In defense, a force is divided into the fighting line with supports, and the reserve. The latter furnishes the outposts and the garrisons for the advanced positions (so-called temporary positions). The object of advanced positions is to mislead, deceive, and check the enemy. They are to be evacuated before the troops in them become seriously engaged. It is not considered necessary for the main position to consist of a continuous line of trenches; every platoon and even every squad may have its own trench. The principal requirements are good field of fire and mutual support by oblique or enfilade fire.

The strength of the garrison is to be governed by the size of the field of fire and the character of the works. The regulations state that, under favorable conditions, a few men can defend a broad front, but that, when the attack is favored by the terrain, a strong garrison is required. Firing trenches, unless they are to serve as dummy intrenchments, are not to be constructed so as to stand out against the horizon. The importance of masking firing trenches, and of constructing overhead cover is emphasized; special cover trenches for the supports may be constructed in rear of the crest.

Against skirmishers, fire is to be opened at 1000 m., but it is also considered desirable to withhold the fire until they get within short range. It is believed that this will be attended by success when the assailant is ignorant of the position of the defender or makes his attack with poorly disciplined troops. Continuous long range firing tires the eye and the hand. The decision is to be brought about by a counter-attack made by the general reserve. Local counter-attacks by section reserves are also recommended. The tendency of the British to make the section reserves very strong has been frequently observed. The final stage of the combat consists, as in Wellington’s day, of a counter-attack all along the line. As soon as the opponent has arrived within assaulting distance, the troops holding the position are to fix bayonets and, after delivering magazine fire, are to make a short frontal counter-attack.

The Japanese views coincide almost exactly with the German, but take their peculiar theater of war into consideration.

Kinds of fire. Fire at will, volley fire, and rapid fire are used.

Rushes are not to exceed 100 m. in length, as a rule, but the regulations admonish leaders to “guard against the mistake of making rushes that are too short. When rushes are shorter than 30-40 m., their value will be insignificant, as a rule.” Leaders are likewise to avoid sending forward units smaller than a platoon, in order that the advance may not be too much retarded and the difficulties of leading increased.

The regulations particularly emphasize that it will rarely be possible “to shoot an enemy out of his position”, and that, on this account, the decision will, as a rule, be brought about by the assault with cold steel. They further state that, when the enemy can be kept down by artillery fire, the advance of the infantry will be easy; that, as it is difficult to obtain a timely effect from artillery fire directed upon an enemy who takes advantage of cover or who occupies a fortified position, the infantry cannot wait for the successful termination of the artillery combat, but, on the contrary, should advance while that combat is in progress, for only by so doing can it count upon the effective coöperation of its artillery. But, nevertheless, infantry is to make the attack independently, even if it has to dispense entirely with the coöperation of the artillery.

The regulations consider the rencontre and the attack on a position prepared for defense.

Rencontre. The regulations prescribe that in a rencontre the advance guard should make a vigorous but, at the same time, deliberate attack; that the commander should promptly decide what to do, even if the situation is not entirely clear; and that, when practicable, the main body should be launched as an entity. A fight against a superior enemy is only to be avoided, for the time being, in case the latter has gained a start in deployment.

Attack on a position prepared for defense. The commander frames his plan of attack according to the results of the reconnaissance, and leads his troops forward provisionally into a preparatory position, where he assigns deployment spaces and, if practicable, combat sections to the different units. In order that they may utilize the covering features of the ground to the best advantage, the different units are to avoid advancing abreast. On account of the difficulties attending an advance over ground swept by hostile fire, it is considered desirable for the troops to take advantage of the cover afforded by darkness. In order that, in such a case, serious lateral displacements of the troops may be avoided, the fighting line is to be sent forward the day before to endeavor to drive back the troops posted in front of the enemy’s main position. The regulations state that, when an attack is contemplated to be made during daylight against a strong position prepared for defense, there is no alternative but to approach the assaulting position by intrenching successive attack positions, but that, when circumstances permit, an attempt must be made to advance under cover of darkness to the enemy’s position. In the latter case, the assaulting position is to be designated during the day, after a thorough reconnaissance, and detailed preparations are to be made for the advance. As soon as the troops arrive during the night in the selected position, they are to construct cover quickly, and to intrench. When the ground is so hard that intrenching tools cannot be used without difficulty, recourse is to be had to the sand bags that are carried along. The men engaged in digging trenches are at all times to be ready for action.

The regulations state that whether a force which has occupied an assaulting position should make the assault immediately at dawn or should first prepare it by fire, will depend on circumstances; and that, if attempted at dawn, the success of the assault will depend on the suddenness and rapidity with which it is carried out. The reconnaissance of the position and the work of removing obstacles is to be completed, if possible, during the night, so that avenues of approach will be open for the assaulting troops.

If the reconnaissance has gained all the necessary information, and if the preparations are completed, the assault may be made before the night is over. The regulations say that, when an assault is made at night, the distance to be covered should be very short; and that it will depend on circumstances whether the assault is made suddenly, directly from the last firing position, or whether it is carried out upon the completion of works of approach. When necessary the assaulting bodies are to carry along hand grenades and demolition tools, the latter being selected in conformity with the results of the reconnaissance.

The regulations state that to have captured a position does not suffice; that only the pursuit and dispersion of the enemy makes the victory complete. The troops that have penetrated into the hostile position are to continue the advance until they again find a field of fire, whereupon they are to fire upon the retreating enemy. The troops which do not take part in this fire are to re-form quickly, secure the captured position, take requisite measures for security, and make preparations to meet any hostile counter-attack. Troops are not to be assembled in large bodies at points exposed to hostile artillery fire. As soon as the enemy has gotten out of range, all the troops are promptly to resume the forward movement, and are to pursue him vigorously so far as due regard for cohesion and order permits.

Intrenching tools are to be used in attacks on fortified positions, and in strengthening ground captured from the enemy.

In defense, the Japanese regulations, like the German, provide for economical occupation of the front (group fortifications) and a general reserve, which is to be used offensively or to protect the flanks. Dummy intrenchments, patrols, and outposts are to make it difficult for the enemy to gain information of the defensive position. The Japanese views in regard to advanced positions are not so pronounced as the German, for, while their regulations mention the combat of the outposts pushed forward from the position, the danger of advanced positions is not especially emphasized.

The training of the soldier is to be such that even after he has fired away all of his ammunition, he will still defend his position with the bayonet.

Nothing is said in regard to the distance of the infantry position from that of the artillery. If information is received that the attacker has made a lodgment during the night in the assaulting position, small detachments are to advance and prevent him from strengthening his position.

The present regulations only treat of the formal matters of training and combat.

There is considerable similarity between the Swiss and the German regulations. The keynote is the offensive. The purpose of the combat and the condition of the troops are to govern the commander in deciding whether to stand on the defensive or to attack. The regulations state that decisive results are only offered by the attack; that considerations of a presumable hostile superiority and other apparently unfavorable conditions should not diminish the energy of the attack; and that the decision to launch the troops should never be made dependent upon the receipt of reports in regard to the enemy.

The offensive is invariably to be assumed, unless the situation or the mission compel the force to stand on the defensive. The regulations state that, in attack, success does not rest alone upon superiority of fire and superiority of numbers; but that an impetuous advance and an unswerving determination to win are of just as much importance. The conduct of the Swiss attack varies, depending upon whether it is made in a rencontre or on a position prepared for defense.

The views entertained in regard to the rencontre coincide with the German views. The regulations say that the result of the reconnaissance should not be awaited, because success depends largely upon prompt action. The commander may launch parts of his main body in succession, as soon as they arrive, when the force is operating in close country, when it is necessary to gain ground quickly on debouching from a defile, or when the enemy makes an impetuous advance. The commander is to direct all his efforts toward throwing the enemy upon the defensive, and then to launch the main body as an entity.

The Swiss regulations, similar to those of the Japanese, only discuss the attack on a fortified position; various modifications of the attack, depending upon the preparations made by the enemy, are authorized. Advantage is to be taken of the cover afforded by darkness, and an extensive use is to be made of intrenching tools. The regulations state that an assault by day only has a chance of succeeding when the defender is completely subdued, and when only insignificant obstacles and defenses are encountered. When this is not the case, the day is to be used for making preparations for the attack, and the night for executing it.

The regulations consider the involuntary defense in a rencontre; the deliberately prepared defense seeking a decision and contemplating an assumption of the offensive; the defense for the purpose of gaining time; and the occupation of a position in readiness, when the direction in which the hostile attack will be made is still in doubt, or when the commander intends to assail the enemy while the latter is in the act of deploying. In the defense seeking a decision, advanced positions are not to be used, because it is believed that the employment of detachments of troops in front of the defensive position will weaken the latter, and a hostile enveloping attack will soon force the advanced troops to fall back upon the main position. The regulations point out that if the advanced troops are supported by fire from the main position, the latter will be prematurely disclosed to the assailant. The employment of advanced troops is, however, considered justifiable to hold defiles, to deceive the enemy, or to support the cavalry.

The works of a position are not to be continuous, but are to be constructed in groups. Infantry positions over which artillery is to fire are not to be less than 500 m. in front of the latter.