[142] At Paardeberg (18th March, 1900), the left wing of the Highland Brigade advanced, without firing a shot, to within 450 m. of the hostile position. This advance, to be sure, was made under cover of the fire of the right wing of the 9th Brigade, which had made a lodgment within 750 m. of the enemy’s position.
Errors in estimating the range are offset by the flat trajectory of the rifle only at short ranges, and only at these ranges can there be any question of an effective preparation of the attack by fire. These views are expressed in the German regulations.
Recent wars demonstrate that, whenever the attacker opened fire at long ranges, the attack finally came to a standstill, that the troops in many cases fired away all their ammunition, and that the whole attack failed.
“Whenever the attacking regiment opened fire this was unfortunately a sign that the attack had been repulsed.” This remark made by Kuropatkin in regard to the fight of the Russian infantry (center group) on Sept. 11th, 1877, at Plevna, is characteristic of the Russian ideas. On the occasion referred to, the Russians advanced on the Turkish works without fire preparation; the firing lines halted 400 to 600 m. from the Turkish position and commenced firing. They succumbed because it never occurred to the leaders to reinforce them and attempt to gain a superiority of fire. Even in Skobeleff’s attack there was no sign of actual fire preparation, but, as soon as the line halted, strong reinforcements were pushed in to carry it forward. The attack, made on a front of about 800 m., suffered heavy losses, but succeeded, although all organizations were in complete disorder. After advancing 1000 m., the decimated first line (8 battalions) halted; fifteen fresh companies carried it forward some 150 m.; then Skobeleff threw in twenty companies in one body, which carried the line forward to within approximately 100 to 150 m. of the work. At this moment Skobeleff threw himself into the fight and succeeded in taking the Turkish position with his badly cut up troops. Doubtless an act of undeniable gallantry, but not one worthy of imitation.
The war between Servia and Bulgaria (1885) is very instructive in this connection. As in 1859, 1870 and 1877, that force was defeated, which, trusting to the superiority of its rifles, opened fire at long ranges. The Servian skirmishers often did not even get within decisive range of the position of their opponents.
The British infantry, armed with a long range rifle equipped with an excellent rear sight arrangement, allowed itself to be enticed, by the long range fire of the Boers, into opening fire at 1200 and 1300 m. (Guard at Modder River) and even at 1600 and 1700 m. (6th Division at Paardeberg) against an enemy whose position was not discernible even through the most powerful glasses. The losses were small and not to be compared with those which our Guard suffered without firing, during their advance on St. Privat. The advance of the Gordon Highlanders at Doornkop (29th May, 1900) to within short range of the hostile position, without firing a shot, although they themselves were under fire from 2000 m. on, was splendid.[143]
[143] The Times History of the War in South Africa, IV, p. 141.
Since the assailant presents larger targets than the defender, and the latter can make preparations for firing, ascertain ranges, construct rifle-rests, and replenish ammunition without difficulty, it is proper in defense to open fire at long ranges, especially in delaying actions, for then fighting at short ranges is to be avoided in any case. It is absolutely correct for the defender to make the most of the advantages above mentioned. While everything is orderly and in readiness in the defender’s firing line, the attacker’s line is still in the process of forming. Should the defender wait until the hostile firing line has systematically deployed and has made a lodgment within short range of his position, or should he produce losses and create confusion in its ranks by suddenly opening fire?
The employment of long range fire on the defensive is justified when sufficient ammunition is available, when artillery is not present, and when the hostile infantry pursues the tactics of advancing to short range without firing. “Infantry should never attempt to take the place of artillery at long ranges or compete with the fire of that arm.” If it is important for the attacker to reach the extreme limit of mid ranges with as little firing as possible, the defender should in the first place fire on him with artillery, and, when this does not suffice or is not available, with infantry, so as to prevent him from accomplishing his object.
At mid ranges the efficacy of the defender’s fire is so great, when directed upon an infantry line advancing without fire support, that it becomes an important factor. At ranges from 1000 to 600 m., 8 to 25% hits can be counted on when the fire is directed against advancing skirmishers; and even assuming an error of 1⁄8 in the estimated range, 3 to 12% hits may still be expected. (Par. 623, p. 196, German I. F. R.).
If the attacker is unable to hide from the defender’s fire by using cover, his losses will increase until they become unbearable; his attack will hesitate, and he will commence firing. Fresh troops are necessary to carry the attacking line forward anew. The success of the defense is assured, if the defender is able to prevent the attacking force from getting within short range of the position. The defender’s chance of making a successful counter-attack disappears, however, as soon as the attacking force makes a lodgment within short range of the position; for the closer the defender is pressed, the closer will he be tied to his position. While the superiority of fire enjoyed by the defender at mid ranges allows him perfect freedom of action, at short ranges the attacker’s fire imposes conditions upon the defense which make the growing power of the attack sensibly felt. The moment the defender begins firing, however, he becomes at once a favorable target for the artillery of the attacking force. The defender frequently betrays his position prematurely by opening fire.
The moral effect of withholding the fire (fire surprise) is very great.[144] A strong fire will be actually annihilating if suddenly directed upon the enemy at short ranges, especially if he is still in unsuitable formations, owing to his ignorance of the defender’s position. (Example: The British brigade under Hart at Colenso, 15th Dec., 1899, and the Highland Brigade at Magersfontain, 11th Dec., 1899) or if the morale of his troops is questionable.[145] What good troops should do in such a situation (employ rapid fire and then advance to the assault) is shown by the conduct of the IInd Battalion of the 20th Infantry at Coulomiers.[146] Steady nerves and iron discipline are, however, prerequisites for the execution of a fire surprise by the defender.
[144] Marshal Bugeaud gives a very graphic description of the moral effect of fire in his Aperçus sur quelques détails de guerre, based upon his experiences in the fights with the British in the Peninsula: “The men began to get excited when still 1,000 m. from the enemy; they talked to each other; the march became more and more hurried; and disorder appeared here and there in the columns. The British remained quietly at order arms; their calm demeanor was not without effect upon our young soldiers. We approached closer, the men shouting: ‘Vive l’empéreur! En avant, à la baionette!’ Shakos were raised upon the points of bayonets; the march became a double time; the ranks became mixed; the excitement caused confusion here and there; and a few shots were fired from the column. The British continued to stand immovable, and seemed to pay no attention to us even when only 300 paces separated the two forces.
“The contrast was apparent. Everyone felt that he would have to deal with an opponent tried in battle; that the fire so long withheld by the enemy would surely be annihilating. Our fighting ardor cooled; the moral power which calmness, even when only apparent, exercises over confusion, which seeks to drown itself in noise, made itself felt in our ranks. At this moment, when the highest tension had been reached, the British line raised its rifles—an indescribable feeling rooted many of our men to the spot—and began to fire. The volleys, coolly delivered against a narrow front, plowed through our ranks; we wavered, decimated though we were, in order to recover; then three overpowering cheers from the opponents’ line, which rushed forward to the bayonet attack, and everybody turned to seek safety in disorderly flight.”
[145] The defense of the cemetery at Beaune la Rolande. Hönig, Volkskrieg, pp. 157 to 212.
[146] Dec. 15th, 1870. Geschichte des Regiments Nr. 20, p. 246. Kortzfleisch, Feldzug gegen den Loir, p. 81.
Long range fire was employed with success on the defensive by the French at St. Privat (the Germans suffered the most serious losses at ranges from 1200 to 1000 m.) and by the Turks at Plevna. At 1500 m. the Russian losses were such that they were obliged to begin advancing by rushes. The losses decreased as the enemy’s position was approached. The long range fire had produced a retarding but by no means an annihilating effect. On the other hand, the fire of the defender, at extremely short ranges, had a telling effect at Beaune la Rolande; in the defense of Chagey on the Lisaine;[147] in the defense of Shipka Pass (200 to 300 paces) by the Russians, and in the engagement at Gorni Bugarov (1st Jan., 1878). Whenever the attacker enters the short range zone while still in unsuitable formations, his losses increase until they become annihilating. (Example: The bayonet attacks made by the Austrians at Nachod and Trautenau).[148]
[147] Kunz, Entscheidungskämpfe des Korps Werder, II, pp. 53, 93 and 143. The village was situated in a valley and had only a limited field of fire.
[148] Kühne, Kritische Wanderungen, I, pp. 73 and 139; III, pp. 86 and 113. As regards flatness of trajectory and accuracy, the power of the needle gun (Zündnadelgewehr) at point blank range (280 m.) corresponds to the effect of rifle model ’98 at approximately 800 to 900 m. At Nachod the regiments named below suffered in two hours the losses given:
| Regiment. | Strength; men. |
Loss, men; prisoners included. |
Prisoners. | Percent- age. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 20th Infantry | 2,500 | 722 | 165 | 28.8% |
| 60th Infantry | 2,500 | 685 | 185 | 27.4% |
Austria. “In attack, everything must be done to get as close as possible to the enemy before fire is opened.” In each fire position the fire should be delivered with steadiness and without haste.
In defense, fire is to be opened as soon as appropriate targets appear within effective range. Sometimes—especially in minor operations—it may be advantageous to let the enemy come up close and then open fire on him suddenly.
A decisive fire effect can only be counted on when the targets are situated within effective range. Ineffective fire is a waste of ammunition which impairs the morale of one’s own troops and raises that of the enemy. For firing at long ranges it is necessary to consider whether a sufficient amount of ammunition is available. Long range fire should, in any case, be used only when the size of the target makes an adequate fire effect probable, and when the range is known, or can be ascertained with accuracy. In long range fire the use of small units, each expending a large amount of ammunition, is as a rule to be recommended. The distribution and concentration of fire should be regulated by the officer charged with fire direction.
“Effective fire, delivered suddenly, especially when taking an enemy in flank or in reverse, even when delivered only by relatively small forces, shakes the morale of the enemy in the most effective manner.” (Fire surprise). “Under certain circumstances, but especially when the enemy has used up all, or nearly all, of his reserves, comparatively small detachments, skillfully led, can contribute materially to success, or even bring about the decision, if they are able to get on the enemy’s flank or rear and open fire on him suddenly at short range.” Such fire surprises should be attempted when the conditions essential for their success are present.[149]
[149] In minor operations this would be a proper place for the employment of large scouting detachments, the importance of which decreases with the size of the contending forces. Such tasks can, however, be just as well performed by a well-trained body of infantry.
France. In attack, fire is opened as late as possible, at any rate not until the losses make it necessary to discontinue the forward movement. Fire is the only means which makes a further advance possible.
In defense, long range fire may be used under certain circumstances. “Sudden and violent rafales delivered at short range take the attacker by surprise if, all at once, he loses a great many men.”
England (1905). Attack. Infantry is to advance as close as possible to the enemy before opening fire; small losses must be endured. Fire is decisive under 540 m. (600 yds.). Artillery and infantry should support each other. Attention is called to the support afforded advancing skirmishers by the fire of infantry units and machine guns held in rear. The British are thus the first to prescribe “fire of position.” Their Firing Regulations require that “fire of position” be practiced by company at a range of 900 m. The company forms line of skirmishers (2-pace intervals) while movable disappearing targets are placed opposite it. The fire is to increase in intensity when the attacking infantry advances over level ground or finds obstacles; it is discontinued when cover is reached. “Fire of position” is not without danger, but seems to be practicable occasionally. Aside from its employment in “fire of position,” long range fire is to be used in attack in the following cases: In enveloping movements for the purpose of enfilading the enemy’s line; when favorable targets present themselves; in containing actions or in feints; in concentrated collective fire; and finally in pursuit. Defense: Fire is to be opened at 1000 m. on skirmishers, but it may be advantageous to withhold it until the hostile line comes within short range. This will give good results when the enemy is in ignorance of the defender’s position, or when the attack is made by poorly disciplined troops. Continued long range fire tires the eye and the hand.
Italy. In attack, the firing line is to reach the extreme limit of short range (500 m.) with as little firing as possible; to open fire before this with a part of the advancing force is only permissible when necessary to carry the line forward. Defense. As soon as the defender has a chance of obtaining some fire effect, he should open fire to prevent the attacking infantry from getting within short range. Fire at long (up to 1800 m.) and at mid ranges (up to 1000 m.) may also be used for this purpose. The battalion commander determines when fire is to be opened.
From what has been said in the preceding pages as to the time when infantry should open fire, we may deduce the following General Rules:—
It is permissible to open fire at an early moment only in exceptional cases when the situation requires it; good preparation, which assures the efficacy of fire and a high moral effect from the very beginning, is of greater importance.
The attacker should advance without firing to ranges at which an adequate fire effect against the low targets presented by the defender may be expected. To open fire at an earlier moment is permissible only when the defender’s fire is so strong that effective ranges cannot be reached without firing. Long range fire is only a means to an end. In a pursuit long range fire will, however, be employed for the purpose of annoying the enemy.
[150] In Manchuria the Russians, when on the defensive, opened fire on favorable targets at 1,500 m.; on skirmish lines at 1,000 m.
Fire may be opened at long ranges when sufficient ammunition is available, only when the object is to gain time, and in decisive actions, when the enemy presents favorable targets and we have no artillery. Unless other reasons prevent, fire is opened as soon as targets are clearly discernible and easily brought into line with the sights. It is advisable to withhold the fire when the hostile artillery is superior, when the opponent’s troops are of poor quality, and when it is impossible to surprise the enemy with our fire while he is in unsuitable formations. In defense, as in attack, the decision must be sought by the employment of rapid fire at short range.
[151] A Russian company commander contributes the following in Mitteilungen der Infanterie Schieszschulen: “On Sept. 3rd, 1904, the fire in one of the trenches at Liao Yang lasted throughout the entire day. The men were finally completely exhausted; their shoulders, hands and fingers stiff. They had to be given some rest, and something to eat and drink. Then the fire was resumed, only to die down again. The fire of the skirmishers was not very effective, as they were completely exhausted and used up.”
Swiss. Firing Regulations p. 44: “It may be advantageous in defense to fire on the attacker only until he himself opens fire, and then to remain under cover until he resumes his forward movement. A prompt resumption of the fire by the defender must, however, be assured.”
France. “The fire should cease when the hostile infantry halts and takes to cover; its volume is increased as soon as the assailant resumes his forward movement, or when he shows himself in dense formations on open ground.”
The efficacy of fire depends upon its accuracy, its direction with reference to the target, and its volume. In the past, pauses in the fire were necessary to allow the powder smoke to clear away; at present they are of advantage because they give the men a breathing spell; rest eyes and nerves; enable ammunition to be distributed, and allow preparations to be made for concerted action. In making use of such pauses good cover, good observation of the enemy and instant readiness for resuming the fire are essential. In a serious engagement the men either maintain a vigorous, animated fire or they rest. If the advancing enemy takes to cover, the fire must cease, only to be resumed with full vigor when favorable targets appear. The attacker (like the British in South Africa advancing against the Boers) will in many cases—especially at the beginning of a campaign—be deceived into believing that the defender has withdrawn; should the attacker now advance, the defender, by suddenly resuming his fire, will surprise him to such an extent that he may be repulsed.[152] Pauses in the fire are a practical expedient for maintaining fire discipline and enable the leader to keep his troops in hand. An organization is capable of performing its duty well, so long as it obeys the command “cease firing.” It might be well at this point to determine when the defender should change his rear sight elevations if the attacker advances by rushes. At mid ranges it might be advisable to stop firing, so as to present no target to the enemy when his line throws itself down after a rush, and to utilize this interruption for changing the rear sight elevation. When this is done during a forward rush of the enemy, the rapidity of fire will suffer at the most favorable moment for bringing an effective fire to bear upon the enemy.
[152] Compare Hönig, Vierundzwanzig Stunden Moltkescher Strategie, p. 145, relative to the various opinions entertained in the staffs of Generals v. Göben and Steinmetz in regard to the pause in the fire of the French at Point du Jour. Der 18. August, pp. 269, 271 and 352.
In the days of slow loading rifles of limited range, the importance of the volley was due to the fact that it enabled the leader to develop the greatest volume of fire in tactically favorable moments, or, in other words, when large targets were visible for a short time. Modern combat is conducted under different conditions. When black powder was used the volley had the advantage of permitting the powder smoke to clear away during the pauses. This advantage has now also disappeared.
In the Russo-Japanese war, the Japanese used “fire at will” almost exclusively. Volleys were used by them only at long ranges; by troops held in rear and, after an assault, to get the men in hand. These views are not changed in the new regulations, but immediately after firing a volley the men are to re-load without command. Rapid fire is retained. The Russians placed their faith principally in volley fire,[153] but were soon forced to resort to fire at will. The Russian regulations recommended volley fire up to the decisive firing position, not so much because of a belief in the superior efficacy of this kind of fire, but out of distrust of the individual training of their men; certainly an admission of the deficiency of that kind of training in their army. It was feared that fire at will would impair fire discipline and cause waste of ammunition, and it was believed that the immediate influence of superiors could not be dispensed with. Even the new provisional regulations have not discarded volley fire, which may be employed by section or by platoon. Fire at will may be divided into slow fire (one shot from each squad) and lively fire with counted cartridges.
[153] At Nicholson’s Neck (24th Oct., 1899) the British leaders ordered their men, who were firing at will on the Boers advancing from cover to cover (“Boer Attack”) to discontinue that fire, and to use volleys only. But the enemy consistently avoided presenting large targets to the British volley fire.
Germany. Volleys (pars. 106-108 German I. F. R.) are to be employed by platoons or companies when in close order; in skirmish line (par. 193 German I. F. R.) only when the enemy is surprised or the organization is to be kept firmly in hand. Volleys, however, can be used only when the troops themselves are not exposed to an effective fire. An organization will be able to ascertain the range by means of trial volleys only in exceptional cases.
“The highest attainable rate of fire—the word rapid fire has been elided—is to be used in attack during the preparation for the assault; in defense to repulse a hostile assault; in warding off a cavalry charge; in all combat situations in which a sudden or immediate collision with the enemy occurs; and, finally, in pursuit.” (Par. 208 German I. F. R.).
Fire at will is used both in extended and close order.
“Il n’y a de feu practicable devant l’ennemi que celui à volonté.” Napoleon.[154]
[154] “Fire at will is the only kind of fire practicable when engaged with the enemy.” Napoleon.
“It may be objected that one frequently reads in military history of effective volleys. The explanation of this is that many of the so-called volleys mentioned in accounts were volleys only in name. In a few instances the defender endeavored to fire volleys, but usually their effect was insignificant.” v. Boguslawski.
“Fire at will was forbidden. Volley fire was used only by direction of the commanders of the battalion sections of the line. The order to fire volleys quickly ran along the trenches. For a few minutes a certain amount of unrest was noticeable among the men, which, if allowed to continue, might have degenerated into confusion and later perhaps into disorderly flight.
“The first volley was not quite successful. It was ragged—some men even firing a second time without waiting for the command, an example likely to be followed by the others. The force was on the point of getting out of hand. Volleys fired by neighboring sections drowned the voice of the commander. In such situations only personal experience and resourcefulness can tell a company commander what to do. We recommend a course which has always been attended with success in practice. Let the officer commanding a section jump upon the parapet and from there give the order ‘cease firing.’ Then, if the enemy’s fire permits, and his own heart is stout enough, let him order the next volley from his position on the parapet. When once the force is again under control, the volleys will be as good as if the enemy were not so close.” Kuropatkin-Krahmer Kritische Rückblicke auf den Russisch-Türkischen Krieg, II, pp. 304 and 310.
In his Comments on Drill Regulations (16th Nov., 1840) Prince William, subsequently Emperor William I. of Germany, says:
“I am personally opposed to volleys by battalion. I am of the opinion that in war volleys and file fire will seldom be used. Should this fire be used, however, no one will be able to stop file firing after volley firing, even though not ordered, because in my opinion it is impossible to combat human nature, which finds more security in rapid loading and firing than in awaiting the commands....”
Russian experiences in Manchuria. “At first volleys by formed bodies of troops were attempted, but later fire at will was used. In the latter, the men were forbidden to hurry, were instructed to bring their pieces down to the ‘ready,’ and, whenever it was possible to see the enemy—who was advancing by rushes—to change their rear sight elevations at the whistle signal of their commander.... When at a distance from the enemy the men remained cool and fired faultless volleys. When the enemy came closer the volleys deteriorated. The Russians used only fire at will at ranges under 800 paces. This enabled the men to fire on individual hostile skirmishers and to place the boldest out of action.” Soloviev.
Austria. Volleys are employed, as a rule, only by bodies in close order, for the purpose of finding the range, and for firing upon targets which appear suddenly at long range and which will probably be visible for only a short time. Fire at will is the principal kind of fire used, the rate of fire being increased or decreased by the men according to the existing situation. When necessary, the leaders should regulate the fire; but this should only be done in exceptional cases as the men are apt to increase rather than diminish the rate of fire (“Rapid fire”).
The maximum rate of fire is to be employed: “In attack, for the purpose of gaining a superiority of fire at short range; in defense, for the purpose of warding off an impending assault. It is moreover to be used to inflict the greatest possible losses on a defeated enemy as long as he is within effective range; and, finally, in fire surprises, repulse of cavalry attacks, and in rencontres with the enemy.”
France. The French Lebel rifle has a cylindrical magazine situated under the stock and has a capacity of eight cartridges which have to be loaded singly. As a rule, fire with counted cartridges is employed (feu à cartouches comptées) for the purpose of obtaining a “burst of fire” (rafale). The rafale consists of firmly controlled, concentrated, collective fire. Fire at will (feu à volonté) is also used, eight rounds per minute being fired at the short ranges. The rapidity of this fire at will may be increased up to 12 rounds per minute by employing the cartridges in the magazine (feu à répétition). One minute is required to fill the magazine. Volleys are to be employed in night combats and when it becomes necessary to control the men. In exceptional cases individual men are directed to fire.
England and Switzerland. The only fire employed is fire at will. The rapidity of this fire varies according to the nature of the target and the range.
Italy. Fire at will (in close order in two or four ranks).
Japan and Russia. (See p. 157, supra).
As regards its rate, fire may be divided into three classes, viz., slow fire, accelerated fire, and rapid fire. The command “fire more slowly” (or more rapidly) serves only the purpose of diminishing (or increasing) the rate of fire.
The rate of fire depends upon the purpose of action, the character of the target, and the available ammunition. Unfavorable illumination and the difficulty of clearly distinguishing the target at long ranges will reduce the rate of fire. The aiming position (i.e., whether the rifle is fired from a prone position or from a rest) also affects the rate of fire. A well trained company at peace strength will, moreover, be able to fire more rapidly than one on a war footing.
Hurried firing should unquestionably be condemned. The rapidity with which our rifles can be loaded enables us to produce the maximum fire effect in the minimum time against narrow targets. The desire of the soldier to make every shot a hit, carefully inculcated in time of peace, will of itself regulate the rate of fire. As the rate of fire depends upon the distinctness with which the target can be seen, it will naturally increase as the range decreases, thus generally corresponding to the requirements of the tactical situation. Moreover, as it is easier to aim at tall targets than at head targets, this also exercises either an accelerating or a retarding effect, as the case may be. Lieutenant-General Rohne has done a great deal to bring about a correct appreciation of the rate of fire. He states: “The opposition to an increased rate of fire is perhaps due to the belief that it is invariably coupled with a reduction in accuracy. This is not the case, however, and even if it were true to a certain extent, it need not necessarily be harmful. To be sure, when a high rate of fire is solely due to the excitement of the skirmishers, it is unquestionably to be condemned because no attempt is made at aiming; but when it is the product of systematic peace training, it need not necessarily preclude good aiming. It is entirely consistent with a high rate of fire to load and point quickly, to keep the target constantly in view, and, at the same time, to aim accurately and to pull the trigger without flinching.
“The leader who reduces the rapidity of fire in battle in order to save ammunition, wastes lives and time, both more valuable than ammunition. Disabled soldiers are more difficult to replace than ammunition, and lost time cannot be replaced at all.”[155]
[155] Schieszlehre für die Infanterie, 2nd Edition.
A high rate of fire need by no means be synonymous with waste of ammunition. Ammunition would unquestionably be wasted if fire were delivered for hours at the same high rate. It is very probable, however, that in the battles of the future the fire will be moderate for some time, or, better still, cease entirely, only to break forth like a thunderstorm over the enemy when opportunity offers or necessity demands. The slower the troops fire the longer they will present a target to the enemy. The coolness shown in firing individual shots at the commencement of an action will disappear owing to the impression produced by losses. This is apparent even in field firing. Lieutenant-General Rohne arrives at the following average results:
| Ranges | up to | 400 | m. | 5 | rounds | per | minute; | ||||
| „ | from | 400 | - | 700 | „ | 4 | - | 5 | „ | „ | „ |
| „ | „ | 700 | - | 1000 | „ | 3 | - | 4 | „ | „ | „ |
| „ | „ | 1000 | - | 1300 | „ | 2 | - | 3 | „ | „ | „ |
| „ | „ | 1300 | - | 1500 | „ | 1 | - | 4 | „ | „ | „ |
| „ | over | 1500 | „ | 1 | „ | „ | „ | ||||
Troops going into action for the first time are inclined to fire entirely too fast, due to their desire to overcome their nervousness. Veteran troops seek to attain the same result, not through rapidity of fire, but through accuracy. Only the determination to make hits is calculated to overcome nervousness. Wherever this determination is lacking, wild firing (fire panic), which is in any case difficult to prevent, will surely result. Fire delivered hurriedly during unexpected rencontres is almost invariably ineffective.[156] For this reason most of the firing regulations have eliminated the command “Rapid Fire,” which is only calculated to produce confusion.
[156] At Beaumont the 9th Company of the 27th Infantry, after a long advance at double time, encountered the flank of a hostile battalion. The men became excited, raised the leaves of their rear sights, and opened rapid fire, which had no effect whatever, as the range was only 200 paces. Geschichte des Regiments, Nr. 27, p. 95.
The Italian Firing Regulations contain the following statement in regard to the effect of accelerated fire (see p. 140 supra).[157]
[157] Consult also Schieszversuche der k. u. k. Armeeschieszschule seit dem Jahre 1900, Vienna, 1905. Rohne, Schieszlehre für die Infanterie, 2nd Edition, p. 132.
1. When the appropriate elevation is used, two-thirds of the percentage of hits obtained by firing 5-6 rounds from each rifle per minute, may be expected when firing at the rate of 12-14 rounds per minute.
2. When the elevation selected is too great or too small by 100 m., rapid fire produces almost the same percentage of hits as ordinary fire at will.
3. When the elevation selected is in error by 200 m., rapid fire produces almost twice as great a percentage of hits as fire at will.
From the above it follows that, when the appropriate elevation is not used, accelerated fire will inflict greater losses upon the enemy than ordinary fire at will in the same length of time. Within equal periods of time the actual number of hits will be greater in animated fire at will than in slow fire; but in the latter the percentage of hits will be higher.
Of all the different kinds of fire, the volley is best adapted to meet the requirement of keeping the troops in hand, of concentrating the fire, and thereby producing great moral effect. Volleys are of value to troops in ambush, in repulsing cavalry attacks, and in preventing premature firing against the wishes of the commander. They should be used against staffs which would be able to seek cover or spread out when exposed to fire at will.
As the men are, however, not equally skilled in loading their pieces, the rate of fire is very little increased by the use of volleys. The command “Fire” can only be given when the pieces of the entire unit are directed upon the target. The length of the pause between preliminary command and command of execution varies, depending upon the distinctness with which the target can be seen, the range, and the aiming position. When the fire is delivered from a prone position it will be difficult to determine when the command of execution should properly be given. Moreover, as fire from a standing or kneeling position will be the exception, this has contributed to eliminate volley firing on the battlefield, because the troops lack coolness—mental as well as physical—which is indispensable in every volley.
The material and moral effect of a volley is doubtless very considerable, but who could possibly make his voice heard when a deployed platoon of sixty men is firing? How about the efficacy of the fire when the men revert of their own accord from volleys to fire at will, which they will do when their officers are either killed or wounded and they themselves are exposed to fire?[158]
[158] During the advance on Flavigny (Vionville), the support of the 10th Company, 12th Infantry, was to move into the firing line for the purpose of firing volleys. “The volley was by no means a good one, however, and the men at once took up rapid fire. Lieutenant C—— jumped in front of the men to stop the firing, but was shot in the leg and crawled back. The rapid fire continued along the entire line.” Geschichte des Regiments, Nr. 12, p. 454.
During the war between Servia and Bulgaria the Servians always opened the infantry combat with volleys, but after casualties had occurred among the officers under the heavy fire of the enemy, the steady volley fire soon degenerated into wild, hurried fire at will, which produced no effect whatever.
If we use squad volleys (Russia), we approximate fire at will without any of its advantages, besides which, commands, given by so many leaders, tend to confuse the men. Moreover, it is very difficult to handle the platoon, to stop firing, to change target, and to initiate movements. Volley firing is therefore confined to the preparatory stage of combat and to rare moments in which the troops firing are not themselves under effective fire. In the defense of fortified positions many opportunities will be found for the employment of volley fire. The use of trial volleys for the purpose of testing the rear sight elevation will be confined to a few favorable cases, and it may be remarked that animated fire at will concentrated on some definite point produces the same results.
The French, who retained volleys longer than the other powers (to keep the men in hand, to regulate the expenditure of ammunition, and to direct a concentrated collective fire upon the most important target according to the will of the leader), found a substitute in the fire with counted cartridges,[159] the “burst of fire” (rafale).[160] This was also adopted by their artillery. In Germany, the importance of the sudden effect produced by these “bursts of fire” is recognized, but the same object is sought to be attained by training alone; while in Russia, fire with counted cartridges has been adopted, not for the purpose of obtaining rafale fire effect, but for keeping the men in hand. Rafale fire has the disadvantage that pauses in the fire are regulated formally, and that these pauses occur frequently at the very moment when a favorable target is still visible. Will the individual soldier remain cool in the excitement of battle and carefully count the three or five cartridges which he is to fire? In defense, rafale fire is proper, because the skirmisher in the defensive line is completely hidden during the pauses, while the attacker presents favorable targets only temporarily, thus justifying an increased expenditure of ammunition. In attack, suitable targets are rarely available for rafale fire, and a substitute for this fire must be sought in well directed, steadily delivered fire at will, interrupted by rushes to the front. During an attack, rafale fire might degenerate into wild, uncontrolled fire at will, the rapidity of which decreases only when the ammunition runs short. The employment of this class of fire might sometimes be advisable in action when it becomes necessary to hold the enemy, that is, in defensive situations. In this connection, one who is thoroughly familiar with the French army aptly says: “Rafale fire may be likened to the wild passes made by a man, backed up against a wall, for the purpose of warding off an adversary who is able to decide the controversy with one well-aimed blow.”