CONTENTS

PART I
 
The Practice of Argumentation and Debate
 
 
CHAPTER I
 
DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF ARGUMENTATION
 
Section         Page
 
I. Definitions 3
 
II. The Object of Argumentation 5
 
III. Educational Importance of Argumentation 6
 
IV. Practical Importance of Argumentation 7
 
 
CHAPTER II
 
THE PROPOSITION
 
I. The Subject-Matter of the Proposition 9
 
  1. The subject must be interesting 9
 
  2. Subjects for first practice should be those of which the debater has a general knowledge 11
 
  3. The subject must be debatable 12
 
II. The Wording of the Proposition 13
 
  1. The proposition should be so narrowed as to embody only one central idea 14
 
  2. The proposition should be stated in the affirmative 15
 
  3. The proposition should contain no ambiguous words 16
 
  4. The proposition should be worded as simply and as briefly as is consistent with the foregoing requirements 18
 
 
CHAPTER III
 
ANALYZING THE PROPOSITION
 
I. The Importance of Analysis 21
 
II. Essential Steps in Analysis 22
 
  1. A broad view of the subject 22
 
  2. The origin and history of the question 23
 
  3. Definition of terms 24
 
  4. Narrowing the question 27
 
    (1) Excluding irrelevant matter 27
 
    (2) Admitting matters not vital to the argument 28
 
  5. Contrasting the affirmative arguments with those of the negative 29
 
III. The Main Issues 36
 
 
CHAPTER IV
 
EVIDENCE
 
I. Sources of Evidence 39
 
  1. Personal knowledge 39
 
  2. Personal interviews 40
 
  3. Personal letters 41
 
  4. Current literature 42
 
  5. Standard literature 45
 
  6. Special documents 46
 
    (1) Reports and pamphlets issued by organizations 46
 
    (2) Reports and documents issued by the government 48
 
II. Recording Evidence 51
 
  1. Use small cards or sheets of paper of uniform size 53
 
  2. Place only one fact or point on each card 53
 
  3. Write only on one side of the card 53
 
  4. Express the idea to be put on the card in the simplest and most direct terms 54
 
  5. Make each card complete in itself 54
 
  6. In recording material for refutation put an exact statement of the argument to be refuted at the top of the card 55
 
  7. State the main issue or subject to which the evidence relates at the top of the card 55
 
  8. State the source from which the evidence is taken at the bottom of the card 56
 
III. Selecting Evidence 58
 
  1. The evidence must come from the most reliable source to which it can be traced 58
 
  2. A person quoted as authority must be unprejudiced, in full possession of the facts, and capable of giving expert testimony on the point at issue 60
 
  3. Evidence should be examined to determine whether there are attendant circumstances which will add to its weight 62
 
  4. The selection of evidence must be fair and reasonable 64
 
  5. The position and arguments of the opposition should be taken into consideration 65
 
  6. That evidence which will appeal most strongly to those to whom the argument is to be addressed should be selected 66
 
IV. The Amount of Evidence Required 68
 
 
CHAPTER V
 
CONSTRUCTING THE BRIEF
 
I. The Purpose of the Brief 72
 
II. Method of Constructing the Brief 73
 
III. Rules for Constructing the Brief 76
 
  1. A brief should be composed of three parts: Introduction, Proof, and Conclusion 76
 
  2. Each statement in a brief should be a single complete sentence 77
 
  3. The relation which the different statements in a brief bear to each other should be indicated by symbols and indentations 77
 
  4. The introduction should contain the main issues together with a brief statement of the process of analysis by which they were found 79
 
  5. The main statements in the proof should correspond to the main issues set forth in the introduction, and should read as reasons for the truth of the proposition 84
 
  6. Every statement in the proof must read as a reason for the statement to which it is subordinate 85
 
  7. Statements introducing refutation must state clearly the argument to be refuted 87
 
  8. The conclusion should be a summary of the main arguments just as they stand in the proof of the brief and should close with an affirmation or denial of the proposition in the exact words in which it is phrased 89
 
  Specimen student brief 91
 
 
CHAPTER VI
 
CONSTRUCTING THE ARGUMENT
 
I. Attention—Aroused by the Introduction 95
 
  1. Kinds of attention 96
 
    A. Natural attention 96
 
    B. Assumed attention 97
 
  2. Methods of securing proper attention 98
 
    A. Immediate statement of purpose 98
 
    B. Illustrative story 100
 
    C. Quotations 101
 
II. Interest—Maintained by the Proof 102
 
  1. Necessity 103
 
  2. Methods of maintaining interest 103
 
    A. Appropriate treatment 103
 
      a. Adaptation to speaker or writer 103
 
      b. Adaptation to audience or reader 103
 
      c. Adaptation to time or occasion 106
 
    B. Logical structure 106
 
    C. Style 107
 
      a. Elements of style 108
 
        (1) Vocabulary 108
 
        (2) Sentences 109
 
        (3) Paragraphs 110
 
      b. Qualities of style 110
 
        (1) Clearness 110
 
        (2) Force 117
 
        (3) Elegance 120
 
III. Desire—Created by the Conclusion 121
 
  1. Necessity 121
 
  2. Interest 122
 
    A. Convenience 122
 
    B. Pleasure 123
 
    C. Profit 123
 
  3. Jealousy, vanity, and hatred 124
 
  4. Ambition 124
 
  5. Generosity 125
 
  6. Love of right and justice 125
 
  7. Love of country, home, and kindred 125
 
 
CHAPTER VII
 
REBUTTAL
 
I. Preparation for Rebuttal 129
 
  1. Sources of material for rebuttal 129
 
    A. Material acquired in constructing the argument 129
 
    B. Books, papers, and documents 131
 
    C. Questions 133
 
  2. Arrangement of rebuttal material 139
 
    A. Classification of cards 140
 
    B. Arranging books, papers, and documents 142
 
    C. The summary and closing plea 143
 
II. Presentation of Rebuttal 146
 
  1. Attention to argument of opponent 146
 
  2. Selecting arguments to be refuted 147
 
  3. Reading quotations 149
 
  4. Teamwork 149
 
  5. Treatment of opponents 150
 
  6. The summary and closing plea 152
 
 
CHAPTER VIII
 
DELIVERING THE ARGUMENT
 
I. Methods of delivering the argument 153
 
  1. Reading 153
 
  2. Memorizing the argument verbatim 154
 
  3. Memorizing the argument by ideas 155
 
II. Physical preparation for delivery 158
 
  1. Position 159
 
  2. Voice 160
 
  3. Emphasis 162
 
  4. Key, rate, and inflection 162
 
  5. Gesture 164
 
  6. Transitions 165
 
  7. Presenting charts 166
 
III. Mental preparation for delivery 167
 
  1. Directness 167
 
  2. Earnestness 169
 
  3. Confidence 170
 
 
PART II
 
The Theory of Argumentation and Debate
 
 
CHAPTER I
 
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
 
I. The Application of Processes of Reasoning to Argumentation 175
 
II. Inductive Reasoning 176
 
III. The Application of Inductive Reasoning to Inductive Argument 179
 
IV. Requirements for an Effective Inductive Argument 182
 
  1. Perfect inductions 182
 
  2. Imperfect inductions 183
 
    A. The number of specific instances supporting the conclusion must be sufficiently large to offset the probability of coincidence 183
 
    B. The class of persons, events, or things about which the induction is made must be reasonably homogeneous 185
 
    C. The specific instances cited in support of the conclusion must be fair examples 186
 
    D. Careful investigation must disclose no exceptions 187
 
    E. The conclusion must be reasonable 188
 
 
CHAPTER II
 
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
 
I. Deductive Reasoning 190
 
II. The Application of Deductive Reasoning to Deductive Argument 196
 
III. The Enthymeme 201
 
 
CHAPTER III
 
ARGUMENT FROM CAUSAL RELATION
 
I. Argument from Effect to Cause 208
 
  1. The alleged cause must be sufficient to produce the effect 210
 
  2. No other cause must have intervened between the alleged cause and the effect 211
 
  3. The alleged cause must not have been prevented from operating 212
 
II. Argument from Cause to Effect 213
 
  1. The observed cause must be sufficient to produce the alleged effect 215
 
  2. When past experience is invoked it must show that the alleged effect has always followed the observed cause 215
 
  3. No force must intervene to prevent the observed cause from operating to produce the alleged effect 216
 
  4. The conclusion established should be verified by positive evidence whenever possible 217
 
III. Argument from Effect to Effect 218
 
 
CHAPTER IV
 
ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY
 
I. The two factors in the analogy must be alike in all particulars which affect the conclusion 228
 
II. The alleged facts upon which the analogy is based must be true 231
 
III. The conclusion established by the analogy should be verified by positive evidence whenever possible 232
 
 
CHAPTER V
 
FALLACIES
 
I. Fallacies of Induction 235
 
  1. The number of specific instances relied upon to support the conclusion should be determined 235
 
  2. The class of persons, events, or things about which the induction is made should be scrutinized with a view to determining whether it is homogeneous 236
 
  3. Whether or not the specific instances cited in support of the conclusion are fair examples should be determined 236
 
  4. A search should be made for exceptions to the rule stated by the induction 237
 
  5. The induction should be examined with a view to determining its reasonableness 237
 
II. Fallacies of Deduction 238
 
  1. Material fallacies 238
 
  2. Logical fallacies 239
 
    (1) The undistributed middle 239
 
    (2) The illicit process 244
 
    (3) Irrelevancy of the premises, or ignoring the question 245
 
      A. The appeal to passion, prejudice, or humor 246
 
      B. The personal attack upon an opponent 246
 
      C. The personal attack upon the person or persons concerned in the controversy 246
 
      D. The appeal to custom and tradition 247
 
      E. Shifting ground 248
 
      F. Refuting an argument which has not been advanced 248
 
      G. Arguing on a related proposition 248
 
    (4) Begging the question 249
 
      A. Arguing in a circle 249
 
      B. Directly assuming the point at issue 250
 
      C. Indirectly assuming the point at issue 251
 
III. Fallacies of Causal Relation 252
 
  1. Fallacies of the argument from effect to cause 252
 
    (1) Mistaking coincidence for cause 253
 
    (2) Mistaking an effect for a cause 254
 
    (3) Mistaking a subsequent cause for a real cause 254
 
    (4) Mistaking an insufficient cause for a sufficient cause 255
 
  2. Fallacies of the argument from cause to effect 255
 
  3. Fallacies of the argument from effect to effect 256
 
IV. Fallacies of the Argument from Analogy 256
 
 
CHAPTER VI
 
REFUTATION
 
I. Revealing a Fallacy 261
 
II. Reductio ad Absurdum 262
 
III. The Dilemma 263
 
IV. Residues 265
 
V. Inconsistencies 267
 
VI. Adopting an Opponent’s Evidence 268