This section is intended, not for experts, but for those travellers without special interest or experience in archæological work, who, finding themselves in districts where unpublished antiquities exist, feel it incumbent to record or rescue them. General hints, therefore, are subjoined on methods of recording, cleaning, temporarily conserving, and conveying monuments and objects of antiquity.
There are three ways of obtaining a record of a monument, all of which should be used if possible in cases of importance:—
1. Mechanical reproduction by photography, moulding, or rubbing.
2. Reproduction by planning, drawing, or otherwise copying.
3. Literary memoranda of characteristics, e.g., dimensions, subject, etc.
(a) Photography.—This subject has already been dealt with in Part II., and it is only necessary here to add a few hints, peculiarly applicable to the photography of objects of antiquity.
Of inscriptions photography does not, as a rule, supply a useful reproduction, and unless time or other opportunity be wanting, it should not be the only mechanical process applied. If an inscription is at all worn, or the material on which it is engraved contains superficial faults, do not rely on a photograph; but if one is taken, try to dispose the object so that light falls on it from one side, with a slight obliquity from above. In the case of rock inscriptions or others still in their place on walls, etc., a photograph should be secured to show relative position and surroundings. An inscription on dark material will often need preparation with white chalk before being photographed to any good purpose; but the traveller who has opportunity to do that, will probably have equal opportunity to employ the better process of moulding.
For sculpture, photography will often be the only method of reproduction possible to the traveller. When that is the case he may be advised (1) to take his photographs on the largest possible scale; (2) to take the object from all possible points of view; (3) to do what he can to improve the light and relief of the subject. Small objects gain enormously by reflected lights carefully arranged to bring out their contours; if sufficient mirrors are not obtainable, strips of tin or even white paper will serve as reflectors. Backgrounds may be chalked or blacked as the case may be, but in the case of a relief this should only be done when the outlines are very clear. If a sculpture on rock or other material is much broken or worn, a good mechanical method of improving relief, which Professor Petrie recommends, can be used; this consists in dusting the face with powdery sand and then fanning it. The result, if carefully done, is to leave hollows and background in strong contrast to the surface of the relief. Highly polished or lucent surfaces should be dulled before photographing. Metal objects do not, as a rule, photograph very satisfactorily; and of coins it is much better to take a cast and photograph that. Perhaps it is not superfluous to remind the photographer to make notes of all colouring before leaving his subject. On preparing sculpture, etc., for photography there are valuable practical hints in Professor Petrie’s ‘Methods and Aims in Archæology,’ Chapter VII.
For small objects of antiquity, photography is not of much service unless a camera with very long extension can be used. If it be possible, the best way is to lay the objects on a sheet of glass raised about a foot from the ground on a frame, and arrange the camera above, so as to photograph downwards. This process obviates all ground shadows, and all pins or other supports for the objects, which appear sharply on the negative as if suspended in air.
For buildings photography is, of course, the only method of mechanical reproduction possible.
(b) Moulding.—This in almost all cases will have to be done by impressing paper. Only in the case of small objects will a traveller ordinarily be able to use either plaster of Paris (if he can procure it) or sealing wax. As to the latter he may be reminded never to heat his wax by putting it in direct contact with a flame, or the impression will come out so parti-coloured or black as to be of little use; a card should be held over a candle or lamp, or, better, a spirit burner, and the wax rubbed upon the gradually heating upper surface till enough has melted on to the card without boiling. A useful impression may be obtained of coins, gems, etc., by pressing ordinary tin foil upon the surface; but great care must be taken afterwards that the impression does not get flattened out in transport. Mr. Petrie recommends floating impressed foil on water face downwards, and dropping hot wax upon it, as a solidifying agent.
As to the use of plaster of Paris it may be remembered that (1) the proper mixture is just as much plaster as will absorb the water, leaving none standing on the top; (2) the object must be well cleaned and soaped before being moulded; (3) the plaster must be applied very rapidly, in a thin coating all over the object at once: it can be backed with more plaster afterwards; (4) a surface of any size should either be moulded in sections, or, if done all at once, the plaster will probably have to be cut into sections afterwards for transport. To cut it, it is best to lay strings upon the object before moulding, which, later, can be pulled up through the plaster while still viscous.
Paper moulding or ‘squeezing’ is, however, the ordinary process employed. Any fairly strong unsized paper will serve more or less well, but a special ‘squeeze’ paper is procurable in most large cities where there are archæological museums (e.g., in London, from Nutt’s, 57 to 59, Long Acre, W.C.; in Paris, from Moreau’s, 11, Passage du Pont Neuf; in Berlin, from Ebers Brothers. It can also be got direct from the maker, Papierhändler Dorr, Spiesgasse, Strassburg.) Mr. Maudslay recommended in a previous edition a hand-made paper, used for packing oranges in Spain, and to be obtained of Messrs. Batalla, of Cacagente, near Valencia, through the agency of Messrs. H. King & Co., Cornhill. Failing these, the paper on which the commoner news-sheets are printed will do. The other implements needed are a sponge, and close-bristled, not very hard, brushes of two or three sizes, e.g., an ordinary clothes-brush, a nail-brush, and a tooth-brush, if no others are at hand, but special brushes with hand-straps on the back, or curved handles to keep the knuckles of the beater away from the stone, are preferable. In the case of an ordinary inscription, of not specially rough or uneven surface, brush and clean the stone thoroughly, and pick all accumulation out of the letters; then wet it thoroughly all over; lay the dry paper, cut to size, as flat on the surface as possible, and dab it down with a very wet sponge till thoroughly soaked; take the largest brush and pound the paper rather gently all over, till it partially adheres; then take smaller brushes and work the paper into all depressions with the maximum pressure you can exert; finally, hammer it with the large brush again, working systematically from top to bottom or side to side, not minding the surface becoming mashed, and driving the air-bubbles, which collect under the paper, before you and out at the farthest point. If the stone was thoroughly wetted before the paper was laid on, these ought not to be numerous or troublesome. Then, if the surface of the stone has penetrated through the paper at any point, lay a second sheet and, if necessary, a third, or more, and treat as the first was treated. Leave the sheets, if possible, to dry on the stone, and all will come off as one with a perfect reverse impression of the stone’s surface. Some soak the paper before laying on the stone, but if that is done and there be any wind, the paper, become very tender, will be apt to tear with its own weight while being laid on, and will be difficult to lay flat. If for any reason, e.g., overhanging of the stone’s face, it is difficult to make the paper adhere, the task will prove easier with small pieces. But whenever a surface is squeezed by sections, the operator must be careful to make the edges of his sheets overlap, so that later all can be gummed together as one sheet; to number the sheets according to a key-plan, recorded in his note-book, and to mark on the sheets themselves the lines of junction. All superfluous edges should be peeled off, as they are apt to lift in the wind and cause all or a part of the impression to become detached before it is well set, and weights should, if possible, be laid on the drying paper. If for any reason the paper cannot be left to dry in position, peel off carefully and lay out to dry reverse side uppermost. The impression, so taken, will be hardly less good. When dry, roll the squeeze inside a tin cylinder, and only very rough usage will harm it.
Squeezing sculptures is a more difficult matter. Mr. A. P. Maudslay gave very full directions in an earlier edition of these “Hints” which may be repeated here. After stating that all moulds of sculpture have to be made of many thicknesses of paper, with a good coating of paste between every few sheets (not only because of the great inequalities of surface, which break through the paper, but also in order that the mould, when dry, may be stout enough to keep its shape), he said:—
‘Paper can only properly be applied for the purpose of moulding when the carving is free from large contours and deep undercutting; but it is wonderful what accurate results can be obtained even when large curves and some undercutting have to be contended against. Where worn or splintered parts of a wood-carving, or fissures in a stone, or deep undercutting which is not essential to the design, occur, it is often of advantage to fill them up with clay or paper, to which a smooth surface can be given, so that the mould will come away free from them when it is dry; and careful notes and measurements will often enable one to restore the contour to a mould which has suffered some pressure in transport. In a properly-made mould the detail of carving is never lost, unless the paper itself is destroyed.
‘A shallow tin bath (or two made to fit inside one another), large enough to hold an open sheet of paper, is useful for soaking the paper in.[17] Twenty sheets or more may be placed in the water at once, and left there without harm for an hour or more; but a few minutes’ soaking is quite enough.
‘I have several times had to mould, in America, the whole of a monolithic monument—one as much as 25 feet in height—covered with carving and hieroglyphic inscription, and have been perfectly successful in reproducing it in plaster in England. Each face would be marked out into three or more sections, and each section would be moulded separately, great care being taken that each mould should considerably overlap the margin of the other, so that when each section is cast in plaster the edges of the cast can be cut away until the joint is perfect. And each section should also overlap at the top and sides in No. 1, and at the sides in No. 2, &c., for the same reason; and it is necessary to pay careful attention to the beating in of the paper near the sides and edges, as it is there that the layers are most likely to come apart when dry. These edges can be trimmed down afterwards, if found too bulky in packing.
‘The first sheets of paper should always be put on singly, and well beaten in. If the carving presents many sharp angles, the paper will again and again be broken away over them, and small scraps of paper may be used for covering them up, until the whole section is covered at least three papers deep in the thinnest place. The coat of paste should then be given. If the paste is laid on when the mould is too thin, it will penetrate to the stone, and prevent the mould coming off when dry. The paste may be put on warm, but if too hot it draws the paper from the stone (if it is a stone sculpture); air gets underneath the paper, and it is very difficult to get rid of it again. Avoid, in putting on the first papers, doubled edges or creases, and beat in well, so that the paper may work into the grain of the stone or wood. It is easy to spoil a mould by scamping the work in it, but not easy to spoil it by overbeating. After giving a coat of paste with a brush, it is advisable to work in the paste with the fingers, so as to be sure, from the smooth feeling, that it penetrates the paper over the whole surface.
‘After the first coat of paste has been applied, a good deal of time may be saved by employing an assistant to beat out the paper for the further thickening of the mould, for when thus beaten out, two or three thicknesses of paper can be laid on at the same time. Take about six sheets together from the water, fold them, and then double them twice, and slightly tear the wet doubled edges, so that when the sheets are laid open again there are a number of small slits in the paper; then lay them out together on any flat surface, and beat them out with a brush for a few minutes. It is easy to separate them again into the required number of sheets in thickness.
‘Another method which is equally good, if not better than the last, is, after making the tears in the doubled sheets as before, to unfold them, and then to roll them together and twist them up like a rope, and rub them well between the hands; then unroll them and beat them out for a moment, separating as many sheets as are required. Either of these processes loosens the fibre of the paper, whilst the slits prevent it stretching unevenly. After this treatment it feels to the touch more like wet leather than paper.
‘As the mould grows thicker the pulpy paper will, from the continual beating, find its way into, and fill up, the deeper cutting; but it should be most carefully watched that the mould is not left too thin over the more prominent parts of the surface, and, with a little practice, the thickness is easily judged by the touch. It is always well to use the fingers frequently both in pressing the paper into its place and working in the paste.
‘It is difficult to lay down any rule as to the thickness of a mould and the number of coatings of paste necessary. If the mould is of large size, and the carving presents prominent angles or large curves, it may need an average of thirty sheets in thickness to preserve its shape, and three or four coatings of paste; but if the carving is in low-relief on a flat surface, less than half the thickness will suffice.
‘In hot weather, out of doors, a mould will take about twenty-four hours to dry; but it should be covered up at night from the dew. In damp forests or in bad weather I have dried most of my moulds by building up large wood fires at the distance of a few feet from the sculpture.
‘It is best to take off a mould when it is cool—in the morning or evening. Don’t be in a hurry about it.
‘If the mould is torn or broken in taking it off the carving, mend it with paste at once.
‘When a mould is taken off, lay it to dry in the sun on a flat surface, as there is usually some moisture left in it. If the mould is not flat in shape, support it carefully, so as to preserve the contours.
‘When the mould is quite dry, it is advisable, but not necessary, to give it, both back and front, one or more coats of boiled linseed oil. Heat this oil before applying it, and it will then soak in well, and use either a soft brush, and be careful, in oiling the surface of the mould, not to rub too hard. As the paper easily absorbs moisture, the moulds need to be carefully packed.’ Plaster casts can be taken very successfully from paper moulds. See directions for casting above.
(c) Rubbing can only be practised on a fairly smooth surface, and has nothing to recommend it except the ease and celerity with which it can be done. The traveller may as well carry a little heel-ball in his kit. Any thin, tough paper will do.
Planning and drawing are dealt with in Vol. I. of these ‘Hints.’ Copying, as distinct from either, applies to inscriptions. A hand-copy of an inscription as well as a mechanical reproduction should always be made, partly because it has the better chance of surviving the accidents of travel, partly because, if a stone surface is at all perished, anyone with a keen eye and power of concentration ought to see more lettering on its worn parts than will appear on a photograph or ‘squeeze.’ The copy should be as near a facsimile on a reduced scale as time and other considerations will allow. It should be made on ruled paper, if possible on paper ruled in squares (en quadrille), and the relative position of the letters to one another must be kept as far as possible. All broken parts of letters are to be scrupulously copied (they can often be distinguished from stone-flaws by feeling along the bottom of the groove with a knife-blade; if that finds an even line, the groove is probably part of a letter), and all intervals where letters have perished beyond the copyist’s power to recover them should be measured, and by comparison of equal intervals containing decipherable letters in other parts of the inscription, the number of lost letters can be estimated. These should be indicated by dots in a shaded patch. Letters, about which the copyist is not quite certain, must be dotted or drawn in faint line. If a stone be imperfect at the sides, and there be any means of estimating its original breadth, the line of its true centre should be marked on the copy. Such an observation will be invaluable to the restorer of the text. All letters that have peculiar forms should be carefully drawn at least once, as specimens. If the text is grouped about, among, or in any relation to, sculptures, such relation should be indicated, even if the whole sculpture be not drawn. Marks of punctuation or division, ligatures of one letter with another, and ornate initials and finials, should be looked out for and noted. On beginning a copy it is well to transcribe first the most obviously easy parts of the inscription: they will give an inkling of the character of the text, teach the forms of lettering used, and accustom the eye to the inscribed surface. On finishing a copy, if there be time, read it over, try to translate it, and in the light of the probable translation, attack again the harder parts of the inscription. In the case of stones with two or more texts inscribed one over the other (as frequently happens on Roman milestones, which may be geographical documents of great importance), a ‘squeeze’ must be got at all costs, for an untrained copyist will make little or nothing of them, and find it very difficult to draw an accurate hand facsimile.
It is impossible to make too many notes of a monument, and quite easy to make too few. The nature of the great majority of such notes must be left to the discretion of the traveller; but concerning all antiquities, from buildings to beads, it may be said that, at any rate, material, colour, dimensions, condition of preservation, arrangement of parts and character of ornament must be jotted down in the ever ready note-book. In the case of buildings, notes giving all dimensions are especially important, since the camera can seldom be brought to bear on all parts and details, and there is often not opportunity to draw out a plan on the spot. Of inscriptions certain facts must be recorded, viz., form of the stone; condition of its surface; the material and colour; on what sides complete, and on what not; actual dimensions; height of lettering; general character of lettering; whether well or ill cut, plain or ornate. Epigraphists’ notebooks are procurable in Germany and Austria containing divisions for the notes on all these points, together with a ruled space for the actual inscription. In the case of coins, the material, the ancient value, the weight (if possible), the state of preservation, and the images and superscriptions should be noted; of sculpture, the material, the dimensions, the degree of finish, and a minute analysis of the subject, the dress of the figure or figures, their gestures, attributes, and so forth.
The traveller will not have occasion to render more than ‘First Aid’ to objects of antiquity, i.e. to clean them so that their true character may appear, and to consolidate them with a view to safe transport. He should do the least that is absolutely necessary, leaving all elaborate treatment to experts at home. The hints here given are therefore elementary, and concerned mainly with portable objects. In this connection these are best classified by the materials of which they are made.
(a) Gold.—Gold requires no immediate treatment, unless it be laid over a core of other metal, e.g. copper or bronze, which has oxidised out through cracks. This oxide can usually be removed by picking or by sharp scaling blows with a small hammer and chisel. If it is obstinate, use dilute hydrochloric acid laid on with a brush. The proportion of pure acid should not be more than one part to ten of water.
(b) Silver.—If in very much corroded condition, technically known as ‘dead,’ silver should be left alone. If there is only slight superficial corrosion, soak in a solution of common salt or lemon juice, or strong ammonia, and polish after a few hours. If there is a good deal of chloride on the surface, but the body of the metal seems sound, put zinc or iron in the solvent and the chlorine will pass over, leaving a powdery surface which can be brushed clean. Silver should never be packed in a tin box, even if wrapped up, or it will be found on arrival at home to be stained with a brown rust, very difficult to remove. Pack in wood or cardboard.
(c) Copper and Bronze.—Both copper and bronze objects are best cleaned, if possible, with hammer and burin. Bronze, however, which the traveller will meet with most often, is frequently covered with a corrosion which cannot be scaled off at once, and calls for an acid solvent. Diluted hydrochloric (1:10) will act most quickly and effectually, but it leaves a white oxy-chloride coat, not easily got rid of either from the metal or the fingers of the operator, which it stains deeply. On the whole, we recommend that (1) if the bronze be badly cracked it be left alone; (2) if not cracked, but covered with very hard corrosion, soaking in a weak solvent like lemon-juice be tried; and (3) after that (or before, if the corrosion will yield to a tool at all) every effort be made to pick or flake off the corrosion, after which the object should be rubbed well with oil in the palms of the hands.
(d) Lead and Iron, after oiling, are both best left alone by the traveller.
(e) Stone.—The traveller will seldom or never be under the necessity to treat stone surfaces, except in the case of inscribed marbles on which carbonate of lime has formed, or small objects attacked by salt. The former can be cleaned with strong acid; the latter must be soaked in water for long periods, and when drying laid with the most important surface downwards, so that evaporation into the air may take place through the less important surfaces.
(f) Pottery and Terra-cotta.—The same enemies, carbonate of lime and salt, attack pottery and terra-cotta, and are met in the same way as in the case of stone; but the hydrochloric or other acid solvent should be weaker, and where there is colour be very cautiously used, if at all. In packing vases, it should be remembered that if many are put into one case without partitions, and one collapses, this will probably entail the breaking of the lot. Large vases should be filled with tightly rammed packing. Nothing of heavier or more solid material, e.g., stone, should be put in a case with pottery.
(g) Wood, Ivory, and Bone.—These materials are generally found flaked, split, or scaly, and need consolidation before packing. The methods most likely to be open to the traveller are: (1) if the objects are not excessively tender, to dip them in melted vaseline, let this set, wrap in tissue paper and pack carefully in cotton wool; (2) if the objects are very tender or rotten with salt, to make a stiff jelly, drop them in before it sets, and convey them home in aspic. On the way the jelly will absorb the salt. In addition to either process, it is often well to bind the object in every direction and part with fine thread to keep it from splitting, or prevent the sections, if already split, falling apart and splintering or warping in different directions. If there is crystalline carbonate of lime on the surface of bone or ivory, it had better not be touched except by experts.
(h) Papyrus.—Papyrus needs damping and flattening out as far as possible without breaking its fibre. Lay it between two damp towels, and after flattening, pack it between sheets of paper in close tin boxes, filling each box up tightly. But the traveller will be wise not to try too much. As soon as the edges of his roll or fragment cease to be brittle to the touch he had best leave the papyrus as it is without further unrolling, and pack very carefully away.
(j) Glass, Glazed Objects, Pastes, Amber, Various Compositions.—None of these should the traveller try to treat. Glass must be left wholly alone if in a flaking state; other objects, if flaky or powdery, will, at least, be no worse for having been dipped in melted vaseline than they would be in any case, after transport.
No general hints can be usefully given about either the methods of discovering antiquities or those of detecting forgeries. It is not supposed that the travellers here addressed will undertake regular excavations. Should they propose to do so, they will need special training and much more elaborate instruction. Mr. Petrie’s ‘Methods and Aims’ will supply much of the latter, but the tyro excavator will not have Mr. Petrie’s success without serving a long apprenticeship.
The above hints will serve for the traveller who takes antiquities by the way and in the day’s work, having other objects more in view. For him the following list of necessities will suffice:—
1. Long extension camera and all photographic requisites, including, if possible, a stand and frame for overhead photography (v. p. 52).
2. ‘Squeeze’ paper, brushes with hand-straps or curved handles, and tin cylinders for carrying the paper and moulds; heel-ball, sealing-wax, tin-foil, beeswax.
3. Planning and drawing outfit.
4. Notebooks ruled en quadrille, magnifying-glass and hand-mirror.
5. Small hammer and chisels for metal work, hydrochloric acid, ammonia, emery-paper, tissue paper, burin, plate brushes, sheet zinc, vaseline, cotton-wool (not raw cotton-waste with hard seeds in it).