Infantry fire may produce either a stunning and paralyzing effect on the hostile forces, or it may gradually exhaust, wear out, and consume them. The fire will have a stunning and paralyzing effect when it is suddenly concentrated upon a narrow front, thereby producing fear and terror, provided actual losses are added to this moral effect.
On the other hand, the fire will gradually exhaust, wear out, and destroy the hostile forces when it is distributed for a prolonged period over an extended front. In this case the material losses suffered and the exhaustion of his physical energies may force the conviction on the enemy that he has no longer a chance to gain the victory. This conviction will cause a suspension of all his energies and consequently of his determination to fight.
At Modder River (28th November, 1899) the Boers opened fire on the British at 1000 m., although they had intended to hold their fire until the British arrived within 300 m. of the position.[129]
[129] General Minarelli-Fitzgerald, Die Gefechte in Natal und der Kap-Kolonie, 1899.
The miscarriage of the contemplated sudden burst of fire resulted in a fire fight, which tended to destroy gradually the physical and moral powers of the British. The Boers, however, gave this gradually destroying fire a paralyzing effect by concentrating it suddenly and continuously on tactically important targets that were comparatively easy to hit. Minarelli makes the following comments on the attack made by the British 9th Brigade and Brigade of Guards at Modder River: “All further attempts to induce the Guards to advance had to be abandoned. For hours they lay on the dearly bought ground under a blistering African sun, utilizing as cover every ant hill, every tuft of grass, on the apparently deserted battlefield, and being morally certain that to get up would draw a deadly hail of shot.” In regard to the fight of the 9th Brigade, the same author states: “Meantime the 9th Brigade fared no better. It had in part been able to get a little closer to the enemy (550 to 900 m.), but was then unable to advance farther. The actual losses were very small in the ten-hour fight, amounting only to seven per cent. The Highland Brigade, surprised at Magersfontain, fared still worse. The fight growing out of the surprise lasted almost ten hours. At the short range at which this action was fought, the Boer method of fire (i.e., to fire only when an enemy raised himself to get better aim, and then to employ only an effective concentrated fire) necessarily produced a depressing effect.”
In order that such a fire effect may be obtained, it is necessary that the individual soldier combine coolness and presence of mind with good marksmanship, and that company, platoon and squad leaders maintain fire control and fire direction.
Fire discipline is indispensable to fire control and fire direction. It embraces the conscientious execution of all orders and signals, as well as the scrupulous observation of all regulations bearing on the handling of the rifle and on combat in general. Fire discipline must be maintained even though the fire control and fire direction exercised by the leaders is imperfect or ceases entirely in the course of the action.
Fire discipline requires:
Perseverance under hostile fire, even when that fire cannot be returned; constant attention to the orders of the leaders, and careful observation of the enemy. It requires further, taking advantage of the ground; care in setting the sight and in delivery of fire; an increase of fire by individuals whenever the targets become more favorable, and a cessation of fire when the enemy disappears; finally, economy of ammunition.
The decision is prepared by the fire of infantry, supported by machine guns, field, and heavy artillery. The fire of troops pushed to within short range of the hostile position will in many cases suffice to induce the enemy to give way, so that the assault encounters nothing but evacuated or feebly defended works. The Boer war and the Russo-Japanese war demonstrate that determined troops will hold a position until the attacker has massed sufficient troops to charge, or at least until he threatens to attack with the bayonet. Examples: Terrayama, on October 11th, 1904. Assault made by the 2nd Division on March 1st, 1905, at Mukden, on Redouts 17 and 18.
Training in bayonet fencing has by no means lost importance, irrespective of the fact as to whether or not bayonets will ever be crossed in future. “Bayonet fencing is one of the most important means of strengthening the moral force of the individual soldier; of developing in him energy, initiative, and courage for making a dashing advance.”[130]
[130] Introduction to German Bayonet Fencing Regulations.
Since the armament of the different armies is almost the same, good individual marksmanship, coolness, fire control and fire direction, and firmly rooted fire discipline, are the deciding factors in an action in which two equal skirmish lines contend for the superiority of fire.
The principal object of fire control and fire direction is to bring about a superiority of fire at the decisive point by suddenly concentrating the fire of a large number of rifles upon it. This is the only way in which a moral effect may be produced on the troops against whom the fire is directed, while, at the same time, their losses attain such proportions as to become unbearable. At mid and long ranges, the efficacy of fire depends more on fire control and fire direction than upon good individual marksmanship.[131] Whenever the appropriate rear sight elevation is not used, the densest portion of the cone of dispersion will not strike the target, and the chances of its hitting the target diminish as the error in estimating the range and the standard of excellence of the marksmanship increase.
[131] See Rohne, Schieszlehre für die Infanterie, 3rd Edition, p. 85. “The importance of the line shot (i.e., a hit on the vertical stripe through the center of the German bull’s-eye target) in the marksmanship training of the soldier should by no means be underestimated, but rather appreciated at its true value. The line shot forms the basis of known distance firing, just as the latter forms the basis of field firing. Instruction in line shooting (i.e., hitting the vertical stripe of the German bull’s-eye target) becomes a moral factor of the highest value in field firing. It cannot be denied, however, that the importance of the line shot, as such, decreases with the range. Likewise all attempts to transfer the zone of the line shot from short to long ranges have completely failed.” Captain Krause, Die Gestaltung der Geschoszgarbe der Infanterie, Berlin, 1904, p. 1.
Fire control and fire direction lie in the hands of platoon commanders,[132] who regulate the fire as their judgment dictates. Fire control and direction embrace: the opening and cessation of fire; the designation of a target and of the elevation to be used; the kind of fire and its distribution; the number of rounds to be fired, and the observation of the effect of the fire. As a rule, the fire will be distributed over the whole front, but portions of the hostile line that are not clearly visible should by no means be neglected (distribution of fire). Regulations prescribing the scope of authority of individual leaders are not considered desirable. The platoon commander possesses in his squad leaders a medium for communicating with his platoon. (Pars. 162-165 German I. D. R.). The movements of the skirmishers, the correct comprehension of the target, the distribution of fire, the rate of fire, and the employment of the terrain to the best advantage, are regulated through the squad leaders. The lack of thoroughly drilled coöperation on the part of squad leaders inevitably results, as might be expected, in a so-called “skirmish mob.” The platoon commander cannot communicate directly with every individual man of his platoon, but he can control his platoon through his eight squad leaders, who, by reason of their position in the line, can exert the proper influence on their skirmishers.[133]
[132] The Belgian Firing Regulations require that the officer directing and controlling the fire fight be able to determine: 1. The time necessary to produce a certain effect with a given number of rifles; 2. The number of rounds necessary to produce a certain effect in a given period of time; 3. Whether a given target justifies the expenditure of ammunition in view of the situation or the efficacy of the fire. The requirements of the Italian Firing Regulations are similar.
[133] Austria: The position of the platoon leader is not so definitely fixed as in Germany; neither is it prescribed that squad leaders participate in the firing. In skirmish line fire control and fire direction are to remain as long as possible in the hands of the company commander. The battalion commander is charged with concentrating and distributing the fire; with reinforcing, at the proper time, the companies in the firing line; and with replenishing the ammunition. At long ranges he designates the companies that are to fire, and also the position from which fire is to be opened.
The squad leaders are charged with constantly supervising the setting of sights; the distribution, the careful delivery, and the rate of fire; and the expenditure of ammunition.
The squad leaders participate in the firing only when their duties as leaders permit; and this will frequently be the case in a prolonged engagement in the same position, especially at short ranges. These remarks apply also to the range finders.
In Italy and Switzerland the squad leaders participate in the firing when the whole platoon is engaged in a fire fight. The advantage of thus gaining a few better shots for the firing line is more than offset by the more careful supervision of the skirmishers as is required in Germany, France and Austria. The platoon leader unaided is in no position to supervise the proper use of the rifle and the expenditure of ammunition; his subordinates must assist him. It is also desirable to relieve the company commander from the actual duty of fire direction and fire control. The company commander is responsible for leading the company on the battlefield; this does not preclude his thoroughly supervising his platoons and observing the effect of their fire.
“Whenever the company commander is in the firing line, he selects and designates the target and gives orders for opening fire. He announces the range found by the range finders and observes the effect of the fire. Aside from this, he leaves fire control and fire direction to his platoon commanders, and interferes only when he desires to concentrate the fire of several platoons, or of the whole company, on a certain target, or when he observes something that has escaped the notice of the platoon commanders.” (Par. 216 German I. D. R.).
In the course of an action, fire control and fire direction will frequently be imperfect, whether this be due to the loss of the leaders, or to the difficulty of hearing commands in the noise of the combat. To provide for such contingencies, the skirmishers must be taught that, in the absence of fire control and fire direction, they may fire (not that they must fire) at all targets within 600 m.; that between 600 and 1200 m., they should fire at tall and wide targets only; and that, at ranges over 1000 m., as a rule, they should not fire at all.
In the pamphlet entitled, Actual Experiences in the Russo-Japanese War, p. 11, et seq., Captain Soloviev, 34th East Siberian Rifle Regiment, 1st Siberian Corps, states: “* * * There was an almost ungovernable tendency among the men, as soon as they had thrown themselves down, to open fire without orders; paying attention neither to the target designated, nor to setting their sights.
“This haste is, first of all, brought about by the desire of drowning the consciousness of danger by means of increased activity. * * * It is simply impossible to control and direct the fire when the men have not been carefully trained. The din of battle, the explosion of hostile projectiles, and the thunder of our own artillery make such a deafening roar that one can scarcely hear one’s own voice. The long firing lines make it extraordinarily difficult to transmit orders; even squad commanders can not make themselves understood. Volley firing must therefore be dispensed with.
“Only whistle signals, if repeated by all non-commissioned officers, can be heard; but the men must be trained to obey the whistle signal. With strictness and application much can be accomplished in this direction; it may even be possible to stop the firing along the whole length of the deployed company in the hottest phases of the fight.
“The difficulties of fire control and fire direction increase in proportion to the intensity of the hostile fire and the proximity of the enemy, especially on the defensive. The men get more and more restless, their nervous tension increases, the danger seems nearer and greater. In such a moment the leader must make every effort to keep his men in hand, and prevent the firing from degenerating into a wild blazing away at nothing. This is always a sign that the leader has lost control of his troops.
“The greatest obstacle to good fire control and fire direction is the nervousness that usually pervades troops which are not accustomed to active service. Only thorough peace training and strict fire discipline ensure the maintenance of order in battle and give the fire the necessary efficacy. * * * The more laborious the struggle, the more embittered the fight, the greater the losses, the more fatigue and nervous strain gain the upper hand, the greater and more important the role which the officer has to play. The success of the 200 men under his command depends entirely upon the company commander. The war in the Far East might well be called the war of company commanders. The soldiers watch their leader constantly and attentively. Two hundred lives depend upon his bearing, his determination, firmness, and personal bravery. The men judge the situation, the imminence of danger, success and failure, by the conduct of their leader. The authority of an officer may rise to great heights, but it may also sink very low. To show depression or faint-heartedness is fatal; the feeling of despondency is at once communicated to the men, the leader loses control of his command, and the mischief is done.
“In battle, more than anywhere else, the officer must be a commander and rule with an iron hand. Nowhere does discipline play as great a role as in action. Woe to the troops who have not in time of peace become thoroughly disciplined, to whom discipline has not become second nature! They will pay dearly for this deficiency in war.
“I have observed that in the most critical situations a resolute shout, in a correspondingly imperious tone, had a marvelously quieting effect upon the men. It is likewise advisable to make, here and there, a remark concerning routine duty. For example: ‘Why have the sights not been set in that platoon? Platoon commander, see at once that it is done.’ Because the commander is angry, and notices neglect, everything goes well, so the men reason, and no danger need be apprehended. The men quiet down, forget the whistling of the bullets, set their sights carefully, point their pieces properly, and aim again.”
While a good field of fire is indispensable for reaping the maximum benefit from the power of our rifles, the tactical situation is the determining factor in the choice of a position. The requirements as to a field of fire and the use to be made of it will vary, depending upon whether it is desired to avoid an engagement at short range (delaying action) or whether a decision is to be sought (decisive action). In the first case a free field of fire at short ranges may be dispensed with.
Cover may be used only to the extent that it does not interfere with constant observation of the enemy. It is not permissible to hide entirely behind cover, unless expressly ordered in each case. To rise from behind cover, for the purpose of firing, and to disappear subsequently behind that cover for loading, is out of the question in the firing line. This is physically impossible and much less attainable for psychological reasons; in addition, the skirmisher will present a much larger target than when lying down. When portions of the firing line cannot see the target during an attack, the platoon commander should consider this a hint, either to gain a better position farther to the front, or to suspend his fire temporarily. (Par. 190 German I. D. R.). In defense, in a similar case, cross fire would frequently be the proper expedient. The attacker will often see nothing except the heads of the skirmishers who must fire kneeling in order to sweep the foreground, while these men will present targets of half a man’s height to his bullets. Since smokeless powder is employed, it is important to select positions that cannot easily be found by the enemy. Positions in which the skirmishers are silhouetted against the sky line should be avoided whenever possible. Faintly illuminated targets, or those lying in the shade, are not fired on at all, according to all experience, while the fire is above all else directed against sharply outlined targets. The leaders must take to cover also, for in many cases single officers standing upright draw attention to the position. The extent of the position must be commensurate with the strength of the force; too dense a line reduces the efficacy of fire and increases the losses, while, on the other hand, too dispersed a force increases the difficulties of fire control and fire direction.
This depends upon the purpose of the action. Although a thin firing line may be employed when the situation is still in doubt (protection against surprise), it must be strong when the superiority of fire is to be attained. If the firing line is made too weak, we are condemned to fight a superior force continuously with an inferior one because we have voluntarily sacrificed the advantage of our numerical superiority. On the defensive, as soon as the direction of the hostile attack develops, the firing line is made as strong as seems necessary for holding the position. In a delaying action, however, we should endeavor to place as few men in action as possible; and to compensate for the lack of rifles by an increased expenditure of ammunition. All firing is done from the prone position, in so far as the ground permits. The French attempt to regulate the volume of fire by prescribing the number of rifles to be employed instead of designating the kind of fire to be used.
In Switzerland and England,[134] it is recommended that supports use “Fire of position” where the terrain is suitable (hilly country). The German Infantry Drill Regulations (par. 340) contain a similar provision. When the supports cannot see the firing line on account of the conformation of the ground, this fire is not likely to endanger the latter.
[134] Infantry Training, 1905, p. 132, par. 2; p. 134, pars. 1, 2; p. 136, par. 6; p. 155, par. 1. See p. 154, infra.
Efficacy of fire depends upon a knowledge of the range. An imperfect knowledge of the range may be compensated for by the flatness of the trajectory of the individual rifle and by the favorable conformation of the ground in respect to the cone of dispersion. In collective fire, at mid and long ranges, each rear sight graduation commands a beaten zone approximately 100 m. deep—good aim, proper elevation, and careful firing being presupposed. The nearer the target is to the densest portion of the cone of dispersion, the greater the efficacy of the fire.
The following results were obtained in Italian firing tests in which 100 skirmishers fired at a plate 1 m. high and 30 m. wide with the 6.5 mm. rifle:
| MEASURED RANGE. | ESTIMATED RANGE. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Slow fire[135] | Rapid fire[135] | Slow fire[135] | Rapid fire[135] | |
| Percentage of hits. |
Percentage of hits. |
Percentage of hits. |
Percentage of hits. |
|
| At 500 m. | 21.5 | 15.8 | 14.8 | 11.3 |
| At 1000 m. | 11.1 | 8.1 | 6.5 | 5.3 |
| At 1500 m. | 5. | 3.4 | 2.6 | 2.2 |
| Average results at— | ||||
| Ranges under 1000 m. | 18.2 | 13.6 | 12.1 | 9.3 |
| Ranges over 1000 m. | 7.1 | 5.1 | 3.2 | 3.2 |
[135] Slow fire four shots, rapid fire fourteen shots, per minute.
Beyond 600 m., an error in the range exerts a greater influence upon the efficacy of fire than does the marksmanship of the skirmishers.[136] When an improper elevation has been selected, the efficacy of the fire decreases as the compactness of the “cone of dispersion” increases; in other words, the efficacy of the fire decreases as the excellence of the marksmanship of the men and their coolness in the face of the enemy increase. (See pp. 170 and 171, infra).
[136] Rohne, Das Gefechtsmäszige Abteilungsschieszen der Infanterie, p. 13.
The following expedients for ascertaining ranges may be mentioned:
(a) Pacing and galloping;
(b) Estimating distances on the ground by eye (by comparison with known distances; by estimating part of the distance);
(c) Firing trial volleys (ranging);
(d) Taking the range from a map of large scale or obtaining it directly from infantry or artillery already engaged;
(e) Measuring the range directly on the ground.
Pacing (employed in Russia, France, and Austria) gives inaccurate results. There is a difference between the number of paces a man takes per 100 m., on a chaussee and in a ploughed field. Length of pace depends upon the character and slope of the ground.[137] In pacing over varied ground, a man follows the slope line while the projectile follows an airline. Therefore it would seem that pacing is only practicable at short ranges when the enemy is not near. The same is true of galloping over the distance. (The length of a horse’s jump at a gallop is on an average 3 m.).
[137] Professor Rziha ascertained the following diminution of the length of a pace at different degrees of slope:
| Descending slope, degrees. | 0 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 30 |
| Length of pace in cm. | 77 | 70 | 62 | 56 | 50 | 45 | 30 |
| Number of paces per 100 m. | 129 | 143 | 161 | 179 | 200 | 222 | 333 |
| Ascending slope, degrees. | 0 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 30 |
| Length of pace in cm. | 77 | 74 | 72 | 70 | 67 | 60 | 50 |
| Number of paces per 100 m. | 120 | 135 | 138 | 143 | 148 | 166 | 200 |
According to Major Czerny, Austrian Army (Treffwahrscheinlichkeit, in Streffleur, 1906, II), the error may be as much as 16 per cent of the range.
In estimates made by individual men, the error amounts approximately to one-eighth (12.5%) of the range;[138] this may be corrected by taking the mean of a considerable number of estimates, or by employing combined sights at ranges over 1000 m. (the difference between rear sight elevations being 100 to 200 m.), thus increasing the depth of the beaten zone. The accuracy of the resulting fire is influenced by local and atmospheric conditions. (Par. 80 German I. F. R.). Estimates usually fall short of the correct distance when made in bright sunlight; in clear atmosphere; when the sun is in rear of the man estimating; when made over uniform surfaces; over water; when the target is set off by a bright background; when made over rolling ground, especially when the several depressions cannot be seen. On the other hand, estimates frequently exceed the correct range when made in a flickering light; against a dark background; against the sun; when the sky is overcast; during foggy weather; in the dusk; in woods; and against an enemy who is only partially visible. According to the Swiss Firing Regulations (1906) estimates made from a height downward are usually too short, and those made from low ground up, too great.
[138] Lieutenant-General Rohne, Das Gefechtsmäszige Abteilungsschieszen der Infanterie, 4th Edition, p. 12.
The following statement is taken from a report made at the British Musketry School at Hythe (5th Nov., 1905). In a great number of estimates under 700 yards (630 m.) the results given below were obtained:
| ———Error——— | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Correct | ±50 yards |
±100 yards |
Greater errors |
|
| Officers of the Regular Army | 15 | 49 | 20 | 14% |
| Officers of Militia and Volunteers | 20 | 44 | 22 | 20% |
France: Officers made errors of 20% at the beginning of the period of instruction, 12% at its close; rank and file of the Regular Army and non-commissioned officers of the Reserve made errors of 30%.
In action, under the influence of danger, estimates are usually short.[139] Peace training proves that the skill of the majority of soldiers in estimating distances can be improved only up to a certain point.
[139] The advance of the IInd Battalion of the 2nd Hessian Regiment on August 18th, 1870, from the Bols de la Cusse against the height northwest of Amanweiler: “The companies, who supposed the enemy to be much nearer” (the actual range was 1,100 to 1,200 m.), “advanced, cheering, and were received with mitrailleuse, shell, and rifle fire (from hill 1,030) which swept the railroad line.” Hessert.
Battle of Plevna, September 11th, 1877. Debouchment from corn fields: “The distance still to be crossed before the Turkish works were reached was underestimated. One company cheered when at a distance of 900 to 1,000 paces from the hostile works: the other troops took up the cry and rushed forward at a run.” Kuropatkin-Krahmer, Kritische Rückblicke auf den Russisch-Türkischen Krieg.
Germany. All the men are practiced in estimating distances up to 800 m. Officers, non-commissioned officers and suitable men (range finders) are to be trained in quickly and accurately estimating mid ranges, and practiced in ascertaining long ranges. (Par. 78 German I. F. R.).
“Even a skillful range finder, if he is conscientious, can do no more than give a minimum and a maximum estimate of what he considers the range to be. The ranges must be communicated to the men accordingly. The differences between maximum and minimum estimates should be as follows: At ranges up to and including 500 m., 100 m. (for example: 350-450, or 500-600 m.); between 500 and including 1000 m., 200 m.; over 1000 m., 300 m.”
Italy. Subalterns are, as a general rule, charged with estimating the ranges. Non-commissioned officers must be able to estimate ranges up to 1000 m. All non-commissioned officers as well as suitable privates participate in estimating distance drill, which is conducted by an officer in each battalion. The results are recorded in a book. The following is the classification:
Excellent range finders: Those whose error rarely exceeds 50 and never 100 m.
Good range finders: Those whose error does not exceed 100 m., and in exceptional cases 150 m.
Fair range finders: Those whose normal error does not exceed 150 and never 200 m.
Poor range finders: Those whose error exceeds 200 m.
The Russians estimate only short ranges, as a rule; the longer ranges are determined by means of range finding instruments. In the first year of their service all the men are drilled in estimating ranges from 400 to 800 paces; officers and twenty specially selected men from each company up to 3000 paces. The latter (both officers and men) are to make at least 36 estimates in nine days. (Par. 190 Russian I. F. R.). The result is considered good when the error in the estimate does not exceed the figure given below at the ranges named:
| Range in paces. |
Error in paces. |
Percentage of error. |
|||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 400 | to | 1000 | paces | 50 | or | 12 | .5 | to | 5 | % | |
| 1000 | „ | 2000 | „ | 100 | „ | 10 | „ | 5 | „ | ||
| 2000 | „ | 3000 | „ | 200 | „ | 10 | „ | 6 | .6 | „ | |
The Russian range finding instrument (Souchier) is used by officers and specially trained non-commissioned officers; errors in determining ranges are not to exceed a maximum of 2-3 per cent.
In Switzerland recruits are trained to estimate distances up to 600 m. and specially skilled men up to 1500 m.; all non-commissioned officers estimate ranges up to 1000 m. and officers up to 1500 m. Three weeks after the recruits join, those of the most skilled in estimating distances—about an eighth of the total number—are selected to undergo further instruction. For this purpose they are placed under the orders of an officer charged with this instruction, who trains them for at least three hours, every other day, in estimating distances on varied ground. The better half of these men, regardless of the company to which they may belong, receive further instruction. Exercises on wholly unknown terrain are to be had with these men and not only extended marches but even railway journeys not exceeding 30 km. are authorized for this purpose.
In Austria the men are required to estimate distances up to 800 paces (600 m.), i.e., up to the range within which they might frequently have to choose their target independently. Only officers, non-commissioned officers, and specially skilled men are required to estimate ranges up to 2000 paces (1500 m.). The mean error of twenty determinations at short, mid, and long ranges, of a “reliable range finder,” is not to exceed 12 per cent. The Roksandic range finding apparatus is said to give errors not exceeding 2-3 per cent when skillfully used.
To memorize distinguishing marks on the enemy as an aid in arriving at a correct estimate of the range, is not considered as simulating actual service conditions, since the power of vision of the men differs. Furthermore, one sees the enemy mostly in a prone position in action, and it is not to be expected that the men will remember the various rules for determining the range by the appearance of the enemy’s skirmishers. The same is true of the regulation which prescribes that the soldier estimating the range is to judge the effect which the target makes upon him. (England and Austria).
It will rarely be practicable for infantry to scale the range directly from a map. Infantry ranges are usually so short, in comparison to the scale of most of the maps, especially those available in the field, that it is difficult to take them between the points of a pair of dividers. Moreover, in an infantry action conspicuous objects are not likely to be located often enough near the position of the skirmishers to make it practicable to find them quickly even on the most accurate maps. The artillery is much better off in this direction; its ranges are longer and therefore more easily scaled from a map. Moreover, artillery is generally posted on or near prominent points, which may be found on almost any map. It should be remembered that a map is a horizontal projection, that any range scaled from a map is the base of a right triangle, and that the line of sight of a rifle, when firing uphill, follows the hypotenuse of that triangle.
An accurate knowledge of the range to within a meter is not necessary, as meteorological conditions,[140] especially temperature and illumination (degree of humidity of the atmosphere) affect the range of the projectile. Meteorological conditions may necessitate sight corrections amounting to 100 m. at mid ranges and to 150 m. at long ranges. According to the French Firing Regulations a difference of temperature of ±10 degrees C., changes the range of the Lebel rifle by 18 m. at 1000 m. The altitude of the terrain increases the range on account of reduced barometric pressure; this becomes a factor in the selection of a rear sight elevation at an altitude of approximately 1000 m. According to the French Firing Regulations, the range of their rifle at 1000 m. is increased as follows: At an altitude of 500 m. by 18; at 1000 m. by 42; at 1500 m. by 63; and at 2100 m. by 89 m.
[140] Lieutenant-General Rohne, Schieszlehre für die Infanterie, p. 51, and also par. 70 Austrian I. F. R. The effect of temperature and of the altitude of the battlefield was strikingly illustrated in the Boer war.
These meteorological influences can be eliminated by obtaining the range from troops already engaged (artillery) or by determining the proper rear sight elevation (not the range) by trial volleys (pars. 190 and 191 German I. F. R.) or by an animated fire at will (Switzerland: fire at will, one round).
To ascertain the range by firing trial volleys is, however, practicable only when the terrain near the target is visible; when the target itself is stationary; when the ground is such that the strike of the bullets can be observed; when the firing party is not under fire; and, finally, when the necessary time is available. Since all of these preliminary conditions will rarely be fulfilled, it will only in exceptional cases be possible to determine the proper elevation by this method.
When this method is employed, volleys are fired either by sections or by platoons, with the same sight, at some one point of the target. For the first volley a rear sight elevation sufficiently below the proper one should be selected, so that hits on or in front of the target can be expected with certainty. This procedure is then repeated, as often as necessary, with correspondingly raised or lowered rear sight leaves, until the correct elevation is obtained.
This “ranging” by trial volleys promises no result, however, if any one of the above-mentioned preliminary conditions is not fulfilled. It is advantageous to establish a bracket by firing volleys, as is done by artillery, but even with a good glass it is very difficult to observe the strike of small caliber bullets. Whether it would be advisable to adopt for this ranging a specially designed weapon, firing thin-walled shell weighing about 400 g., is a question.[141]
[141] The 32 mm. Nordenfeld machine gun fires a shell weighing 400 g.
The older range finding instruments depend upon angle measurements at both ends of a line (up to 25 m. long). The large range finder (Hahn) has been adopted in the German army. (Pars. 88-98 German I. F. R.). This apparatus permits a range to be measured from one point, up to 1200 m. on low targets, and on taller targets, such as skirmishers standing, up to 1600 m. Measurements are considered sufficiently accurate when the error amounts to
| 2 | - | 3% | up | to a | range | of | 1000 | m. |
| 31⁄2 | - | 5% | „ | „ | „ | „ | 2000 | „ |
| 3 | - | 31⁄2% | „ | „ | „ | „ | 1500 | „ |
On the defensive the large range finders will find employment before and during the action. The men charged with the measurement of the range should be careful not to betray the position by their activity, before fire is opened. The utility of these instruments is much more restricted in an attack. However, it will often be possible, before the fire fight begins, to ascertain the range from the point selected for the first firing position, to the position to be attacked. According to Soloviev range finders failed completely in action in Manchuria. (See p. 137 supra).
In selecting a target and opening fire it must be remembered that the fire cannot have a decisive effect unless the target is well within effective range. The leader should ask himself whether the result to be expected is properly commensurate with the probable expenditure of ammunition entailed, and whether this expenditure is warranted in view of the total amount available. But the decision to fire upon a target once made, the ammunition necessary for the attainment of the object of the fight must be expended without stinting, since all experience teaches us that an ineffective fire impairs the morale of one’s own troops, while it raises that of the enemy.
In the selection of a target, its tactical importance is the principal determining factor. The fire is first directed upon the most dangerous, generally the nearest target, or the one which is soon to become the most dangerous. Subsequently the fire should be directed upon targets which, owing to their height, width, depth, and density, promise the greatest number of effective hits.
Infantry will, as a rule, offer the most important and promising target, and the fire should be directed against the firing line, since the troops following it in close order will in any event come within range during their advance. In Italy, when two targets are available, the fire is to be directed on the one promising the best results.
Ballistic and tactical considerations determine whether fire should be opened at long or at short ranges.
Adequate results may be expected when the fire is directed against low targets at ranges of 800-1200 m., but at ranges over 1200 m. a decisive effect is only attainable by the expenditure of a large amount of ammunition. Skirmishers standing may be fired on with good effect even at ranges over 1200 m. (long ranges).
When the fire is properly controlled and directed, it will be effective against tall and deep targets within ranges corresponding to the highest graduations of the rear sight leaves. However, when the targets are narrow, a side wind is very apt to throw the cone of dispersion off the target.
The idea of using our accurate, long range rifle at long ranges in defense, thus bringing it into effective play, at a time when the danger to our own troops is still very small, is, at first glance, very tempting. Military history shows that such fire was successful here and there, especially where one of the contending parties was armed with a much superior weapon, or where the enemy failed to apply the proper remedy. But even in these cases it was successful only up to a certain point. There is this to be said against employing long range fire: Its effect is insignificant when compared with the expenditure of ammunition entailed; it is difficult to replenish ammunition and it tires the eye and the arm of the skirmisher. Poorly trained troops finally do not raise their rifles at all, but blaze away without aiming. To be sure, fire opened at an early moment annoys the advance of the enemy, but it cannot seriously retard it. Once the fire is opened, we want it to be effective; we don’t want to injure the enemy—we want to annihilate him.
Although we fully appreciate the good results obtained at long ranges on the target range, we prefer to utilize the entire staggering fire effect of our weapons at short and mid ranges, wholly for the purpose of annihilating the enemy.
Since only small targets, often scarcely discernible by the naked eye, present themselves to the attacker, the fire of the defender should not be returned at once. The forward movement should be continued by utilizing every expedient (rushes with breathing spells, and cover) until serious losses are sustained and the leader has reason to fear that his men will lose their morale and throw themselves down without orders. Frequently several groups will open fire while the others continue to advance. The endeavor should be to open fire only when the attacking force has gotten as close as possible to the lower limit of mid combat range (800-1200 m.).[142]