1035 On the death of Sancho el Mayor of Navarre his territories are divided among his sons, and Ramiro I succeeds to a small Pyrenean district called Aragon in the northwestern corner of the modern province in the territory of the ancient Vascones. Ramiro by his wars with the Moors extends his borders, absorbing Sobrarbe and Ribagorza, and reducing several Moorish governors to the condition of tributaries. He consents to adopt the Roman ritual and to send tribute to the pope.

1067 Sancho Ramirez.

1076 On the murder of Sancho III of Navarre, Sancho Ramirez and Alfonso VI of Castile invade Navarre, and Sancho becomes king of Navarre as Sancho IV. He conquers several cities from the Moors, commences a war with the emir of Saragossa, and dies while besieging Huesca.

1094 Pedro I.

1096 Battle of Alcoraz. Pedro wins a decisive victory over the Moors of Saragossa and their Castilian allies, and takes Huesca.

1104 Alfonso (I), el Batallador (the Fighter), and the Emperor.

1109 Death of Alfonso VI of Castile. His daughter Urraca, the wife of Alfonso I, el Batallador, succeeds, and her husband is acknowledged as Alfonso VII of Leon and Castile. He quarrels with his wife, and constant civil war is the result to Castile.

1118 Saragossa taken by el Batallador after a five years’ siege. It becomes the capital of Aragon.

1120 Battle of Daroca. El Batallador defeats an Almoravid army, takes Tarragona and Calatayud, and invades Andalusia.

1126 Death of Urraca. Castile is definitely separated from Aragon under Alfonso VII (Raymond) of Castile and Leon, Urraca’s son by her first husband.

1130 Bordeaux besieged and taken by Alfonso I. He resumes his war against the Moors.

1133 Representatives of the cities summoned to the cortes.

1134 Alfonso is defeated at Fraga and dies soon after, bequeathing his dominions to the knights of the Temple and St. John. His subjects refuse to recognise his will and his brother, Ramiro (II) the Monk, is persuaded to leave his monastery and accept the crown of Aragon, while the Navarrese choose Garcia (IV) Ramirez as king.

1137 Petronilla, Ramiro’s infant daughter, betrothed to Raymond, count of Catalonia, who is appointed regent of Aragon. Catalonia thus becomes absorbed in Aragon, and Ramiro retires to a cloister.

1140 Navarre invaded by Raymond in conjunction with Alfonso VII of Castile, but without success, and on the conclusion of peace the three sovereigns make alliance against the Moors and capture various cities, Raymond acquiring Fraga, Lerida, and Tortosa.

1150 Marriage of Raymond and Petronilla.

1162 Death of Raymond. Petronilla abdicates in favour of her son Alfonso II, who acquires Roussillon by inheritance and wins Teruel and other fortresses from the Moors. In this reign cortes were held and attended by the four estates of the realm (1163, 1164).

1196 Pedro II.

1203 Coronation of Pedro by the pope. Aragon is constituted a papal fief, and Pedro promises to pay tribute to the holy see, but

1205 the estates of Saragossa repudiate the transaction.

1208 The Albigensian crusade. Pedro refuses to declare for either party, but turns his arms against the Moors and shares the glory at the great Christian victory of

1212 Las Navas de Tolosa.

1213 He endeavours to mediate between the Albigensians and the crusaders, but fails and lays siege to the latter’s city of Muret, when he is slain in a battle with Simon de Montfort. James (I) the Conqueror, known as Don Jayme of Aragon (in Catalonian En Jacme, lo Conqueridor), succeeds at the age of six. The usual civil wars occupy his minority, but finally he triumphs over all rebels.

1228 Balearic Islands, the haunt of Moorish pirates, attacked and subdued after a four years’ war.

1232 Valencia invaded.

1238 Conquest of Valencia completed. The Moors are guaranteed security and religious liberty.

1264-1266 Murcia reconquered by James for his son-in-law, Alfonso X of Castile.

1268 By the execution of Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, Constanza, wife of James’ son, Pedro (III), and daughter of Manfred, king of Sicily, becomes heiress of Sicily, now in the hands of the usurper, Charles of Anjou.

1269 Preparations for a crusade to the Holy Land headed by James. The king is turned back by a storm, but his son, Fernan Sanchez, proceeds to Acre. Like Alfonso X of Castile, James left a chronicle or commentary of his reign (afterwards continued by Raymond Muntaner), as well as a book of aphorisms called the Libre de Saviesa, both written in the Catalan language.

1276 Pedro (III) the Great. The Balearic Islands with Roussillon. Montpellier, etc., are converted by the will of James I into a separate kingdom of Majorca for his younger son, James I of Majorca. Pedro prepares to invade Sicily.

1282 The Sicilian Vespers, in which the native population massacre twenty-eight thousand Frenchmen. Charles of Anjou lays siege to Messina. Pedro of Aragon comes to its relief and is proclaimed king of Sicily. Roger de Lauria, Pedro’s admiral, with a few ships destroys the French fleet.

1283 The Aragonese cortes protest against the king’s wars and exact the General Privilege, the Magna Charta of Aragon, confirming their liberties. The pope excommunicates

1284 Pedro. De Lauria takes Malta and destroys the fleet in the Bay of Naples. The pope, Martin IV, proclaims a crusade against Aragon and bestows the kingdom on the French prince, Charles of Valois. The Aragonese are reluctant to oppose Rome.

1285 The crusaders invade the kingdom, but after taking and sacking several cities the army breaks up. Charles of Anjou dies, leaving his claims to his son Charles II. Pedro dies, leaving Sicily to his younger son James and Aragon to Alfonso III. Majorca subdued by Alfonso.

1287 The “Privilege of Union” granted, authorising armed rebellion against the sovereign who shall infringe his subjects’ liberties.

1291 As a result of negotiations conducted by Edward I of England, Alfonso is reconciled to the pope and Sicily is abandoned by James, who immediately after, on the death of Alfonso, succeeds to Aragon as James II. He makes his brother Frederick (Fadrique) his lieutenant in Sicily.

1295 Alliance between James and Charles of Anjou.

1296 The pope invests James with Sardinia and Corsica, occupied at the time by the Genoese and Pisans. The deserted Sicilians give the crown to Frederick. The king of Aragon assists Charles in his attempts to recover Sicily, but abandons the enterprise after several successes.

1302 Peace between Frederick and Charles by which the former retains Sicily, the latter Naples.

1303 The Catalan Grand Company is formed by Roger di Flor from the disbanded mercenaries (chiefly Aragonese and Catalan) of Frederick and takes service with the Greek emperor Andronicus II.

1319 Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia declared inseparable.

1324 Sardinia invaded by James. With the aid of the grand justice of Arborea, Marian IV, the Pisans are expelled. The grand justice turns his arms against the Aragonese and the war is continued under

1327 Alfonso IV, when the Genoese assist the islanders and ravage the coasts of Catalonia.

1336 Pedro IV refuses to recognise the claims of his stepmother, Leonora of Castile, and her sons, Juan and Ferdinand, to the appanages assigned them under Alfonso’s will, and thus involves himself in civil disputes and a war with Castile. He offends the clergy by crowning himself instead of being crowned by the archbishop of Saragossa.

1343 Invasion of Majorca by Pedro. The islanders welcome him, deserting James II of Majorca. Pedro conquers James’ French possessions.

1344 Balearic Islands formally annexed to Aragon.

1347 Attempt of Pedro to secure the succession to his daughter Constanza in preference to his brother James, in defiance of the Salic law as established by James I. League of nobles and cities in a union in favor of James. The Sardinians backed by the Genoese and Pisans seize the occasion to revolt. A second union formed in Valencia under the infante Ferdinand. At the cortes of Saragossa Pedro is compelled to promise to hold annual meetings of the estates, to select his advisers with their approval, and to recognise James as his heir. Death of James. Pedro wins over the Catalans and at the

1348 battle of Epila defeats the union. He annuls the “Privilege of Union” of 1287, but enlarges the powers of the justiciar. Leonora and her son Juan take refuge in Castile, where both are subsequently murdered by Pedro the Cruel.

1349 James of Majorca attempts to recover the Balearic Islands, but fails and dies soon after. Pedro defeats the Sardinian rebels, and allies himself with Venice against Genoa.

1350 The era of Spain ceases to be used in Aragon.

1352 The Venetian and Catalonian fleets defeated by the Genoese, who renew their encouragement of the Sardinians. The Genoese fleet defeated in the Thracian Bosphorus by the fleets of Catalonia and Venice.

1354 The Sardinian estates are convoked by Pedro at Cagliari, but fail to pacify the belligerents.

1356 War with Castile. The king of Aragon supports Henry of Trastamara and the other Castilian rebels.

1363 A peace concluded with Castile in accordance with which Pedro of Aragon murders his own brother Ferdinand. War with Castile renewed.

1368 The justice of Arborea defeats the Aragonese in Sardinia and maintains himself till the Genoese come to his aid (1373). After his death the struggle is continued with less vigour by his son, and when the latter is put to death by his own people the war is prosecuted by his sister Leonora with whom Pedro effects an agreement in 1386.

1377 Death of Frederick king of Sicily. Pedro claims the throne, but is eventually satisfied with the marriage of the heiress Maria with his grandson Martin.

1387 Juan I. Trial of the king’s stepmother Sybilla for witchcraft. Some of her friends executed.

1392 Aragonese troops under the king’s brother Martin sent to Sicily to quell a revolt against Queen Maria and her husband, Martin’s son, the younger Martin.

1395 Martin succeeds to Aragon. The count de Foix, husband of the late king’s eldest daughter, invades the kingdom to assert her rights, but finds no supporters. Martin, having pacified Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, returns to Spain. Pope Boniface IX,

1397 in revenge for the recognition by Aragon of the anti-pope Benedict XIII (Pedro de Luna), confers Sardinia and Sicily on the count de Molinets.

1401 Death of Maria of Sicily. She is succeeded by her husband, the younger Martin, who,

1402 the following year, marries Blanche, heiress of Navarre.

1409 Martin of Sicily suppresses the rebellion in Sardinia. He dies without issue. Blanche becomes regent of Sicily.

1410 Interregnum, consequent on the death of Martin of Aragon without direct heirs. During two years the country is distracted by the conflicts of rival claimants to the throne till, at the instance of the justiciar Juan de Cerda, a commission is selected from the cortes of the three provinces of Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia which names the infante Ferdinand, regent of Castile, and he receives the crowns of Aragon and Sicily as

1412 Ferdinand (I) the Just. He subdues a rebellion of the count of Urgel and maintains tranquillity in the kingdom till his death in

1416 when he is succeeded by his son Alfonso (V) the Magnanimous.

1417 Reduction of Corsica attempted by Alfonso without much success.

1420 Joanna, queen of Naples, adopts Alfonso on condition of his defending her dominions against the duke of Anjou, which he does with success.

1423 Joanna quarrels with Alfonso and adopts Louis of Anjou in his place.

1425 Death of Charles III of Navarre. He is succeeded by Blanche and her husband Juan, brother of Alfonso of Aragon.

1432 Juan appointed regent of Aragon. Alfonso sets out to recover Naples.

1435 Joanna of Naples dies, bequeathing her kingdom to René of Anjou. Alfonso besieges Gaeta, but is defeated in a naval battle. Himself, the king of Navarre, and his brother Henry become the prisoners of the duke of Milan, who immediately releases them. Don Pedro of Aragon takes Gaeta. In the next few years Alfonso makes himself master of the kingdom of Naples.

1442 The office of justiciar declared tenable for life. Blanche of Navarre dies. Juan retains the title of king of Navarre, while her son, Charles of Viana, becomes ruler.

1443 Ferdinand, Alfonso’s illegitimate son, recognised as heir of Naples by Pope Eugenius IV.

1447 Juan of Navarre marries Juana Henriquez and subsequently appoints her co-regent of Navarre. She quarrels with Charles of Viana.

1452 Battle of Aybar. Juan defeats and captures Charles. Reconciliation of Juan and Charles. Birth of Juan’s younger son, Ferdinand the Catholic.

1458 Death of Alfonso V. Aragon, Sicily, and Sardinia pass to the king of Navarre, Juan II. Charles of Viana refuses to supplant Ferdinand of Naples.

1461 Charles imprisoned by his father. The Catalans revolt in his favour and compel his recognition as Juan’s heir. Death of Charles.

1462 The Catalans declare a republic and besiege the queen and Ferdinand in Gerona. Roussillon and Cerdagne pledged to Louis XI of France, who comes to the help of Juan; whereupon the rebels offer the Catalan crown first to Henry IV of Castile and then to Pedro, constable of Portugal.

1466 Pedro dies. The Catalans offer the crown to René of Anjou who

1467 sends his son John of Calabria to Barcelona.

1468 Ferdinand declared king of Sicily and associated with his father in the government of Aragon.

1469 Marriage of Ferdinand with Isabella of Castile.

1470 Death of John of Calabria. Catalonia is gradually reduced.

1472 Barcelona submits.

1473 The inhabitants of Roussillon revolt against the French and massacre them. Roussillon occupied by Juan. The French besiege him in Perpignan, which is relieved by Ferdinand. By a treaty with Louis the king of Aragon promises to pay within the year the sum for which Roussillon was pledged.

1474 The French invade Roussillon.

1475 Perpignan surrenders to the French. The inhabitants compelled to emigrate.

1479 Death of Juan II. Ferdinand (II) the Catholic inherits his dominions which are henceforth united with those of Castile.

805 The valley of Andorra appears in history as a neutral country, Charlemagne founding the free state and placing it under the lordship of Urgel.

1170 Suzerainty of Andorra ceded by the counts of Urgel to the counts of Castelbo. The heiress of Castelbo marries the count de Foix.

1278 Suzerainty of Andorra divided between the counts de Foix and the bishops of Urgel.

1512 On the extinction of the house of Foix by the death of Count Gaston at the battle of Ravenna, the suzerainty of Andorra passes to Henry d’Albret, titular heir of Navarre,

1553 and on the accession of the latter’s grandson to the throne of France as Henry IV, becomes the prerogative of the French crown.

1790 Independence of Andorra recognised. The republic voluntarily returns to the French allegiance.

1866 The general council, hitherto composed of the aristocracy, becomes elective.

1882 A permanent delegate appointed to represent French authority in Andorra.

1480 Cortes of Toledo. Recall of illegal grants by which in Henry IV’s reign the public revenues had been alienated in pensions and annuities. The nobles forbidden to erect castles or assume the insignia of royalty. Duelling prohibited.

1481 The Inquisition issues an edict requiring the accusation of heretics. Autos da fé in Andalusia. Epidemic of plague. Emigration of Jews.

1482 Alhama after being captured from the Moors by the marquis of Cadiz is besieged by the king of Granada and relieved by Ferdinand. Zahara seized and its inhabitants enslaved by Abul Hassan, king of Granada. Bull of Pope Sixtus IV promising the appointment of Castilians to church dignities in their country. Loja unsuccessfully besieged by Ferdinand.

1483 Thomas de Torquemada inquisitor-general in Castile and Aragon to reconstitute the holy office. An insurrection makes Abu Abdallah (Boabdil) king of Granada. Ferdinand’s ambassadors assist in negotiating a peace between Ferrara and Venice. The pope declares a crusade against Granada. Rout in the Axarquia; a small Spanish force is destroyed by the troops of Abul Hassan. Boabdil invades the Christian territory. He is defeated and taken at the Jenil, released and becomes a tributary of Ferdinand. Ferdinand and Isabella begin a series of successful campaigns against Granada and capture one fortress after another.

1484 Inquisition revived in Aragon. Columbus arrives in Spain.

1485 Ordenanças Reales, a code of Castilian laws, promulgated. Autos da fé in Saragossa. Murder of the inquisitor, Arbues, by Jewish converts. Sanguinary punishment of all implicated.

1486 Catalan peasantry, called vassals de remenza, released from serfdom under the obligation of an annual payment.

1487 Velez Malaga, Malaga, and other cities capitulate to Ferdinand. He enslaves the Malagans.

1488 Alliance between Spain and Maximilian, king of the Romans, against France.

1489 Baza besieged and taken. Almeria submits.

1491 Law to prevent the export of the precious metals. Siege and capitulation of Granada. Boabdil confined to a narrow district in the Alpujarras. The Granadans guaranteed the preservation of their religion and their liberty.

1492 Expulsion of the Jews from Spain. Columbus persuades Isabella to grant him assistance. He is made admiral, viceroy, and governor-general of all territories he may discover. An expedition is fitted out and he starts on the 3rd of August with three vessels. Treaty with France. Charles VIII engages to restore Roussillon and Cerdagne to Aragon.

1493 Return of Columbus reporting the discovery of Hispaniola. Pope Alexander VI issues a bull confirming the sovereigns of Spain in possession of all their discoveries, past and future, in the west. A second bull divides the area for Portuguese and Spanish discoveries by a line drawn one hundred leagues west of the Azores. Second expedition of Columbus with seventeen vessels.

1494 Agreement with Portugal at Tordesillas by which the boundary of the Portuguese area of discovery is removed 370 leagues west of Cape Verd Islands. The pope confers the epithet of “Catholic” on Ferdinand and Isabella.

1495 League of Venice between Spain, Austria, Rome, Milan, and Venice for the expulsion of the French from Italy.

1496 Spanish troops under Gonsalvo de Cordova, the Great Captain, restore Ferdinand II of Naples to his throne and expel the French. Juana, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, marries Philip, son of the emperor Maximilian. Militia ordinance requiring one-twelfth of the male population between the ages of twenty and forty-five to enlist for the military and police service of Spain. Santo Domingo founded. Columbus returns from his second voyage.

1497 Death of Juan, only son of Ferdinand and Isabella.

1498 Third voyage of Columbus. He lands on the South American continent. The Santa Hermandad, having restored order in Spain, reduced to the position of an ordinary police.

1499 Ximenes de Cisneros, archbishop of Toledo, sets about the conversion of the Moors of Granada. He burns their books. Insurrection in Granada. Many Moors quit Spain. The remainder forcibly converted.

1500 Francisco Bobadilla sent out to investigate affairs in Hispaniola. He imprisons Columbus and sends him home in irons. Revolt of the Moors in the Alpujarras severely repressed. Treaty with France for the partition of Naples. Gonsalvo de Cordova recovers St. George in Cephalonia which the Turks had wrested from Venice. A navigation act prohibits the exportation of goods in foreign ships when Spanish are procurable, and forbids the sale of ships to foreigners. Columbus restored to his honours.

The Moors of Ronda revolt and

1501 destroy a Spanish force under Alonso de Aguilar. On Ferdinand’s approach they submit and are granted the alternative of exile or baptism. Gonsalvo de Cordova conquers Calabria.

1502 Expulsion from Spain of all unconverted Moors. Nicholas de Ovando sent to replace Bobadilla. Tarentum occupied by the Great Captain after a long siege. Fourth voyage of Columbus. The French declare war against the Spaniards and conquer all Calabria.

1503 Treaty of peace with France signed at Lyons. Battle of Cerignola. Gonsalvo defeats the French and occupies Naples. The French invade Roussillon, but are forced to retreat by Ferdinand, who takes several frontier fortresses. Gonsalvo defeats the French at the Garigliano.

1504 Peace of Lyons. The French abandon Naples to Spain. Death of Isabella. Philip I and Juana la Loca or the Mad proclaimed her successors in Castile. Ferdinand assumes the administration in accordance with Isabella’s will and on the ground of Juana’s mental incapacity. Columbus returns from his last voyage.

1506 Death of Columbus. Ferdinand resigns the government of Castile to Philip, who excites discontent by his extravagance and his Flemish favourites. The proceeding of the Inquisition excite disturbances in Andalusia. Death of Philip. Ferdinand receives the homage of the Neapolitans.

1507 Ferdinand resumes the government of Castile. Ximenes appointed inquisitor-general of Castile.

1508 Ferdinand joins the league of Cambray formed by the French king and the emperor against Venice and retakes five Neapolitan cities pledged to Venice.

1509 An expedition led to Africa by Ximenes conquers Oran.

1511 Holy League between Pope Julius II, Ferdinand, and Venice to drive the French from Italy. Conquest of Cuba.

1512 Battle of Ravenna. The allies defeated by the French under Gaston de Foix. Gaston slain; the French retreat from Italy. Venice makes peace with France. Ferdinand demands a free passage through Navarre for the invasion of France. Alliance between France and Navarre. Pamplona taken by the Spaniards. Jean d’Albret, king of Navarre, fails to recover it.

1513 Navarre submits to Ferdinand. Florida discovered by Ponce de Leon. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean.

1515 Navarre formally incorporated with Castile.

1516 Ferdinand dies. Ximenes regent of Castile, and the archbishop of Saragossa regent of Aragon. Charles I (afterwards the emperor Charles V) proclaimed king in Castile. French invasion of Navarre repulsed. The Inquisition is established in Oran, the Canaries, and the New World. Las Casas obtains the sending of a commission to inquire into the ill-treatment of the Indians in Hispaniola. It effects little. Peace of Noyon. France abandons her claims to Naples.

1517 Charles lands in Spain and dismisses Ximenes.

1518 The Castilian cortes acknowledge Charles as joint ruler with his mother. Aragon and Catalonia delay to do this. The favour shown his Flemish favourites and their exactions disgust the Spaniards.

1519 Ferdinand Cortes begins the conquest of Mexico. Several leading Castilian cities form a confederation to defend their privileges. Death of the emperor Maximilian. Charles elected emperor of Germany.

1520 The citizens of Valencia revolt against the oppressions of the nobles and are authorised by Charles to continue in arms. They form an association called the Germandada (Germania) or brotherhood. Luther burns the papal bull excommunicating him. The Castilian cortes with difficulty induced to grant a subsidy. Charles, having appointed Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht his viceroy, leaves Spain without redressing the grievances submitted to him. Several of the cities of Castile, under the leadership of Juan de Padilla, revolt against their deputies, appoint their own magistrates, levy troops, and league together as the “holy junta.” Padilla goes to Juana at Tordesillas. The junta acts in her name. The royalists rescue Juana. The Germandada in Valencia carries on a successful and desolating war against the nobles.

1521 Battle of Villalar. Padilla defeated, taken, and executed. Valencia taken and the leaders of the Germandada executed. Charles opens the Diet of Worms. Treaty of Charles with the pope for the expulsion of the French from the Milanese. The junta breaks up; Toledo holds out for a time under Padilla’s widow. Its fall signalises the end of the freedom of the Castilian cities. Conquest of Mexico completed by Cortes. Navarre occupied by the French. They invade Castile. The Castilians recover Navarre. The populace of Majorca, having revolted against the nobles, are subdued after a long struggle. Treaty with Henry VIII of England. Charles agrees to invade France from Spain. The emperor’s troops drive the French from Milan. Death of Leo X.

1522 Adrian of Utrecht elected pope as Adrian VI. The French fail in an attempt to recover the Milanese. League between Charles, the pope, Venice, and other Italian cities against France.

1523 The cortes grant supplies before presenting their petitions. Adrian VI dies. Clement VII pope. Ferdinand Cortes empowered to conquer all New Spain.

1524 The council of the Indies formed for the administration of the Spanish colonies. The Moors of Valencia request permission to exercise their own worship. On being refused many emigrate, and others revolt and are not finally subdued till 1526. Expulsion of the French from the Milanese. Francis I of France attempts to recover it and is defeated and taken by the imperial troops at the

1525 battle of Pavia.

1526 The Moors of Granada permitted to purchase freedom from the worst penalties of the Inquisition. Treaty of Madrid. Francis resigns his claims in Italy, Flanders, and Artois and concludes a perpetual league with Charles. Holy League of Cognac between the pope, France, England, Venice, and Sforza, duke of Milan, to restore Sforza to the Milanese. The pope and the French attack Naples.

1527 Charles’ troops ravage the papal territories and take Rome. Sack of Rome. Clement taken prisoner. The cortes refuse a grant to Charles.

1528 The French besiege Naples, but are driven by disease to retreat.

1529 Battle of Landriano. Spaniards defeat the French. Francis Pizarro commissioned to conquer and govern Peru. Treaty of Cambray called “The Ladies’ Peace.” Francis I agrees to ransom his sons and resign his pretensions to Flanders, Artois, and all places in Italy. Charles goes to Italy, makes peace with Venice, and with the dukes of Milan and Ferrara.

1530 Charles receives the iron crown of Lombardy and is crowned emperor by the pope. Florence taken. Charles makes Alessandro de’ Medici its absolute ruler. He summons the Diet of Augsburg to settle religious questions and prepare for war with the Turks.

1531 Ferdinand, brother of Charles, elected king of the Romans.

1533 Pizarro establishes his authority in the capital of Peru.

1535 Expedition to Tunis in conjunction with Portugal, Genoa, the pope, and the knights of Malta. The usurper Barbarossa is expelled and the king Mulei Hassan restored as a vassal of Spain. Ten thousand Christian slaves released. Francis I invades Savoy. Its duke appeals to Charles. Death of the duke of Milan. Charles takes possession of the duchy. Colony of Buenos Ayres founded by Pedro de Mendoza.

1536 Francis occupies Piedmont. Provence invaded by Charles, who finds it already desolated by the French, and retreats in disorder.

1537 French invasion of the Netherlands. Truce with France.

1538 It is extended for ten years (Truce of Nice). Mutiny amongst Charles’ troops in Milan, Sicily, and Africa. Their generals borrow money to pacify them. Cortes of Toledo. The deputies protest against the extravagance of Charles’ foreign wars, and the nobles claim their privilege of exemption from taxation. Charles dismisses the estates. This was the last occasion on which nobles and prelates were summoned. The cortes was henceforth reduced to a meeting of the deputies of eighteen cities.

1539 Revolt of the citizens of Ghent.

1540 Charles marches to Ghent and represses the rebellion with great severity. Order of Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534, is confirmed by the pope.

1541 The ambassadors of France murdered by Charles’ governor of the Milanese. Francis I demands reparation and prepares for war. Expedition led by Charles against the pirates of Algiers. Great part of the fleet destroyed in a storm. The army returns, having accomplished nothing. Conquest of Chili begun and Santiago founded by Pedro de Valdivia.

1542 Perpignan besieged by the French and successfully defended by the duke of Alva.

1543 Alliance with Henry VIII. War between Charles and Francis in the Netherlands.

1544 Battle of Cerisole in Piedmont. The imperialists are defeated by the French. Charles invades France in conjunction with Henry VIII. Peace of Crespy. Charles renounces all claim to Burgundy and Francis to Naples, Flanders, and Artois.

1545 The pope grants Charles half the ecclesiastical revenues of Spain.

1547 Battle of Mühlberg. Charles defeats the Smalkaldic League.

1551 League between Henry II of France and the Protestant princes of Germany.

1552 Charles compelled to fly from Innsbruck. The French seize Toul, Verdun, and Metz. By the Peace of Passau, Charles grants religious liberty to the German Protestants. Charles besieges Metz but fails to take it.

1554 Charles cedes Naples to his son Philip. Philip marries Mary, queen of England.

1555 Philip invested with the sovereignty of the Netherlands.

1556 Philip invested with the sovereignty of Spain as Philip II. His possessions embrace Spain, Naples, Sicily, Milan, Franche-Comté, the Netherlands, Tunis, the Barbary coast, Canaries, Cape Verd Islands, Philippines, Spice Islands, West Indian colonies and territories in Mexico and Peru. Truce of Vaucelles arranges five years’ peace with France. Charles resigns the empire to his brother Ferdinand and retires to San Yuste. Pope Paul IV persuades Henry II of France to break the truce of Vaucelles and excommunicates Charles and Philip. Alva invades the papal states.

1557 Philip visits England and persuades Mary to declare war on France. St. Quentin captured by Spaniards and English. Peace with Paul IV.

1558 Spanish victory of Gravelines. Death of Charles V. Death of Mary of England.

1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis between Spain and England and France. Philip marries Elizabeth of France. Margaret of Parma regent of the Netherlands. Philip assembles a force to recover Tripoli for the Knights of Malta.

1560 It captures Los Gelves in the Gulf of Khabes. A Turkish fleet routs the Spaniards, and takes sixty-five vessels.

1561 A new fleet, collected to oppose the Turks, dispersed and partly destroyed by a storm. Turks ravage the Spanish coast.

1563 The Castilian cortes protest in vain against the Inquisition. The Moriscos forbidden to carry arms.

1564 The pirate stronghold of Peñon de los Velez in Fez captured.

1565 Siege of Malta by the Turks. The Spanish fleet relieves Malta.

1566 The Flemish nobles band together under the name of the “Gueux” to resist the Inquisition. Tumult and wrecking of Catholic churches. The rebellion suppressed.

1567 The prince of Orange goes over to the Protestants. The duke of Alva succeeds Margaret of Parma as regent of the Netherlands and institutes a reign of terror. The Spanish Moriscos forbidden their distinctive costume, language, and customs.

1568 The Aragonese cortes wring from Philip an act limiting ecclesiastical interference in civil causes. Death of Philip’s only son Don Carlos. The “Gueux” defeated at Jemmingen. Revolt of the Moriscos in the Alpujarras. They devastate Granada and are defeated by the governor, Mondejar, in the

1569 pass of Alfajarali; massacre of the rebels. The English seize the Spanish treasure ships. Don John of Austria, son of Charles V, commissioned to end the Morisco war.

1570 He takes Golera. Moriscos expelled from Andalusia.

1571 League of Spain, Rome, and Venice against the Turks. Battle of Lepanto. The allies under Don John crush the naval power of the Turks.

1572 Briel and Mons captured by the Gueux. The states of Holland declare the prince of Orange stadholder of Holland, Friesland, and Zealand. Successes of Alva.

1573 The supplies furnished by the Castilian cortes declared a tribute legally due to the sovereign. Defeat of Alva’s fleet. Alva recalled. Tunis captured by Don John. He adds to the fortifications.

1574 The Turks recover Tunis and massacre the garrison.

1576 “Spanish fury” or sack of Antwerp by the Spaniards. By the pacification of Ghent, the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands agree to unite to defend their liberties and expel the Spaniards. Don John sent to govern the Netherlands.

1577 By the Perpetual Edict Philip recognises the Pacification of Ghent. The southern provinces of the Netherlands withdraw from the union.

1578 Battle of Gembloux. Don John and Alessandro Farnese defeat the revolted Netherlanders. Death of Don John. Death of Sebastian, king of Portugal. Philip claims the throne.

1579 Union of Utrecht between the seven northern provinces of the Netherlands.

1580 Death of Henry of Portugal. Portugal conquered and reduced to a province of Spain. Spaniards join a papal invasion of Ireland and are massacred at Smerwick.

1581 The Netherlands declare their independence.

1584 Farnese takes Ghent.

1585 The Catholic party in France, headed by the Guises, forms a league with Philip for the extirpation of heresy in France and the Low Countries. Farnese reduces Antwerp. England sends help to the United Provinces.

1587 Drake burns the shipping at Cadiz.

1588 The Spanish Armada sails, is defeated by the English, and dispersed by storms.

1589 Farnese repulsed from Bergen-op-Zoom. An expedition from England under the Portuguese claimant Don Antonio invades Portugal, pillages Corunna, and retreats. Perez arraigned for the murder of Escovedo. He escapes to Aragon and appeals to its fueros (privileges). His prosecution abandoned.

1590 Increase of the excise on food, termed “the millions.” Battle of Ivry; Henry IV of France defeats the league and its Spanish auxiliaries. Philip claims the French throne for his daughter by Elizabeth of Valois. A Spanish force under Farnese is sent to the relief of Paris, but quarrels with the league.

1591 Perez arrested by the Inquisition. The mob rise against it. Perez escapes to France. Philip punishes the rioters who had attacked the Inquisition. Its power increases. Part of fueros of Aragon abolished.

1592 Farnese relieves Rouen, is deserted by the league, and escapes from Henry IV with heavy loss.

1594 Groningen, the last stronghold of the Spaniards in the United Provinces, taken by the stadholder.

1596 Cadiz sacked by Essex.

1597 The stadholder defeats the Spaniards at Turnhout. Philip repudiates his debts.

1598 Peace of Vervins with Henry IV. Death of Philip. The Netherlands pass to his daughter Isabella, and the rest of his possessions to his son Philip III.

1599 A second armada sails for England and is beaten back by a storm.

1601 Increase of “the millions.” An expedition sent to assist Tyrone in Ireland fails.

1602 Persia joins Spain in a war against Turkey. Plundering of the coast and islands in the Mediterranean.

1604 Peace with England. The “archdukes” (Isabella and her husband Albert) capture Ostend after a three years’ siege.

1605 First part of Don Quixote published.

1607 Spanish fleet destroyed in a fight with the Dutch off Gibraltar. Eight months’ truce with the United Provinces. Spain and the “archdukes” resign their claims to the provinces.

1609 Twelve years’ truce with the United Provinces. The Moriscos expelled from Spain with the loss of all property save what they could carry with them. With them Spain loses her most industrious inhabitants. Henry IV of France organises a league against Spain in conjunction with the Italian states, England, the German Protestants, and the United Provinces.

1610 Murder of Henry IV.

1612 Philip’s daughter Anne married to Louis XIII and his son Philip to Elizabeth de Bourbon. The princesses renounce their respective claims to the kingdoms of Spain and France.

1615 The duke of Savoy invades Lombardy and is defeated by Hinojosa, viceroy of Milan. The war continued to 1617, when peace was signed at Pavia. Second part of Don Quixote published.

1617 Alsace ceded to Spain by Ferdinand of Austria.

1618 Battle of Gravosa. The duke of Osuna, viceroy of Naples, defeats the Venetian fleet. Fall of Lerma, Philip’s favourite. The war with Venice continues till the recall of Osuna.

1620 Battle of the White Hill. Spanish troops aid the imperialists to defeat the elector palatine. The Spaniards under Spinola overrun the Palatinate and expel the elector.

1621 Philip IV succeeds his father. Olivares becomes all-powerful. The cortes of Castile calls attention to the extravagance of the administration, the appalling misery in the country, and the ruinous system of taxation. Attempts to curb official corruption. Expiration of the truce with the United Provinces. Spinola sent to conquer the Netherlands. He takes Juliers.

1622 Negotiation with England for the marriage of the infanta Maria to Prince Charles. James I asks for a Spanish army to assist the elector palatine. Charles arrives in Madrid.

1623 Enormous subsidy demanded by Olivares. The cities resist. Increase of taxation. Marriage-treaty signed. Charles leaves Spain.

1624 Franco-Dutch alliance. The French drive the Spanish garrisons from the Valtelline. Spain allied with Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and Genoa.

1625 Spinola takes Breda. Genoa threatened by the French and saved by Spain.

1626 Peace of Monçon between France and Spain. The Valtelline relinquished to the Grisons.

1628 Spanish treasure fleet captured by the Dutch.

1629 Peace with England. France and Spain support rival candidates to the duchy of Mantua. French successes. Spinola sent to Lombardy.

1630 He lays siege to Casale. Death of Spinola. The Buccaneers seize the island of Tortuga and make it the headquarters of their pirate bands.

1631 Treaty of Cherasco with France.

1632 Frederick Henry of Orange expels the Spaniards from the United Provinces. The archduchess Isabella resigns in favour of Philip IV. Orange captures Maestricht. Philip makes a treaty with the duke of Orléans, in rebellion against France.

1633 A Spanish army sent to aid the emperor.

1634 Battle of Nördlingen. The Spaniards under the cardinal infante, brother of Philip, aid in defeating the Protestant Swedes and Germans. Treves attacked and the elector carried off by the Spaniards. France declares war on Spain and forms an alliance with the United Provinces. Joint invasion of the Spanish-Netherlands repelled by the cardinal infante. The Milanese invaded by the French.

1636 The French expelled from the Milanese.

1637 Leucate unsuccessfully besieged by the Spaniards. Breda captured by Orange.

1638 The French under Condé invade Spain and are totally defeated before Fuenterrabia. The Spaniards take Bremi and Vercelli and ravage Piedmont.

1639 Alsace falling to France on the death of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, the communication between Italy and the Netherlands is interrupted. Salsas in Roussillon taken by Condé and recovered by the Spaniards. The Spanish fleet takes refuge in the Downs under the neutral flag of England but is attacked and destroyed by Van Tromp. Spaniards expelled from Piedmont.

1640 Troops billeted on the Catalans and levies demanded from them. Revolt in consequence. The insurgents seize Barcelona. Revolution in Portugal. João of Braganza assumes the crown. He enters into relations with France, Holland, and the rebels in Catalonia. Los Velez sent to subdue the Catalans. He takes Cambrils and Tarragona, but is repulsed before Barcelona.

1641 Discovery of a plot of the duke of Medina Sidonia and the marquis de Ayamonte in concert with the king of Portugal to erect Andalusia into a separate sovereignty. The revolted Catalans swear fealty to France.

1642 French troops sent to aid the Catalans invade Aragon, take Perpignan and occupy Roussillon. Indecisive battle of Lerida.

1643 Disgrace of Olivares. Luis de Haro succeeds him. The Spaniards invade Champagne and are severely defeated at Rocroi. The Spaniards victorious at Lerida.

1646 Failure of a plot to deliver Barcelona to Philip.

1647 The Neapolitans revolt under Masaniello who is assassinated. Don John of Austria sent to quiet the city. Fresh revolt. The duke of Guise aims at the crown but is captured and the insurrection suppressed.

1648 Lerida successfully resists the French. The French defeat the Spaniards at Lens. On the termination of the Thirty Years’ War by the Peace of Westphalia, Spain concludes peace with the United Provinces, acknowledging their independence and leaving them their conquests in Brabant and Flanders, with Maestricht and Breda and their acquisitions in America and the Indies.

1651 Battle of Iviza. Don John of Austria destroys the French fleet and besieges Barcelona.

1652 Barcelona capitulates. Catalonia returns to her allegiance to Spain. The Great Condé goes over to the Spaniards and leads their armies in the Spanish Netherlands against France.

1654 Spaniards defeated before Arras. The buccaneers sack New Segovia in Honduras and Maracaibo and Gibraltar on the Gulf of Venezuela.

1655 Jamaica captured by the English.

1656 Valenciennes, besieged by Turenne, is relieved by Don John and Condé.

1657 Oliver Cromwell sends troops to aid Turenne. The English exiles join the Spaniards.

1658 Battle of the Dunes. The Spaniards defeated. Dunkirk, Furnes, Gravelines and Oudenarde surrender to the French.

1659 Battle of Elvas. The Portuguese defeat De Haro. Devastating war on the frontiers. The treaty of the Pyrenees ends the French war. Louis XIV is to marry the infanta Maria Theresa, who renounces her claims to the Spanish crown. Spain abandons Roussillon, Cerdagne, Artois, and several border fortresses. Burgundy, Charolois, and Franche-Comté restored to Spain. France abandons the Portuguese.

1661 Don John invades Portugal. Death of De Haro.

1662 Don John occupies Alemtejo and

1663 takes Evora. Spaniards defeated at Amegial.

1664 Portuguese capture Valencia de Alcantara and defeat the Spaniards at Villaviciosa. Don John disgraced.

1665 Battle of Montes-Claros won by the Portuguese. They invade Andalusia. Revolt in Valencia and other provinces. Philip dies and is succeeded by his son Charles II, a child of four years, under the regency of his mother Maria Anna of Austria. The Jesuit Nithard becomes supreme.

1666 Louis XIV lays claim to Franche-Comté, Hainault, Brabant, Artois, etc., in right of his wife.

1667 He invades the Netherlands, and takes several fortresses.

1668 Treaty with Portugal. Spain recognises the house of Braganza. Franche-Comté conquered by France. England, Sweden, and the Dutch form a triple alliance to preserve the Netherlands to Spain. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen). Spain abandons to Louis his Flemish conquests. Louis restores Franche-Comté.

1669 Disputes between the regent and Don John. Aragon and Catalonia declare for Don John. Nithard dismissed. The queen forced to share the government with Don John.

1671 Panama sacked by the buccaneers.

1672 Louis XIV invades Holland. Spain joins Germany in sending troops to Holland.

1674 Louis reconquers Franche-Comté. Indecisive battle of Seneffe between the allies and the French. Spanish victory in Roussillon. The victorious troops proceed to the siege of the revolted city of Messina. The French relieve Messina.

1675 Indecisive action off Messina between the French and the Spaniards and Dutch under De Ruyter. De Ruyter is killed. The French defeat the allied fleet off Palermo and rout a Spanish army in Sicily.

1677 Valenciennes and Cambray taken by the French. The Prince of Orange (William III of England) defeated at Mont-Cassel. Catalonia invaded by the French. Charles II declared of age. Don John contrives the disgrace of the queen-mother and her favourite Valenzuela. He suppresses the Council of the Indies, and introduces a few reforms.

1678 Cerdagne occupied and Ghent and Ypres taken by the French. They evacuate Sicily. Peace of Nimeguen. Spain surrenders Franche-Comté and fourteen fortresses of the Netherlands.

1679 Death of Don John.

1680 Eighty-five persons suffer at an auto-da-fé. Raiding expedition of buccaneers on the isthmus of Darien and the coast of Peru.

1683 The French renew the war.

1684 They are repulsed before Gerona and take Luxemburg. Truce with France. Plague in Andalusia.

1685 Oropesa replaces Medina-Celi as prime minister. Cadiz blockaded by France to enforce payment for goods confiscated from French merchants. Earthquakes in various places.

1686 League of Augsburg between Spain, the empire, England and Sweden against France.

1689 Revolt in Catalonia. Villa-Hermosa defeats the rebel army under Antonio de Soler. French invasion of Catalonia repulsed.

1690 Battle of Fleurus. The French defeat the allies.

1691 Melgar succeeds Oropesa. Attempt to reform the finances. Mons and Namur taken by the French. Barcelona bombarded by Noailles. Urgel taken by Noailles.

1693 The allies defeated at Neerwinden and Marsaglia. Charles appoints the elector of Bavaria hereditary governor of the Netherlands.

1694 Noailles takes Gerona.

1695 German mercenaries arrive in Catalonia, but are defeated at Llobregat.

1697 Cartagena de las Indias sacked by the French and buccaneers. Peace of Ryswick. Spain recovers Luxemburg, Mons, Courtrai, and the towns lost in Catalonia. Charles’ declining health draws the attention of Europe to the question of his successor.

1698 Secret treaty between France, England, and Holland for the partition of the Spanish dominions. Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia and the colonies to go to the prince of Bavaria; Naples, Sicily, Finale, and Guipuzcoa to the dauphin; Lombardy to the archduke Charles, second son of the emperor Leopold I. Charles appoints as his heir the prince of Bavaria, who dies immediately afterwards. French intrigues rouse Spanish opposition to the archduke.

1700 Second partition treaty between France, England, and Holland for the division of the Spanish dominions. Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia, and the colonies to go to the archduke Charles. To the dauphin, Naples, Sicily, Finale, Guipuzcoa, and the Milanese. Charles appoints as his heir, Philip, duke of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV. Death of Charles II. Anjou succeeds as Philip V.