers of each type of material. Differences in test procedures and sizes of test specimens may lead to erroneous conclusions in some cases if direct comparisons are attempted. Special grades of materials are often available which excel in one particular property.
Source: Modern Plastics, vol. 15, No. 2, opp. p. 120. October 1937.
Table 17 lists the properties which affect appearance and gives in addition to the color range, the clarity, material, the burning rate, the effect of age and sunlight, the refractive index, and the machining quality of each synthetic resin.
Table 18 lists molding properties of synthetic resins. Of special interest are the possibilities of using a resin in injection molding. The thermoplastic resins and plastics (see softening point in table 20) are generally preferred to the thermosetting materials for injection molding because they permit the reuse of material otherwise wasted.
Table 19 lists the strength properties of the synthetic resins; table 20 the heat properties; table 21 the electrical properties; and table 22 the resistance to acids, alkalies, and solvents. All of these qualities are important in some uses and each quality may be paramount in a few. Each material has its limitations and its special advantages and the consuming industry must choose the one best suited to its purposes. The tie-up between specific properties and particular uses is exemplified by vinyl resins, which because of their great elasticity at low temperatures, are used in safety glass, and by the polystyrene resins, which because of their electrical properties at high frequencies, are used in laminated electrical parts. As production of the various resins increases new uses will probably be found for most of them.
Table 19.—Synthetic resins and other plastics: Strength properties
| Type | Tensile strength | Elongation | Modulus of elasticity | Compressive strength | Flexural strength | Impact strength1 (foot pounds) | Hardness2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pounds per square inch |
Percent | Pounds per square inch × 10³ |
Pounds per square inch |
Pounds per square inch |
Brinell No | ||
| Synthetic resins: | |||||||
| Tar-acid—Formaldehyde: | |||||||
| Molded, wood flour filler | 6,000-11,000 | 10-15 | 16,000-36,000 | 8,000-15,000 | 0.10-0.28; I, N | 30-45 | |
| Molded, mineral filler | 5,000-10,000 | 10-45 | 18,000-36,000 | 8,000-20,000 | 0.11-0.36; I, N | ||
| Molded, fabric filler | 6,500-8,000 | 7-12 | 20,000-32,000 | 10,000-13,000 | 0.4-2.4; I, N | ||
| Laminated, paper base | 6,000-13,000 | 5-20 | 20,060-40,000 | 13,000-20,000 | 0.4-1.2; I, N | 24-40 | |
| Laminated, fabric base | 8,000-12,000 | 5-15 | 20,000-44,000 | 13,000-20,000 | 0.8-5.2; I, N | 30-45 | |
| Laminated, asbestos cloth base | 9,000 | 18,000-40,000 | 17,000 | ||||
| Cast | 5,000-12,000 | 5-15 | 15,000-30,000 | 0.1-1.5; I, N | 30-45 | ||
| Tar-acid—Furfural: | |||||||
| Wood flour filler | 5,000-12,000 | 10-25 | 28,000-36,000 | 10,000-16,000 | 0.08-0.52; C, N | 335-40 | |
| Mineral filler | 4,000-12,000 | 10-45 | 24,000-36,000 | 8,000-14,000 | 0.08-0.48; C, N | 344-46 | |
| Fabric filler | 5,000-10,000 | 7-12 | 26,000-30,000 | 10,000-16,000 | 1.6-3.1; C, N | 330-35 | |
| Urea—Formaldehyde | 8,000-13,000 | 16 | 24,000-35,000 | 13,000-15,000 | 0.7-1.5; C, U | 448-54 | |
| Vinyl, unfilled | 8,000-10,000 | 3.5-4.1 | 10,000-13,000 | 0.3-0.6; I, N | 15-25 | ||
| Vinyl, filled | 6,000-12,000 | 3.5-8.5 | 0.1-0.7; I, N | 15-25 | |||
| Acrylate | 7,000-9,000 | 1.0 | 6 | 8,000 | 15,000-17,000 | 0.25-0.5; C, N | 418-20 |
| Polystyrene | 5,500-7,500 | 1.0 | 4.6-5.1 | 13,000-13,500 | 6,500-8,000 | 0.16-0.25; I, N | 20-30 |
| Other plastics: | |||||||
| Shellac compound | 900-2,000 | ||||||
| Cold molded | 6,000-15,000 | 5,300-7,500 | 0.4; C | ||||
| Nonrefractory | } | 16,000 | 6,000 | 0.4; C | |||
| Refractory | |||||||
| Rubber compounds: | |||||||
| Chlorinated rubber | 3.0+; C, U | ||||||
| Modified isomerized rubber | 4,300 | 0.013 | 4.7 | 8,500-11,000 | 7,000-9,000 | 2.6-6.2; I, N | 585-90 |
| Hard rubber | 4,000-10,000 | 8-15 | 5.3 | 8,000-12,000 | 0.5; I | 31 | |
| Casein | 7,600 | 5.1-5.7 | 1.0; I | 23 | |||
| Cellulose compounds: | |||||||
| Ethyl cellulose | 2,000-7,000 | 2.8 | 1-4; I, N (per in. sq.) | ||||
| Cellulose acetate sheet | 6,000-11,000 | 20-55 | 1-3 | 4,000-16,000 | 2-7; C, N (per in. sq.) | 66-11 | |
| Cellulose acetate molding | 3,500-10,000 | 10-48 | 2-4 | 11,000-16,000 | 5,200-8,800 | 3-12; C, N (per in. sq.) | 66-7.5 |
| Cellulose nitrate | 5,000-10,000 | 10-40 | 2-4 | 3-12; C, N (per in. sq.) | 68-11 |
1 ASTM D256-34T. C = Charpy; I = izod; N = notched; U = unnotched.
2 2.5 mm ball; 25 kg. load unless otherwise noted.
3 50 kg. load.
4 10 mm. ball; 500 kg. load.
5 Shore.
6 10 kg. load.
Note.—The values for the properties in this table are based upon maximum and minimum figures submitted to Modern Plastics by a number of manufacturers of each type of material. Differences in test procedures and sizes of test specimens may lead to erroneous conclusions in some cases if direct comparisons are attempted. Special grades of materials are often available which excel in one particular property.
Source: Modern Plastics, vol. 15, No. 2, opp. p. 120; October 1937.
Table 20.—Synthetic resins and other plastics: Heat properties
| Type | Thermal conductivity | Specific heat | Thermal expansion | Resistance to continuous heat | Softening point | Distortion under heat | Tendency to cold flow |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 10⁻⁴ calories per second per square centimeter per 1°C. per centimeter |
Calories per °C. per gram |
10⁻⁶ per °C. | °F. | °F. | °F. | ||
| Synthetic resins: | |||||||
| Tar-acid—Formaldehyde: | |||||||
| Molded, wood flour filler | 4-12.2 | 0.35-0.36 | 3.7-7.5 | 350 | None | 240-285 | None. |
| Molded, mineral filler | 8-20 | 0.25-0.35 | 2.5-4 | 450 | do. | Do. | |
| Molded, fabric filler | 3-5 | 0.30-0.35 | 2-6 | 250-350 | do. | Do. | |
| Laminated, paper base | 5-8 | 0.3 -0.4 | 2 | 212-300 | do. | 320 | Do. |
| Laminated, fabric base | 5-8 | 0.3 -0.4 | 3 | 212-350 | do. | Do. | |
| Laminated, asbestos cloth base | 2 | 400-500 | do. | Do. | |||
| Cast | 3-5 | 0.3-0.4 | 2.8 | 160 | |||
| Tar-acid—Furfural: | |||||||
| Wood flour filler | 3.5-5 | 0.3-0.4 | 3 | 280-400 | Chars 450 | 268-288 | Do. |
| Mineral filler | 10-20 | 0.3-0.4 | 2 | 350-500 | Chars 550 | 277-297 | Do. |
| Fabric filler | 5-8 | 0.3-0.4 | 4.5 | 280-350 | Chars 400 | Do. | |
| Urea—Formaldehyde | 7.13 | 1.5 | 160 | None | 260 | Do. | |
| Vinyl, unfilled | 4 | 0.244 | 6.9 | 130-160 | 140-150 | Slight. | |
| Vinyl, filled | Varies | Varies | Varies | 130-160 | 140-158 | Do. | |
| Acrylate | 4.3-6.8 | 0.45 | 8.5 | 170-235 | 158 | Do. | |
| Styrol | 1.9 | 0.324 | 10.2 | 110-200 | 185 | Do. | |
| Other plastics: | |||||||
| Shellac compound | 150-190 | 150 | Do. | ||||
| Cold molded: | |||||||
| Nonrefractory | 500 | ||||||
| Refractory | 1,300 | ||||||
| Rubber compounds: | |||||||
| Chlorinated rubber | 175-230 | 140 | Do. | ||||
| Modified isomerized rubber | 2.6-2.9 | 7-8 | 165-220 | 167-221 | Do. | ||
| Hard rubber | 3.2 | 0.33 | 8.0 | 150-190 | Do. | ||
| Casein | 8 | 200 | |||||
| Cellulose compounds: | |||||||
| Ethyl cellulose | 210-266 | ||||||
| Cellulose acetate sheet | 5.4-8.7 | 0.3-0.4 | 14-16 | 140-180 | 140-230 | 122-212 | Do. |
| Cellulose acetate molding | 5.4-8.7 | 0.3-0.45 | 14-16 | 140-180 | 145-260 | 122-212 | Do. |
| Cellulose nitrate | 3.1-5.1 | 0.34-0.38 | 12-16 | ca. 140 | 160-195 |
Note.—The values for the properties in this table are based upon maximum and minimum figures submitted to Modern Plastics by a number of manufacturers of each type of material. Differences in test procedures and sizes of test specimens may lead to erroneous conclusions in some cases if direct comparisons are attempted. Special grades of material are often available which excel in one particular property.
Source: Modern Plastics, vol. 15, No. 2, opp. p. 120. October 1937.
Table 21.—Synthetic resins and other plastics: Electrical properties
| Type | Volume resistivity (50 percent relative humidity) (ohm = cms) |
Breakdown voltage, 60 cycles (volts per mil (instantaneous)) |
Dielectric constant | Power factor | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 60 cycles |
10³ cycles |
10⁶ cycles |
60 cycles |
10³ cycles |
10⁶ cycles |
|||
| Synthetic resins: | ||||||||
| Tar-acid—Formaldehyde: | ||||||||
| Molded, wood flour filler | 10¹⁰-10¹² | 300-500 | 5-12 | 4-8 | 4.5-8 | 0.04-0.30 | 0.04-0.15 | 0.035-0.1. |
| Molded, mineral filler | 10⁹-10¹¹ | 250-400 | 5-20 | 4.5-20 | 4.5-20 | 0.10-0.30 | 0.10-0.15 | 0.005-0.1. |
| Molded, fabric filler | 10⁹-10¹¹ | 300-450 | 5-10 | 4.5-6 | 4.5-6 | 0.08-0.30 | 0.08-0.20 | 0.04-0.1. |
| Laminated, paper base | 10¹⁰-10¹³ | 400-1,300 | 4-6 | 0.02-0.05. | ||||
| Laminated, fabric base | 10¹⁰-10¹² | 150-600 | 4.5-7 | 0.02-0.08. | ||||
| Laminated, asbestos cloth base | 90 | |||||||
| Cast | 10⁹-10¹⁴ | 300-450 | 5-10 | 5-7 | 0.025-0.20 | 0.005-0.08 | 0.01-0.045. | |
| Tar-acid—Furfural: | ||||||||
| Wood flour filler | 10¹⁰-10¹² | 400-600 | 4-8 | 6-7.5 | 0.04-0.15 | 0.035-0.1. | ||
| Mineral filler | 10⁹-10¹¹ | 200-500 | 4.5-20 | 5-18 | 0.1-0.15 | 0.04-0.1. | ||
| Fabric filler | 0.4 × 10¹¹ | 200-500 | 4.5-6 | 5-7.5 | 0.08-0.20 | 0.035-0.1. | ||
| Urea—Formaldehyde | (2-2.8) × 10¹³ | 650-720 | 6.6 | 6 | 0.034 | 0.01-0.03. | ||
| Vinyl, unfilled | 10¹⁴ | 400-500 | 4 | 0.0143 | 0.0175. | |||
| Vinyl, filled | 10¹¹ | 350-400 | 4.7 | 4 | 0.02-0.15 | 0.02-0.065. | ||
| Acrylate | 10¹⁵ | 480 | 4-6 | 2.8 | 0.06-0.08 | 0.02. | ||
| Polystyrene | 10¹⁷-10¹⁸ | 500-700 | 2.6 | 2.65 | 2.7 | 0.0003 | 0.0001 | 0.0001. |
| Other plastics: | ||||||||
| Shellac compound | 100-400 | |||||||
| Cold molded: | ||||||||
| Nonrefractory | 1.3 × 10¹² | 85 | 15 | 6 | 0.20 | 0.07. | ||
| Refractory | ||||||||
| Rubber compounds: | ||||||||
| Chlorinated rubber | 2,300 | ca. 3 | 0.003 | |||||
| Modified isomerized rubber | (5-7) × 10¹⁶ | 2.7 | 2.68 | 0.006 | 0.0016. | |||
| Hard rubber | 10¹²-10¹⁵ | 250-900 | 2.8 | 3 | 0.003-0.008. | |||
| Casein | 400-700 | 6.15-6.8 | 0.052. | |||||
| Cellulose compounds: | ||||||||
| Ethyl cellulose | 1,500 | 3.72 | 0.011 | |||||
| Cellulose acetate sheet | (5-30) × 10¹² | 800-2,500 | 5.1-7.5 | 4.2-5.3 | 0.025-0.07 | 0.038-0.091. | ||
| Cellulose acetate molding | (4.2-6.2) × 10¹² | 800-850 | 5.8-6.0 | 4.4-4.6 | 0.042-0.058 | 0.038-0.042. | ||
| Cellulose nitrate | (2-30) × 10¹⁰ | 600-1,200 | 6.7-7.3 | 6.15 | 0.062-0.144 | 0.074-0.097. | ||