711 Battle of the Guadalete and downfall of the Visigothic kingdom in Spain. The Moors spread over the peninsula.

718 Pelayo (Pelagius) elected king by Spanish fugitives who had taken refuge in the mountains of Asturias. The Moors invade the district but are defeated at the cave of Covadonga and driven back. The Christians are left in peace to found the kingdom of Asturias.

722 Leon taken by Pelayo.

737 Favila, son of Pelayo, succeeds him.

739 Alfonso I, the Catholic, son-in-law of Pelayo, greatly extends his territory; acquires towns in Galicia, Lusitania, Leon, and Castile, and rules over Biscay and Navarre.

757 Fruela I makes Oviedo his capital. The harshness of his rule rouses his subjects to revolt and they put him to death.

768 Aurelio or Aurelius, nephew of Alfonso I, succeeds, and is followed by

774 Silo, his brother, who removes his court to Pravia.

778 Battle of Roncesvalles, in which the Spaniards ascribe the defeat of Charlemagne to Bernardo del Carpio, nephew of Alfonso II.

784 Mauregato the Usurper, to whom was ascribed the promise to pay the Moors a tribute of one hundred damsels.

788 Bermudo (Veremundo) I the Deacon is persuaded to accept the crown, but after three years resigns it.

791 Alfonso (II) the Chaste establishes his court at Oviedo, and firmly establishes his kingdom. The stories of the exploits of his nephew, Bernardo del Carpio, are probably mere fables with a slight foundation of truth.

842 Ramiro I. Revolts of the counts Nepotiano and Aldrete suppressed. The Northmen land at Corunna and ravage the district. Ramiro defeats them and burns seventy of their ships.

844 Supposed battle of Clavigo or Clavijo, in which Ramiro was said to have defeated the Moors with great slaughter by the aid of Santiago, who appeared in person on a white horse.

850 Ordoño I fortifies his frontier cities and defeats the Moors in several conflicts, notably at Albelda, and successfully asserts his authority over his own nobles. Northmen defeated in Galicia.

866 Alfonso (III) the Great. The beginning of his reign is disturbed by pretenders and other rebels.

873 Navarre, which had maintained towards Asturias a fitful allegiance constantly disturbed by Frankish intrigue, is conferred on Count Sancho Iñigo. Mohammedans frequently defeated by Alfonso, who advances his borders to the Guadiana. Leon becomes the capital. Battle of Zamora and defeat of the Mohammedans.

907 Rebellion of Alfonso’s son Garcia Nuño Fernandez, count of Castile, and other nobles. The prince is imprisoned. Revolt in his favour. Alfonso abdicates and divides his territories amongst his three sons, Ordoño receiving Galicia, Fruela Oviedo, and

910 Garcia the kingdom of Asturias. Alfonso successfully invades Mohammedan territory. He dies soon after. Garcia makes Leon his capital and assumes the title of king of Leon.

914 Ordoño II reunites Galicia with Leon.

917 Alhange stormed and the garrison massacred by Ordoño. Merida purchases peace. Further victories won by Ordoño over the Mohammedans.

918 Abd ar-Rahman III defeated at San Pedro de Gormaz.

921 Battle of Val de Junquera. Ordoño and his Navarrese allies are defeated by Abd ar-Rahman, owing to the defection of the counts of Castile. They are seized and put to death. Ordoño suppresses the rebellion to avenge them and defeats the Moors at Rioja.

923 Fruela II, brother of Ordoño, elected to the throne.

925 Alfonso IV.

930 Abdication of Alfonso. He retires to a monastery.

931 Attempting soon after to recover the throne, he is taken and blinded by his brother, Ramiro II.

939 Battle of Simancas. Ramiro defeats Abd ar-Rahman III. Fernan Gonsalez and Diego Nuñez, counts of Castile, revolt. They are subdued and imprisoned, but then restored to office. Fernan’s daughter Urracais married to Ramiro’s son, who succeeds his father as

950 Ordoño III. His brother Sancho and Fernan Gonsalez revolt, and are aided by the Navarrese. Ordoño triumphs over them and quells a Galician revolt.

955 Ordoño IV makes himself king by gaining over the troops of

956 Sancho (I) the Fat, who recovers his rights with the help of Cordovan troops.

967 Ramiro III.

968 The Northmen under Gundered invade and waste Galicia and great part of Leon during two years, till they are finally overthrown and destroyed by the count of Galicia and their vessels are burned.

979 Almansor, regent of Cordova, collects an army against Leon and defeats

981 Ramiro at Zamora and Simancas.

982 Indecisive battle of Monterroso between Ramiro and the pretender Bermudo who, on the death of Ramiro, succeeds as Bermudo or Veremundo (II) the Gouty. His reign is occupied by continuous rebellions under Rodrigo Velasquez, Conancio, Gonzalo Bermudez, and others, while Almansor constantly increases his territory, taking city after city, including Coimbra, which he destroyed, Leon, whose fortifications he razed, Compostella, whence he carried off the gates and bells of the shrine of St. James.

999 Alfonso V (under the regency of Gonsalvo).

1002 Death of Almansor after his defeat at the perhaps fabulous battle of Calatanazar. Order restored in the kingdom of Leon. The capital is rebuilt. Beneficial laws proclaimed. Sancho Garces, count of Castile, rebels.

1021 Garcia succeeds Sancho as count of Castile.

1026 Murder of Garcia at his marriage with the princess of Leon. The northern part of Castile annexed to Navarre. Alfonso invades Portugal and is killed at the siege of Viseu.

1027 Bermudo III. Sancho the Great of Navarre conquers part of Leon. Bermudo wins several fortresses from the Mohammedans.

1037 Battle of Carrion. Bermudo slain in battle with Ferdinand I, king of Castile, who is recognised as king of Leon, Galicia, and Asturias, in right of his wife, Bermudo’s sister.

739-757 Alfonso I of Leon erects fortresses (castella) in the ancient province of Cantabria, called in the eighth century Bardulia, and then Castile.

860 Rodrigo, count of Castile.

866 Diego Rodriguez, Porcellos, count.

882 Burgos founded.

Gonzalo Fernandez.

Nuño Fernandez.

932 Fernan Gonsalez revolts against Ramiro II of Leon and is defeated and captured by him, but is restored to office. His daughter Urraca marries Ramiro’s son Ordoño (III).

950 Revolt of Fernan against Ordoño III with whose brother Sancho he invades Leon, but is repulsed. Ordoño repudiates Urraca. She marries the son of Alfonso IV of Leon, afterwards Ordoño IV. Fernan Gonsalez is credited by the older writers with great achievements in the struggle with the Moors.

970 Garcia Fernandez, count. His son Sancho Garces rebels against him. The story of the infantes De Lara, their betrayal to the Moors, their murder and the vengeance taken by their half-brother Mudarra, belongs to this reign.

995 The Cordovans defeat and capture Garcia. He dies of his wounds. Sancho Garces, count.

1021 Garcia, count.

1026 Birth of Ruy, or Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, called el Cid Campeador (the Lord Champion). Garcia betrothed to the daughter of Alfonso V of Leon with the promise of the title of king. Garcia murdered at the wedding. Sancho the Great of Navarre annexes the northern part of Castile and assumes the sovereignty of the whole in right of his wife, Muña Elvira, Garcia’s sister; and on his death his son

1035 Ferdinand (I) the Great becomes king of Castile with the district between the Pisuerga and the Cea, which had been conquered from Leon by Sancho the Great and which Bermudo III attempts to recover, but is slain in the

1037 Battle of Carrion. Ferdinand, as the husband of Bermudo’s sister, succeeds to the kingdom of Leon, after a slight resistance from the population.

1037 Ferdinand (I) the Great, king of Leon and Castile. He establishes his capital at Leon; confirms and adds to the laws of Alfonso V; subdues the rebellious barons, and engages in a war with his brother Garcia III of Navarre, who at the

1054 battle of Atapuerca is defeated and slain.

1055 Ferdinand takes Cea and other fortresses from the Mohammedans. Viseu and Lamego taken (1057), and

1064 Coimbra. The king of Toledo becomes a vassal of Leon. Valencia and Andalusia invaded by Ferdinand. On his death

1065 Sancho II becomes king of Castile. Alfonso VI king of Leon and Garcia king of Galicia. Ferdinand’s daughters, Urraca and Elvira, receive Zamora and Toro.

1068 Battle of Golpejara on the Pisuerga. Alfonso defeats Sancho, but on the arrival of the Cid is in his turn defeated by Sancho.

1071 At the battle of Valpellage Sancho defeats Alfonso VI and imprisons him in a monastery, whence he escapes to Toledo. Garcia then seizes the lands of Urraca,

1072 but is attacked at Santarem by Sancho, who is at first defeated and taken prisoner, but afterwards released by the Cid. The Castilians in their turn defeat and capture Garcia, who is either held prisoner or made tributary. Sancho now besieges his sister Urraca in Zamora, but is assassinated before the walls.

1073 Alfonso VI returns, is elected at Burgos, and acknowledged by Leonnese, Castilians, and Galicians, but an oath is exacted of his innocence of Sancho’s death. The oath is administered by the Cid, who incurs Alfonso’s lasting enmity. Garcia kept prisoner.

1074 Expedition of Alfonso to aid the king of Toledo in resisting the king of Cordova. Alfonso invades Portugal, and makes several Mohammedan governors tributary. Marriage of the Cid and Ximena.

1077 The Council of Burgos declines to accept the Roman ritual, but the supremacy of Rome is acknowledged by Alfonso.

1081 The Cid banished for waging independent war against the king of Granada. He takes service with the Mohammedan ruler of Saragossa.

1084 Toledo is taken by Alfonso from Yahya ben Ismail after a siege of two years, and becomes the capital of the kingdom. Alfonso in return for its surrender promised to maintain Yahya in possession of Valencia, but failed to do so.

1086 Battle of Zallaka. Yusuf, king of the Almoravids, comes to the aid of the Spanish Moors, and defeats the forces of Castile, Aragon, and Barcelona. Alfonso resumes the offensive. The Cid is said to have been active in all these wars: after being banished by Alfonso he carried on hostilities on his own account, and after his restoration to favour was foremost in the great siege of Toledo, after which he again waged war on his own account, subduing many Moorish chiefs, including the kings of Saragossa and Valencia. The latter being deposed and slain by a rival,

1094 the Cid laid siege to the city and took it after a long and famous siege. He was in

1100 his turn twice besieged there, and after his death (1099) the Moors regained possession.

1108 Yusuf’s successor Ali inflicted a severe defeat on Alfonso in the battle of Ucles or Urcesia.

1109 Urraca, daughter of Alfonso VI, succeeds to Castile and Leon. Her second husband Alfonso I of Aragon, el Batallador, is recognised as Alfonso VII of Castile and Leon, and assumes the title of emperor of Spain. Alfonso Raymond, Urraca’s son by her first marriage, inherits Galicia. Domestic quarrels and war between Urraca and her husband. A party declares for Alfonso Raymond, and after a long period of civil war and anarchy he is recognised on Urraca’s death as

1126 Alfonso (VII) Raymond (also called Alfonso VIII). Peace arranged between him and his stepfather.

1134 On the latter’s death at Fraga the king of Castile protects Aragon from the Moors, and occupies several Aragonese fortresses, which he only restores to Aragon as fiefs.

1135 The rulers of Navarre, Barcelona, and Toulouse do Alfonso homage. He assumes the title of emperor of all Spain. War with Navarre and the count of Portugal.

1140 Tourney of Valdevez. The Castilian knights defeated by the Portuguese. Alfonso Henriques of Portugal assumes the title of king. Alliance between Castile and Aragon for the partition of Navarre fails.

1143 A formal treaty between Alfonso Raymond and Alfonso Henriques of Portugal recognises the latter as king of Portugal.

1146 Castile and Aragon come to the aid of the Almoravids against the Almohads and

1147 aided by the fleets of Pisa and Genoa take Almeria. The Christian frontiers are advanced to the Sierra Morena.

1156 The knightly order of San Julian del Pereyro, afterwards called of Alcantara, founded to resist the Moors.

1157 Sancho III inherits Castile, and Ferdinand II Leon.

1158 Alfonso (VIII) (III of Castile) the Noble succeeds Sancho III at the age of three. His minority is occupied by quarrels for the regency leading to civil war between the noble houses of Lara and Castro. Ferdinand of Leon also claims the chief power and invades the country, while the Navarrese seize several border fortresses.

1169 Cortes of Burgos. The cities send representatives.

1170 Anarchy finally ended by Alfonso’s assuming the government himself when he concludes an alliance with Raymond, regent of Aragon, and marries Eleanor, daughter of Henry II of England.

1175 Order of the knights of Santiago founded.

1188 Alfonso IX of Leon succeeds Ferdinand II. Disputes and hostilities between him and the king of Castile.

1195 The two Alfonsos make an alliance against the Moors, but are severely defeated at Alarcon, whereupon they make war on each other.

1197 Peace between Leon and Castile consolidated by the marriage of Berengaria, daughter of Alfonso of Castile, to Alfonso of Leon. Pope Innocent III, who had already dissolved the king of Leon’s marriage with Teresa of Portugal, excommunicates the sovereign of Leon, and lays the kingdom under an interdict. After a struggle of six years the king and queen separate, but their children are recognised as legitimate. War between the two Alfonsos.

1212 Innocent III, aided by Alfonso of Castile, brings about an alliance of the Christian states in the peninsula and, in the great battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, they unite and inflict a crushing defeat on the Mohammedans. On this occasion the Spanish Christians were reinforced by large numbers of crusaders from abroad.

1214 Henry I, a minor, succeeds Alfonso VIII of Castile. Berengaria is appointed regent, but Alvaro Nuñez de Lara contrives to supplant her, and rules in tyrannical fashion till the death of Henry in 1217, when Berengaria succeeds, but immediately abdicates in favour of her son, the heir of Leon.

1217 Ferdinand (III) the Saint. His father, Alfonso of Leon, supported by Alvaro Nuñez, invades Castile. The nobles rally round Ferdinand; Alvaro is taken, and peace made with Alfonso.

1230 Murcia is invaded by Ferdinand, who is besieging Jaen when he hears of his father’s death. Berengaria persuades his half-sisters to waive their pretensions, and Ferdinand reunites the kingdoms of Castile and Leon. He continues his victorious career against the Moors, takes Cordova, occupies Murcia and part of Andalusia (1235), and

1248 takes Seville.

1252 Alfonso (X) el Sabio (the Learned). Xeres de la Frontera, Medina Sidonia, and Cadiz pass into his hands.

1254 Eleanor, the king’s daughter, marries Prince Edward (Edward I) of England.

1257 The king claims the duchy of Swabia, and having wasted large sums in fruitless endeavours to secure election to the German Empire, he replenishes his coffers by debasing the coinage, persecuting the Jews, and other arbitrary measures.

1263 The Castilian rights over Algarve ceded to Portugal on the marriage of the Portuguese king with Beatrice, daughter of Alfonso el Sabio. Certain Castilian nobles make this an excuse to revolt, and demand redress of grievances and extraordinary privileges, which Alfonso weakly concedes.

1275 Death of the king’s eldest son, the infante Ferdinand de la Cerda. The cortes declare Ferdinand’s brother Sancho the next heir, to the exclusion of Ferdinand’s sons, the infantes de la Cerda, whose cause is espoused by their uncle, the king of France.

1281 War between Alfonso and Sancho. The nobles rally round Sancho, who makes alliance with the kings of Aragon and Portugal, and declares himself king. The war is only concluded by the defeat of Sancho a few months before Alfonso’s death. Alfonso is best known for the encouragement he gave to learning, and the important literary productions which bear his name—some of his own work, and others compiled by his order. They include the code of laws called Las Siete Partidas (promulgated in 1258); the astronomical work called the Alfonsine Tables (drawn up in 1253); the Crónica General de España, a translation of the Holy Bible, and some poems.

1284 Sancho the Great and the Brave (or Bravo). The reign is disturbed by the constant rebellions of the Laras and the king’s brother Don Juan, and the infantes de la Cerda, aided by Aragon, and supported by France.

1292 Alonzo Perez de Guzman the Good takes Tarifa from the Moors, and maintains it against the emperor of Morocco and Don Juan, refusing to surrender even to save his son whom Juan murders before the walls.

1295 The accession of Ferdinand (IV) el Emplazado (the Summoned) at the age of nine, gives fresh impulse to anarchy. The Hermandad or brotherhood of citizens is formed to resist the lawless depredations of the nobles. The queen-mother, Maria de Molina, recognizes it, and opposes a bold resistance to rival pretenders and domestic and foreign enemies.

1301 She obtains the papal recognition of her marriage, and of the legitimacy of Ferdinand IV, but nevertheless the struggles with turbulent barons continue during the remainder of the reign.

1305 Treaty of Campillo puts an end to the struggle for the succession. Ferdinand begins to reign in his own name.

1310 Trial of the Templars at Salamanca. Their solemn acquittal does not prevent the suppression of their order in Castile as elsewhere.

1312 Mysterious death of Ferdinand, as was said, by the judgment of God. Alfonso XI, an infant, succeeds. Return of anarchy in the struggle for the regency.

1315 The regency divided between the infantes Pedro and Juan, the king’s uncles.

1319 Both regents slain in battle with the Moors.

1320 Don Juan Manuel assumes the regency. Civil wars with rival claimants.

1324 The king assumes the government, but fails to restore order. He murders his cousin, Juan el Tuerto, and by repudiating his own wife, daughter of Don Juan Manuel, provokes the latter to rebellion.

1328 Right of the cortes to a voice in important affairs of state recognised by the king. He undertakes for himself and successors to impose no tax without the consent of the cortes.

1339 Abul Hakam, emir of Fez, arrives in Spain with a large army. Alfonso aided by troops from Aragon and Portugal defeats him in the great

1340 Battle of Salado. Abul Hakam flees to Africa.

1344 Algeciras taken by Alfonso after a long siege.

1350 Death of Alfonso by the Black Death at the siege of Gibraltar. It was to pay for this war that the alcavala, a tax of one-twentieth on all sales of real property, was first granted. Alfonso XI patronised letters, and ordered the continuation of the Crónica of Alfonso X which was intrusted to a royal chronicler. The code of Alfonso X was also brought into use in this reign. Pedro the Cruel. Leonora de Guzman, the late king’s mistress, imprisoned and her sons driven into exile.

1351 Murder of Leonora de Guzman and of Garcilasso de la Vega, adelantado of Castile.

1352 Henry of Trastamara and Don Tello, Leonora’s sons, revolt and form a league against

1353 Pedro. The king marries Blanche de Bourbon, a French princess, but immediately forsakes her for Maria de Padilla, retaining Blanche a prisoner.

1354 Ferdinand Perez de Castro revolts in revenge for the king’s false marriage with his sister Juana. The citizens of Toledo take arms for Blanche. Meeting at Toro between Pedro and his barons. Pedro consents to reinstate Blanche.

1355 Pedro takes Toledo, imprisons Blanche at Siguenza, executes several rebels, and massacres the Jewish merchants. The kingdom laid under an interdict.

1356 Toro taken by Pedro from his mother. He massacres her partisans before her eyes. Pedro engages in a war with Portugal, in which many Castilian nobles join the foreigner.

1358 Don Fadrique, grand-master of Santiago and son of Leonora de Guzman, slain by Pedro’s own hand and his partisans murdered. Murder of Don Juan, infante of Aragon.

1361 Portuguese refugees delivered up to Pedro I of Portugal in exchange for Castilians who had fled to Portugal, and execution of the persons surrendered. Blanche de Bourbon poisoned.

1362 Maria de Padilla dies. Pedro declares her son his lawful heir. Abu Saïd, king of Granada, comes to ask Pedro’s assistance and is robbed and murdered by him.

1363 The Black Prince (of Wales) concludes an alliance with Pedro the Cruel to meet a threatened invasion of Castile from France. The French, under Du Guesclin, unite with the party of Henry of Trastamara, who, supported by Aragon, claims Pedro’s throne.

1366 Battle of Borja. Sir Hugh Calverley, commanding the English Free Company under Du Guesclin, defeats the Castilians, and Henry is proclaimed at Calahorra. Flight of Pedro. Henry takes peaceful possession of Burgos and is crowned. Edward the Black Prince receives Pedro at Bordeaux and makes a treaty with him which includes Charles the Bad of Navarre. Edward engages to restore Pedro in return for the surrender of certain seaports. Charles promises the army a free passage through Navarre. The English advance guard cut to pieces at Ariñez.

1367 Battle of Navarrete, or Najera, and complete triumph of the English. Henry escapes to Aragon. Pedro celebrates his restoration by a series of murders. He evades his engagements with the Black Prince, and the latter withdraws his troops much reduced by famine and disease.

1369 Henry returns, is welcomed by some cities and reduces others. Pedro makes alliance with Muhammed V of Granada. The united troops fail to retake Cordova, and Muhammed retreats. Pedro on his way to relieve Toledo is invested in Montiel by Henry. In an interview between the brothers, a struggle ensues in which Henry stabs Pedro to death. Henry II. The king of Portugal claims the throne of Castile, which is also threatened by Navarre, Aragon, and Granada.

1371 A new Ordinance concerning the Administration of Justice regulates criminal procedure. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, claims the throne in right of his wife, Constanza, daughter of Pedro the Cruel.

1372 Battle off La Rochelle. Henry wins a naval victory over the English.

1373 Lisbon besieged by Henry, and the king of Portugal forced to make peace.

1379 Juan I makes alliance with France.

1380 The Castilians sail up the Thames and destroy the English shipping. Ferdinand of Portugal offers John of Gaunt his alliance.

1381 The earl of Cambridge arrives in Portugal with a few followers, but after some fighting in Castile returns to England.

1382 Beatrice, heiress of Portugal, marries Juan of Castile, but on the death of her father Ferdinand, her uncle João I usurps the Portuguese throne

1385 and defeats Juan of Castile in a great battle at Aljubarrota, where the Castilians lose ten thousand men.

1386 John of Gaunt lands in Galicia, is proclaimed king at Santiago, and with the

1387 help of the king of Portugal takes several fortresses, but is driven to retreat by an outbreak of plague in his army. John of Gaunt resigns his claims in return for fiefs and money and the marriage of his daughter with Juan’s eldest son, who receives the title of prince of Asturias, now first assigned to the heir of Castile.

1390 Henry (III) the Sickly succeeds at the age of eleven. Disputes for the regency.

1392 Persecution of the Jews.

1393 Henry assumes the government himself. He has some success in restoring order, and ranges himself on the side of the people against the nobles.

1401 The cortes of Tordesillas passes measures for reform of the judicial system. Embassy to Tamerlane or Timur.

1404 Conquest of the Canaries by Jean de Bethencourt, a Norman adventurer, with assistance from Henry, who grants him the title of king.

1406 Juan II, one year old, succeeds under the guardianship of his uncle Ferdinand the Just. Ferdinand restrains the turbulence of the nobles.

1408 Alvaro de Luna comes to court as a page and begins to exercise his influence over Juan.

1412 Ferdinand accepts the crown of Aragon, but maintains his influence in Castile till his death (1416).

1420 Henry, brother of Alfonso V of Aragon and Juan II of Navarre, desiring to marry Juan’s sister Catalina, seizes the king and keeps him prisoner till he consents to the marriage.

1425 Alvaro de Luna, the king’s favourite, made constable of Castile.

1427 The nobles, jealous of his unbounded influence, league against him. He is exiled, but soon recalled.

1429 New league against Alvaro. The kings of Navarre and Aragon invade Castile.

1431 Battle of Higueruela and the defeat of the Moors by De Luna. His vigorous rule brings prosperity to Castile.

1439 New league against De Luna, and civil war in which the kings of Aragon and Navarre join,

1445 but are defeated by Juan in the battle of Olmedo.

1453 The king, prompted by his second wife Isabella of Portugal, resolves on De Luna’s death. He is seized, tried, and executed.

1454 Henry (IV) the Impotent. His extravagance and neglect provoke the barons to unite against him and, after several unsuccessful attempts, compel him to set aside the infanta Juana, called La Beltraneja, and recognise his brother Alfonso as his heir.

1465 Not content with this, at a solemn ceremony on the plain of Avila, they declare Henry deposed and set up Alfonso as king.

1468 A destructive civil war continues till Alfonso’s death (1468), when his sister Isabella (the Catholic) refuses to take his place, and contents herself with recognition as Henry’s heiress.

1469 Isabella refuses to marry the heir of Portugal, and marries Ferdinand prince of Aragon. Henry’s endeavours to secure Juana’s succession produce further bloodshed. He bequeaths Castile to her in his will.

1474 Henry IV dies, and Isabella (I) the Catholic has herself proclaimed queen of Castile. Ferdinand endeavours to assert his own claims as representative of the male line, but is induced to accept a carefully defined share in the government. The cause of Juana la Beltraneja is espoused by many Castilian nobles and by her uncle Alfonso V of Portugal, who proposes to marry her and invades Castile.

1476 Battle of Toro and complete victory of Ferdinand and Isabella. The rebels submit.

1479 Treaty with Portugal. Alfonso renounces Juana and she retires to a convent. Death of Juan II of Aragon. Ferdinand succeeds him as Ferdinand II.

Garcia Ximenes, first legendary king. Elected after the battle of Guadalete (711) to defend the country against the Moors, from whom he recovers considerable territory. From him the Navarrese writers derive a series of kings who reigned during the eighth and ninth centuries, but they seem, like Garcia Ximenes himself, to be purely fictitious personages. During this period the district seems to have been subjected either to Asturias or the Frankish empire, probably the latter.

778 Charlemagne invades Navarre and seizes Pamplona. On his return to France, after failing before Saragossa, his rearguard under Roland is attacked by troops from Spanish Gascony, including Navarre and other Spanish states, both Christian and Moor, and totally destroyed in the pass of Roncesvalles.

806 Pepin, son of Charlemagne, receives the submission of the Navarrese and organises the government of the country.

836 Sancho Iñigo, count (called by some, king) of Navarre.

885 Garcia I.

891 Moorish invasion. Garcia I is slain. Fortuño Garces rules during the minority of Garcia’s son, Sancho Garces Abarca.

905 Sancho (I) Garces Abarca.

907 Pamplona besieged by the Moors during Sancho’s absence in Gascony. Sancho relieves it after a rapid winter march across the Pyrenees and wins a great victory. Many victories won by Sancho over the Moors and the kingdom extended southwards.

920 Sancho retires to a monastery.

921 Abd ar-Rahman III invades Navarre and routs the combined forces of Navarre and Leon at the Val-de-Junquera. The Navarrese under Sancho defeat Abd ar-Rahman’s forces on their return from a raid into Gascony.

925 Garcia (II), El Tembloso (the Trembler).

951 The king of Navarre in alliance with Fernan Gonsalez, count of Castile, unsuccessfully supports Sancho, prince of Leon, against the latter’s brother, Ordoño III of Leon.

956 Castile invaded by Garcia, and Fernan taken prisoner.

970 Sancho (II), El Mayor (The Great). This king was the most powerful sovereign of Christian Spain at this period. Besides being master of Navarre, Sobrarbe, and

1026 Aragon he conquered Castile after the murder of his brother-in-law, the Count Garcia

1034 and won the eastern portion of Leon as far as the river Cea from Bermudo III. His second son Ferdinand married Bermudo’s sister and heiress, and eventually became sovereign of Leon and Castile (1037). The lordship of Ribagorza was also among Sancho’s acquisitions.

1035 Garcia III inherits Navarre and a small district on the south bank of the Ebro, while the rest of the dominions of Sancho the Great are divided among the latter’s other sons. Ramiro, to whom Aragon had fallen, invades Navarre as Garcia is on a pilgrimage to Rome, but is driven back. Garcia then aids Ferdinand, who has succeeded

1037 to Castile, to triumph over Bermudo III of Leon. But when the latter’s defeat and death give Ferdinand the kingdom of Leon, Garcia turns against his brother and allies himself with the emirs of Saragossa and Tudela.

1054 Battle of Atapuerca. Garcia and his allies defeated and Garcia slain by Ferdinand, who annexes the Navarrese possessions south of the Ebro. Sancho III.

1076 Murder of Sancho by his brother Raymond and his sister Ermesinda. The murderers expelled from the kingdom. The kings of Aragon and Leon dispute for the crown of Navarre. The king of Leon annexes Rioja. The king of Aragon becomes king of Navarre under the name of Sancho (IV) Ramirez.

1094 Pedro (Pedro I of Aragon).

1104 Alfonso (Alfonso I of Aragon). On his death without issue the Navarrese refuse to recognise his will bequeathing his kingdom to the knightly orders of St. John and the Temple, and elect

1134 Garcia (IV) Ramirez, a member of the old royal house of Navarre, while the Aragonese prefer Alfonso’s brother, Ramiro (I) the Monk. Alfonso (VII) Raymond of Castile and Leon, who assumes the title of emperor of all Spain, receives the homage of Garcia and Ramiro. Garcia becomes a feudatory of Ramiro. Alliance between Garcia and Alfonso, count of Portugal, against Alfonso Raymond. Alfonso Raymond invades Navarre. Garcia acknowledges his supremacy.

1140 Alfonso Raymond makes alliance with Aragon for the partition of Navarre and again invades it, while Garcia invades Aragon. After both have won successes, Alfonso and Garcia make peace.

1150 Sancho (V) the Wise. This king’s reign is occupied with obscure and frequent hostilities with the neighbouring states of Aragon, Barcelona, and Castile.

1176 The kings of Castile and Navarre refer their differences to Henry II of England. His

1179 decision is not acted upon, but a later peace between them embraces the same terms.

1191 Berengaria, daughter of Sancho V, marries Richard I of England.

1194 Sancho (VI) the Infirm. He makes alliance with Castile and Leon against the Moors.

1195 Battle of Alarcon. Alfonso VIII of Castile defeated by Yakub Al-mansur. Quarrels amongst the allies. Sancho concludes an alliance with the Almohads. Alfonso of Leon takes Guipuzcoa, Alava, and Biscay. Alliance of Navarre, Leon, Aragon, Castile, and Portugal against the Moors, which leads to the defeat of a Moorish army under Muhammed an-Nasir in the

1212 Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa.

1234 Thibaut I (Theobald or Teobaldo), count of Champagne, elected king.

1239 Seventh Crusade led by Thibaut to Syria. On the defeat of a portion of the army he and the other French princes desert their comrades and return to Spain.

1253 Thibaut II.

1270 Eighth Crusade. Thibaut accompanies St. Louis to the Holy Land and dies on his way home. Henry Crassus.

1274 Joan or Jeanne I succeeds at the age of four. The country reduced to anarchy by disputes between native factions and foreign princes respecting the disposal of her hand.

1284 Joan marries Philip IV of France.

1305 Louis Hutin (Louis X of France) succeeds Joan.

1316 Philip I (V of France) succeeds, to the prejudice of the daughter of Louis Hutin.

1322 Charles I (IV of France), brother of Philip I. The Navarrese protest against this reassertion of the Salic law and on Charles’ death the crown passes to Louis Hutin’s daughter,

1328 Joan II, with her husband, Philip II (count of Évreux), who at their coronation sign a convention securing the independence of Navarre. Massacre of the Jews.

1334 War with Castile.

1343 Philip joins Alfonso XI of Castile in besieging Algeciras and dies during the siege.

1349 Charles (II) the Bad. His endeavours to recover the lordships of Brie and Champagne and his murder of the constable of France lead to his imprisonment by the French king. He escapes and is subsequently pardoned.

1361 Return of Charles to Navarre. He promises to aid Pedro the Cruel of Castile against Aragon.

1366 Alliance of Charles with Edward the Black Prince of Wales to restore Pedro the Cruel. Charles plays fast and loose with the rival kings of Castile and seizes Salvatierra and Logroño for himself.

1370 On the accession of Henry II Charles invades Castile.

1371 Claims of Navarre to Champagne, Brie, etc., ceded to France in exchange for Montpellier. Charles makes peace with Henry II.

1377 Charles accused of plotting to acquire domains in Gascony. His French possessions declared forfeited. The Castilians invade Navarre and besiege Pamplona. Charles makes alliance with the English and on their approach the Castilians retreat.

1385 Charles accused of plotting to poison the French royal family. The last remains of his French possessions are seized.

1387 Charles (III) the Noble.

1403 Dukedom of Nemours granted to the king of Navarre.

1425 Blanche, daughter of Charles the Noble, succeeds with her husband Juan of Aragon. He interferes constantly in the internal troubles of Castile, while Blanche governs peaceably during his absence.

1432 Juan appointed regent of Aragon in the absence of Alfonso V.

1442 Charles of Viana succeeds to Navarre as regent on the death of his mother Blanche. The kingdom is distracted by two parties, the Beaumonts, partisans of Charles, and the Agramonts, partisans of his father Juan.

1447 Juan marries Juana Henriquez and appoints his wife co-regent of Navarre. She quarrels with Charles.

1452 Revolt of Charles. Birth of his half-brother Ferdinand (the Catholic). Battle of Aybar. Juan defeats and captures Charles. Charles is released and returns to Navarre, but finding his enemies too strong for him he withdraws to Naples.

1458 Juan succeeds to the throne of Aragon as Juan II. Misunderstanding between father and son continues till

1460 Charles negotiates for the hand of Isabella of Castile which was desired for his half-brother Ferdinand of Aragon. Charles is arrested by his father when Catalonia revolts in his favour, and Juan is obliged to

1461 recognise him as his heir. The prince dies immediately afterwards.

1464 Blanche, Charles’ eldest sister, dies, probably poisoned at the instigation of her father by her sister Eleanor, countess of Foix. The country continues to be distracted by the wars of the Beaumonts and Agramonts.

1479 Eleanor de Foix becomes queen on the death of Juan and dying immediately afterwards is succeeded by her grandson, Francis Phœbus de Foix.

1483 Catherine de Foix. Ferdinand and Isabella endeavour to secure her hand and kingdom for their eldest son, but she marries Jean d’Albret.

1512 Ferdinand the Catholic demands the cession of six Navarrese fortresses and a free passage through Navarre to facilitate his invasion of Guienne. Treaty of alliance between France and Navarre signed at Blois. Ferdinand’s general, the duke of Alva, takes Pamplona and occupies the whole of upper Navarre. Ferdinand’s English allies refuse to co-operate with him for the reduction of the rest of the country, and on their withdrawal Jean d’Albret with a French army besieges Alva in Pamplona, but for lack of provisions is compelled to retreat.

1513 Treaty between Ferdinand and Louis XII of France by which the latter abandons Navarre. Ferdinand restores order and conciliates the Navarrese towns by confirming their privileges.

1515 The cortes of Burgos formally incorporates Navarre into the kingdom of Castile.

470 Gothalania (Catalonia) was the name bestowed on the northeastern section of Hispania Tarraconensis in consequence of its occupation by the Goths and Alans (470).

712 Berbers take possession of the whole Catalonian territory. At the end of the eighth century Charlemagne’s troops, under command of Louis le Débonnaire, invade Catalonia, and conquer a district including Barcelona, Lerida, Tarragona, and Tortosa which they call the Marca Hispanica or Spanish Mark. Bera, a native of Gothic Gaul, becomes count of Barcelona and the Mark, and tyrannises over the country. Counts of Rosello, Ampurias, Besalu, Cerdagne, Pallars, and Urgel appointed. Frequent conflicts with the Moors in which the Frankish armies join and waste the southern districts.

814 Death of Charlemagne. Septimania becomes united with the Spanish Mark.

826 Bera, being deposed for treasonable dealings with Al Hakim of Cordova, is succeeded as duke of Septimania, by Bernhard, son of William of Toulouse, who plays an important rôle in Frankish history.

832 Bernhard aids Pepin, king of Aquitaine, in rebellion against Louis le Débonnaire and is deprived of his dignities.

836 Bernhard reinstated in his duchy.

840 Charles the Bald succeeds to Catalonia on the death of Louis le Débonnaire. Bernhard at first refuses and then offers his allegiance; but afterwards aiming at independence is murdered by Charles. William, Bernhard’s son, seeks refuge with Abd ar-Rahman.

846 Aledran made count of Barcelona by Charles. William wages successful war against him, but is finally murdered. Frankish dominion restored. Narbonensian Gaul is taken from the Spanish Mark and added to Toulouse.

852 Barcelona retaken by the Moors. They retain possession during twelve years.

858 Wilfrid I (Wilfredo or Hunfrido I) count of Barcelona. He takes possession of Toulouse, etc. Summoned to Narbonne to justify himself, he is there slain in a petty fray and is succeeded by

872 Salomon, who is murdered in revenge for Wilfrid’s death by the latter’s son.

874 Wilfred (II) the Hairy, who successfully repels the Moors, makes himself independent of France and leaves his territory to his son

907 Miro, who bequeaths it to his three sons, Seniofredo, Oliva, and Miro, under the regency of their uncle Suniario, count of Urgel.

950 Seniofredo.

967 Borello, son of Suniario.

984 Almansor takes Barcelona, slaughters the inhabitants, and burns a great part of the city. Borello recovers Barcelona and expels the invaders.

993 Raymond I repels a Moorish invasion and wins a battle against Suleiman of Cordova

1009 which places the usurper Muhammed I on the throne. The Catalans take the lead in an unsuccessful crusade against the Moorish pirates of the Balearic Islands.

1017 Berengar I organises the country and grants privileges to Barcelona and other towns.

1035 Raymond II wins victories over the Moors of Saragossa and becomes sovereign of all Catalonia. He abolishes the old Gothic laws, substituting the

1068 Usages of Catalonia, and institutes the Peace of God in an assembly of the Estates which is the earliest occasion in European history on which deputies are summoned from the towns. By marriage and purchase he acquires Conflans, Carcassonne, Narbonne, Toulouse, and other French possessions. Bequeaths his dominions to his two sons as joint rulers.

1076 Raymond (III) the Hairy quarrels with his brother Berengar. The nobles effect a settlement whereby each is to reign alternately for six months. Raymond is murdered, probably at Berengar’s instigation. Berengar governs alone as guardian for Raymond III’s son.

1082 Raymond IV. Bernard Atto, vicomte de Béziers, usurps the lordship of Carcassonne. The people appeal to Raymond from his oppressions. He becomes a vassal of Raymond. By marriage and inheritance Raymond acquires Besalu (1111), Provence, and Cerdagne (1117), and conquers Majorca. Provence passes on his death to his son Berengar.

1131 Raymond V.

1137 On Raymond’s betrothal to Petronilla, daughter of Ramiro the Monk, king of Aragon, he is declared heir to the throne of Aragon and assumes the administration of that kingdom.

1150 Marriage of Raymond and Petronilla confirms union of Catalonia and Aragon.