Henley’s Twentieth Century Book of Recipes, Formulas and Processes (1914); edited by Gardner Dexter Hiscox, 1822?

Tin In Powder Form.

—To obtain tin in powder form the metal is first melted; next pour it into a box whose sides, etc., are coated with powdered chalk. Agitate the box vigorously and without discontinuing, until the metal is entirely cold. Now pass this powder through a sieve and keep in a closed flask. This tin powder is eligible for various uses and makes a handsome effect, especially in bronzing. It can be browned.

TINFOIL:

By pouring tin from a funnel with a very long and narrow mouth upon a linen surface, the latter being tightly stretched, covered with a mixture of chalk and white of egg, and placed in a sloping position, very thin sheets can be produced, and capable of being easily transformed into thin foil. Pure tin should never be used in the preparation of foil intended for packing tobacco, chocolate, etc., but an alloy containing 5 to 40 per cent of lead. Lead has also been recently plated on both sides with tin by the following method: A lead sheet from 0.64 to .80 inches thick is poured on a casting table as long as it is hot, a layer of tin from 0.16 to 0.20 inches in thickness added, the sheet then turned over and coated on the other side with tin in the same manner. The sheet is then stretched between rollers. Very thin sheet tin can also be made in the same way as sheet lead, by cutting up a tin cylinder into spiral sections. Colored tinfoil is prepared by making the foil thoroughly bright by rubbing with purified chalk {708} and cotton, then adding a coat of gelatin, colored as required, and covering the whole finally with a transparent spirit varnish. In place of this somewhat troublesome process, the following much simpler method has lately been introduced: Aniline dyes dissolved in alcohol are applied on the purified foil, and the coat, when dry, covered with a very thin layer of a colorless varnish. This is done by pouring the varnish on the surface and then inclining the latter so that the varnish may reach every part and flow off.

TIRE:

Anti-leak Rubber Tire.

—Pneumatic tires can be made quite safe from punctures by using a liberal amount of the following cheap mixture: One pound of sheet glue dissolved in hot water in the usual manner, and 3 pints of molasses. This mixture injected into the tire through the valve stem, semi-hardens into an elastic jelly, being, in fact, about the same as the well-known ink roller composition used for the rollers of printing presses. This treatment will usually be found to effectually stop leaks in punctured or porous tires.

TOOL SETTING.

The term “setting” (grinding) is applied to the operation of giving an edge to the tools designed for cutting, scraping, or sawing. Cutting tools are rubbed either on flat sandstones or on rapidly turned grindstones. The wear on the faces of the tools diminishes their thickness and renders the cutting angle sharper. Good edges cannot be obtained except with the aid of the grindstone; it is therefore important to select this instrument with care. It should be soft, rather than hard, of fine, smooth grain, perfectly free from seams or flaws. The last condition is essential, for it often happens that, under the influence of the revolving motion, a defective stone suddenly yields to the centrifugal force, bursts and scatters its pieces with such violence as to wound the operator. This accident may also happen with perfectly formed stones. On this account artificial stones have been substituted, more homogeneous and coherent than the natural ones.

Whatever may be the stone selected, it ought to be kept constantly moist during the operation. If not, the tools will soon get heated and their temper will be impaired. When a tool has for a certain time undergone the erosive action of the stone, the cutting angle becomes too acute, too thin, and bends over on itself, constituting what is called “the feather edge.” This condition renders a new setting necessary, which is usually effected by bending back the feather edge, if it is long, and whetting the blade on a stone called a “setter.” There are several varieties of stones used for this purpose, though they are mostly composed of calcareous or argilaceous matter, mixed with a certain proportion of silica.

The scythestone, of very fine grain, serves for grinding off the feather edge of scythes, knives, and other large tools. The Lorraine stone, of chocolate color and fine grain, is employed with oil for carpenters’ tools. American carborundum is very erosive. It is used with water and with oil to obtain a fine edge. The lancet stone is not inferior to any of the preceding. As its name indicates, it is used for sharpening surgical instruments, and only with oil. The Levant stone (Turkish sandstone) is the best of all for whetting. It is gray and semitransparent; when of inferior quality, it {709} is somewhat spotted with red. It is usually quite soft.

To restore stones and efface the inequalities and hollows caused by the friction of the tools, they are laid flat on a marble or level stone, spread over with fine, well-pulverized sandstone, and rubbed briskly. When tools have a curved edge, they are subjected to a composition formed of pulverized stone, molded into a form convenient for the concavity or convexity. Tools are also whetted with slabs of walnut or aspen wood coated with emery of different numbers, which produces an excellent setting.

TOOTHACHE

Toothache Gums:

Melt the first two ingredients, and, when nearly cool, add the rest, stirring well. May be made into small pills or turned out in form of small cones or cylinders.

II.—Melt white wax or spermaceti, 2 parts, and when melted add carbolic-acid crystals, 1 part, and chloral-hydrate crystals, 2 parts; stir well until dissolved. While still liquid, immerse thin layers of carbolized absorbent cotton wool and allow them to dry. When required for use a small piece may be snipped off and slightly warmed, when it can be inserted into the hollow tooth, where it will solidify.

Toothache Remedy.—

TRANSPARENCIES:

I.—	Paraffine	94 grains
Burgundy pitch	800 grains
Oil of cloves	¹/₂ fluidrachm
Creosote	¹/₂ fluidrachm

White paper is coated with a liquid whose chief constituent is Iceland moss strongly boiled down in water to which a slight quantity of previously dissolved gelatin is added. In applying the mass, which should always be kept in a hot condition, the paper should be covered uniformly throughout. After it has been dried well it is smoothed on the coated side and used for a proof. The transparent colors to be used must be ground in stronger varnish than the opaque ones. In order to produce a handsome red, yellow lake and red sienna are used; the tone of the latter is considerably warmer than that of the yellow lake. Where the cost is no consideration, aurosolin may also be employed. For pale red, madder lakes should be employed, but for darker shades, crimson lakes and scarlet cochineal lakes. The vivid geranium lake gives a magnificent shade, which, however, is not at all fast in sunlight. The most translucent blue will always be Berlin blue. For purple, madder purple is the most reliable color, but possesses little gloss. Luminous effects can be obtained with the assistance of aniline colors, but these are only of little permanence in transparencies. Light, transparent green is hardly available. Recourse has to be taken to mixing Berlin blue with yellow lake, or red sienna. Green chromic oxide may be used if its sober, cool tone has no disturbing influence. Almost all brown coloring bodies give transparent colors, but the most useful are madder lakes and burnt umber. Gray is produced by mixing purple tone colors with suitable brown, but a gray color hardly ever {710} occurs in transparent prints. Liquid siccative must always be added to the colors, otherwise the drying will occupy too much time. After the drying, the prints are varnished on both sides. For this purpose, a well-covering, quickly drying, colorless, not too thick varnish must be used, which is elastic enough not to crack nor to break in bending.

Frequently the varnishing of the placards is done with gelatin. This imparts to the picture an especially handsome, luminous luster. After an equal quantity of alcohol has been added to a readily flowing solution of gelatin, kept for use in a zinc vessel, the gelatin solution is poured on the glass plates destined for the transparencies. After a quarter of an hour, take the placard, moisten its back uniformly, and lay it upon a gelatin film which has meanwhile formed on the glass plate, where it remains 2 to 3 days. When it is to be removed from the plate, the edge of the gelatin film protruding over the edge of the placard is lifted up with a dull knife, and it is thus drawn off. A fine, transparent gloss remains on the placard proper. In order to render the covering waterproof and pliable, it is given a coating of collodion, which does not detract from the transparence. The glass plates and their frames must be cleaned of adhering gelatin particles before renewed use.

TRANSFER PROCESSES:

To Transfer Designs.

—Designs can be transferred on painted surfaces, cloth, leather, velvet, oil cloth, and linen sharply and in all the details with little trouble. Take the original design, lay it on a layer of paper, and trace the lines of design accurately with a packing needle, the eye of which is held by a piece of wood for a handle. It is necessary to press down well. The design becomes visible on the back by an elevation. When everything has been accurately pressed through, take, e. g., for dark objects, whiting (formed in pieces), lay the design face downward on the knee and pass mildly with the whiting over the elevations; on every elevation a chalk line will appear. Then dust off the superfluous whiting with the fingers, lay the whiting side on the cloth to hold it so that it cannot slide, and pass over it with a soft brush. For light articles take powdered lead pencil, which is rubbed on with the finger, or limewood charcoal. For tracing use oil paint on cloth and India ink on linen.

To Copy Engravings.

—To make a facsimile of an engraving expose it in a warm, closed box to the vapor of iodine, then place it, inkside downward, on a smooth, dry sheet of clean white paper, which has been brushed with starch water. After the two prepared surfaces have been in contact for a short time a facsimile of the engraving will be reproduced more or less accurately, according to the skill of the operator.

To Transfer Engravings.

—The best way to transfer engraving from one piece to another is to rub transfer wax into the engraved letters. This wax is made of beeswax, 3 parts; tallow, 3 parts; Canada balsam, 1 part; olive oil, 1 part. If the wax becomes too hard, add a few drops of olive oil, and if too soft, a little more beeswax. Care should be taken that the wax does not remain on the surface about the engraving, otherwise the impression would be blurred. Then moisten a piece of paper by drawing it over the tongue and lay it on the engraving. Upon this is laid another piece of dry paper, and securing both with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, so they will not be moved, go over the entire surface with a burnisher made of steel or bone, with a pointed end. This will press the lower paper into the engraving and cause the wax to adhere to it. Then the top paper is removed and the corner of the lower one gently raised. The whole is then carefully peeled off, and underneath will be found a reversed, sharp impression of the engraving. The edges of the paper are then cut so it can be fitted in a position on the other articles similar to that on the original one. When this is done lay the paper in the proper position and rub the index finger lightly over it, which will transfer a clear likeness of the original engraving. If due care is taken two dozen or more transfers can be made from a single impression.

TWINE:

Tough twine may be greatly strengthened by dissolving plenty of alum in water and laying the twine in this solution. After drying, the twine will have much increased tensile strength.

TYPEWRITER RIBBONS

The constituents of an ink for typewriter ribbons may be broadly divided into four elements: 1, the pigment; 2, the vehicle; 3, the corrigent; 4, the solvent. The elements will differ with the kind of ink desired, whether permanent or copying.

Permanent (Record) Ink.

—Any finely divided, non-fading color may be used as the pigment; vaseline is the best vehicle and wax the best corrigent. In order to make the ribbon last a long time with one inking, as much pigment as feasible should be used. To make black record ink: Take some vaseline, melt it on a slow fire or water bath, and incorporate by constant stirring as much lampblack as it will take up without becoming granular. Take from the fire and allow it to cool. The ink is now practically finished, except, if not entirely suitable on trial, it may be improved by adding the corrigent wax in small quantity. The ribbon should be charged with a very thin, evenly divided amount of ink. Hence the necessity of a solvent—in this instance a mixture of equal parts of petroleum benzine and rectified spirit of turpentine. In this mixture dissolve a sufficient amount of the solid ink by vigorous agitation to make a thin paint. Try the ink on one extremity of the ribbon; if too soft, add a little wax to make it harder; if too pale, add more coloring matter; if too hard, add more vaseline. If carefully applied to the ribbon, and the excess brushed off, the result will be satisfactory.

On the same principle, other colors may be made into ink; but for delicate colors, albolene and bleached wax should be the vehicle and corrigent, respectively.

The various printing inks may be used if properly corrected. They require the addition of vaseline to make them non-drying on the ribbon, and of some wax if found too soft. Where printing inks are available, they will be found to give excellent results if thus modified, as the pigment is well milled and finely divided. Even black cosmetic may be made to answer, by the addition of some lampblack to the solution in the mixture of benzine and turpentine.

After thus having explained the principles underlying the manufacture of permanent inks, we can pass more rapidly over the subject of copying inks, which is governed by the same general rules.

For copying inks, aniline colors form the pigment; a mixture of about 3 parts of water and 1 part of glycerine, the vehicle; transparent soap (about ¹/₄ part), the corrigent; stronger alcohol (about 6 parts), the solvent. The desired aniline color will easily dissolve in the hot vehicle, soap will give the ink the necessary body and counteract the hygroscopic tendency of the glycerine, and in the stronger alcohol the ink will readily dissolve, so that it can be applied in a finely divided state to the ribbon, where the evaporation of the alcohol will leave it in a thin film. There is little more to add. After the ink is made and tried—if too soft, add a little more soap; if too hard, a little more glycerine; if too pale, a little more pigment. Printer’s copying ink can be utilized here likewise.

Users of the typewriter should so set a fresh ribbon as to start at the edge nearest the operator, allowing it to run back and forth with the same adjustment until exhausted along that strip; then shift the ribbon forward the width of one letter, running until exhausted, and so on. Finally, when the whole ribbon is exhausted, the color will have been equably used up, and on reinking, the work will appear even in color, while it will look patchy if some of the old ink has been left here and there and fresh ink applied over it.

VALVES.

The manufacturers of valves test each valve under hydraulic pressure before it is sent out from the factory, yet they frequently leak when erected in the pipe lines. This is due to the misuse of the erector in most cases. The following are the most noteworthy bad practices to be avoided when fitting in valves:

I.—Screwing a valve on a pipe very tightly, without first closing the valve. Closing the valve makes the body much {712} more rigid and able to withstand greater strains and also keeps the iron chips from lodging under the seats, or in the working parts of the valves. This, of course, does not apply to check valves.

II.—Screwing a long mill thread into a valve. The threads on commercial pipes are very long and should never be screwed into a valve. An elbow or tee will stand the length of thread very well, but a suitable length thread should be cut in every case on the pipe, when used to screw into a valve. If not, the end of pipe will shoulder against the seat of valve and so distort it that the valve will leak very badly.

III.—The application of a pipe wrench on the opposite end of the valve from the end which is being screwed on the pipe. This should never be done, as it invariably springs or forces the valve seats from their true original bearing with the disks.

IV.—Never place the body of a valve in the vise to remove the bonnet or centerpiece from a valve, as it will squeeze together the soft brass body and throw all parts out of alignment. Properly to remove the bonnet or centerpiece from a valve, either screw into each end of the valve a short piece of pipe and place one piece of the pipe in the vise, using a wrench on the square of bonnet; or if the vise is properly constructed, place the square of the bonnet in same and use the short piece of pipe screwed in each end as a lever. When using a wrench on square of bonnet or centerpiece, use a Stillson or Trimo wrench with a piece of tin between the teeth of the jaws and the finished brass. It may mark the brass slightly, but this is preferable to rounding off all the corners with an old monkey wrench which is worn out and sprung. As the threads on all bonnets or centerpieces are doped with litharge or cement, a sharp jerk or jar on the wrench will start the bonnet much more quickly than a steady pull. Under no circumstances try to replace or remove the bonnet or centerpiece of a valve without first opening it wide. This will prevent the bending of the stem, forcing the disk down through the seat or stripping the threads on bonnet where it screws into body. If it is impossible to remove bonnet or centerpiece by ordinary methods, heat the body of the valve just outside the thread. Then tap lightly all around the thread with a soft hammer. This method never fails, as the heat expands the body ring and breaks the joint made by the litharge or cement.

V.—The application of a large monkey wrench to the stuffing box of valve. Many valves are returned with the stuffing boxes split, or the threads in same stripped. This is due to the fact that the fitter or engineer has used a large-sized monkey wrench on this small part.

VI.—The screwing into a valve of a long length of unsupported pipe. For example, if the fitter is doing some repair work and starts out with a run of 2-inch horizontal pipe from a 2-inch valve connected to main steam header, the pipe being about 18 feet long, after he has screwed the pipe tightly into the valve, he leaves the helper to support the pipe at the other end, while he gets the hanger ready. The helper in the meantime has become tired and drops his shoulder on which the pipe rests about 3 inches and in consequence the full weight of this 18-foot length of pipe bears on the valve. The valve is badly sprung and when the engineer raises steam the next morning the valve leaks. When a valve is placed in the center of a long run of pipe, the pipe on each side, and close to the valve, should be well supported.

VII.—The use of pipe cement in valves. When it is necessary to use pipe cement in joints, this mixture should always be placed on the pipe thread which screws into the valve, and never in the valve itself. If the cement is placed in the valve, as the pipe is screwed into the valve it forces the cement between the seats and disks, where it will soon harden and thus prevent the valve from seating properly.

VIII.—Thread chips and scale in pipe. Before a pipe is screwed into a valve it should be stood in a vertical position and struck sharply with a hammer. This will release the chips from the thread cutting, and loosen the scale inside of pipe. When a pipe line containing valves is connected up, the valves should all be opened wide and the pipe well blown out before they are again closed. This will remove foreign substances which are liable to cut and scratch the seats and disks.

IX.—Expansion and contraction. Ample allowance must be provided for expansion and contraction in all steam lines, especially when brass valves are included. The pipe and fittings are much more rigid and stiff than the brass valves and in consequence the expansion strains will relieve themselves at the weakest point, unless otherwise provided for. {713}

X.—The use of wrenches or bars on valve wheels to close the valves tightly. This should never be done, as it springs the entire valve and throws all parts out of alignment, thus making the valve leak. The manufacturer furnishes a wheel sufficiently large properly to close against any pressure for which it is suitable. If the valves cannot be closed tightly by this means, there is something between the disks and seats or they have been cut or scratched by foreign substances.

VANILLA

The best Mexican vanilla yields only in the neighborhood of 1.7 per cent of vanillin; that from Reunion and Guadeloupe about 2.5 per cent; and that from Java 2.75 per cent. There seems to be but little connection between the quantity of vanillin contained in vanilla pods and their quality as a flavor producer. Mexican beans are esteemed the best and yet they contain far less than the Java. Those from Brazil and Peru contain much less than those from Mexico, and yet they are considered inferior in quality to most others. The vanillin of the market is chiefly, if not entirely, artificial and is made from the coniferin of such pines and firs as abies excelsa, a. pectinata, pinus cembra, and p. strobus, as well as from the eugenol of cloves and allspice. Vanillin also exists in asparagus, lupine seeds, the seeds of the common wild rose, asafetida, and gum benzoin.

Cut and bruise the vanilla, afterwards adding and bruising the Tonka; macerate for 14 days in 16 fluidounces of the alcohol, with occasional agitation; pour off the clear liquid and set aside; pour the remaining alcohol on the magma, and heat by means of a water bath to about 168° F., in a closely covered vessel. Keep it at that temperature for 2 or 3 hours, then strain through flannel with slight pressure; mix the two portions of liquid and filter through felt. Lastly, add the syrup. To render this tincture perfectly clear it may be treated with pulverized magnesium carbonate, using from ¹/₂ to 1 drachm to each pint.

To Detect Artificial Vanillin In Vanilla Extracts

(see also Foods).-There is no well-defined test for vanillin, but one can get at it in a negative way. The artificial vanillin contains vanillin identical with the vanillin contained in the vanilla bean; but the vanilla bean, as the vanilla extract, contains among its many “extractive matters” which enter into the food and fragrant value of vanilla extract, certain rosins which can be identified with certainty in analysis by a number of determining reactions. Extract made without true vanilla can be detected by negative results in all these reactions.

Vanilla beans contain 4 to 11 per cent of this rosin. It is of a dark red to brown color and furnishes about one-half the color of the extract of vanilla. This rosin is soluble in 50 per cent alcohol, so that in extracts of high grade, where sufficient alcohol is used, all rosin is kept in solution. In cheap extracts, where as little as 20 per cent of alcohol by volume is sometimes used, an alkali—usually potassium bicarbonate—is added to aid in getting rosin, gums, etc., in solution, and to prevent subsequent turpidity. This treatment deepens the color very materially.

Place some of the extract to be examined in a glass evaporating dish and evaporate the alcohol on the water bath. When alcohol is removed, make up about the original volume with hot water. If alkali has not been used in the manufacture of the extract, the rosin will appear as a flocculent red to brown residue. Acidify with acetic acid to free rosin from bases, separating the whole of the rosin and leaving a partly decolorized, clear supernatant liquid after standing a short time. Collect the rosin on a filter, wash with water, and reserve the filtrate for further tests.

Place a portion of the filter with the attached rosin in a few cubic centimeters of dilute caustic potash. The rosin is dissolved to a deep-red solution. Acidify. The rosin is thereby precipitated. Dissolve a portion of the rosin in alcohol; to one fraction add a few drops of ferric chloride; no striking coloration is produced. To another portion add hydrochloric acid; again there is little change in color. In alcoholic solution most rosins give color reactions with ferric chloride or hydrochloric acid. To a portion of the filtrate obtained above add a few drops of basic lead acetate. The precipitate is so bulky as to almost {714} solidify, due to the excessive amount of organic acids, gums, and other extractive matter. The filtrate from this precipitate is nearly, but not quite, colorless. Test another portion of the filtrate from the rosin for tannin with a solution of gelatin. Tannin is present in varying but small quantities. It should not be present in great excess.

To Detect Tonka In Vanilla Extract.

—The following test depends on the chemical difference between coumarin and vanillin, the odorous principles of the two beans. Coumarin is the anhydride of coumaric acid, and on fusion with a caustic alkali yields acetic and salicylic acids, while vanillin is methyl protocatechin aldehyde, and when treated similarly yields protocatechuic acid. The test is performed by evaporating a small quantity of the extract to dryness, and melting the residue with caustic potash. Transfer the fused mass to a test tube, neutralize with hydrochloric acid, and add a few drops of ferric chloride solution. If Tonka be present in the extract, the beautiful violet coloration characteristic of salicylic acid will at once become evident.

Vanilla Substitute.

—A substitute for vanilla extract is made from synthetic vanillin. The vanillin is simply dissolved in diluted alcohol and the solution colored with a little caramel and sweetened perhaps with syrup. The following is a typical formula:

An extract so made does not wholly represent the flavor of the bean; while vanillin is the chief flavoring constituent of the bean, there are present other substances which contribute to the flavor; and connoisseurs prefer this combination, the remaining members of which have not yet been made artificially.

VARNISHES

(See also Enamels, Glazes, Oils, Paints, Rust Preventives, Stains, and Waterproofing.)

Varnish is a solution of resinous matter forming a clear, limpid fluid capable of hardening without losing its transparency. It is used to give a shining, transparent, hard, and preservative covering to the finished surface of woodwork, capable of resisting in a greater or less degree the influence of the air and moisture. This coating, when applied to metal or mineral surfaces, takes the name of lacquer, and must be prepared from rosins at once more adhesive and tenacious than those entering into varnish.

The rosins, commonly called gums, suitable for varnish are of two kinds—the hard and the soft. The hard varieties are copal, amber, and the lac rosins. The dry soft rosins are juniper gum (commonly called sandarac), mastic, and dammar. The elastic soft rosins are benzoin, elemi, anime, and turpentine. The science of preparing varnish consists in combining these classes of rosins in a suitable solvent, so that each conveys its good qualities and counteracts the bad ones of the others, and in giving the desired color to this solution without affecting the suspension of the rosins, or detracting from the drying and hardening properties of the varnish.

In spirit varnish (that made with alcohol) the hard and the elastic gums must be mixed to insure tenderness and solidity, as the alcohol evaporates at once after applying, leaving the varnish wholly dependent on the gums for the tenacious and adhesive properties; and if the soft rosins predominate, the varnish will remain, “tacky” for a long time. Spirit varnish, however good and convenient to work with, must always be inferior to oil varnish, as the latter is at the same time more tender and more solid, for the oil in oxidizing and evaporating thickens and forms rosin which continues its softening and binding presence, whereas in a spirit varnish the alcohol is promptly dissipated, and leaves the gums on the surface of the work in a more or less granular and brittle precipitate which chips readily and peels off.

Varnish must be tender and in a manner soft. It must yield to the movements of the wood in expanding or contracting with the heat or cold, and must not inclose the wood like a sheet of glass. This is why oil varnish is superior to spirit varnish. To obtain this suppleness the gums must be dissolved in some liquid not highly volatile like spirit, but one which mixes with them in substance permanently to counteract their extreme friability. Such solvents are the oils of lavender, spike, rosemary, and turpentine, combined with linseed oil. The vehicle in which the rosins are dissolved must be soft and remain so in order to {715} keep the rosins soft which are of themselves naturally hard. Any varnish from which the solvent has completely dried out must of necessity become hard and glassy and chip off. But, on the other hand, if the varnish remains too soft and “tacky,” it will “cake” in time and destroy the effect desired.

Aside from this, close observers if not chemists will agree that for this work it is much more desirable to dissolve these rosins in a liquid closely related to them in chemical composition, rather than in a liquid of no chemical relation and which no doubt changes certain properties of the rosins, and cuts them into solution more sharply than does turpentine or linseed oil. It is a well-known fact that each time glue is liquefied it loses some of its adhesive properties. On this same principle it is not desirable to dissolve varnish rosins in a liquid very unlike them, nor in one in which they are quickly and highly soluble. Modern effort has been bent on inventing a cheap varnish, easily prepared, that will take the place of oil varnish, and the market is flooded with benzine, carbon bisulphide, and various ether products which are next to worthless where wearing and durable properties are desired.

Alcohol will hold in solution only about one-third of its weight in rosins. Turpentine must be added always last to spirit varnish. Turpentine in its clear recently distilled state will not mix with alcohol, but must first be oxidized by exposing it to the air in an uncorked bottle until a small quantity taken therefrom mixes perfectly with alcohol. This usually takes from a month to six weeks. Mastic must be added last of all to the ingredients of spirit varnish, as it is not wholly soluble in alcohol but entirely so in a solution of rosins in alcohol. Spirit varnishes that prove too hard and brittle may be improved by the addition of either of the oils of turpentine, castor seed, lavender, rosemary, or spike, in the proportion required to bring the varnish to the proper temper.

Coloring “Spirit” Varnishes.

—In modern works the following coloring substances are used, separately and in blends: Saffron (brilliant golden yellow), dragon’s blood (deep reddish brown), gamboge (bright yellow), Socotrine or Bombay aloes (liver brown), asphalt, ivory, and bone black (black), sandalwood, pterocarpus santalinus, the heartwood (dark red), Indian sandalwood, pterocarpus indica, the heartwood (orange red), brazil wood (dark yellow), myrrh (yellowish to reddish brown; darkens on exposure), madder (reddish brown), logwood (brown), red scammony rosin (light red), turmeric (orange yellow), and many others according to the various shades desired.

Manufacturing Hints.

—Glass, coarsely powdered, is often added to varnish when mixed in large quantities for the purpose of cutting the rosins and preventing them from adhering to the bottom and sides of the container. When possible, varnish should always be compounded without the use of heat, as this carbonizes and otherwise changes the constituents, and, besides, danger always ensues from the highly inflammable nature of the material employed. However, when heat is necessary, a water bath should always be used; the varnish should never fill the vessel over a half to three-fourths of its capacity.

The Gums Used In Making Varnish.

—Juniper gum or true sandarac comes in long, yellowish, dusty tears, and requires a high temperature for its manipulation in oil. The oil must be so hot as to scorch a feather dipped into it, before this gum is added; otherwise the gum is burned. Because of this, juniper gum is usually displaced in oil varnish by gum dammar. Both of these gums, by their dryness, counteract the elasticity of oil as well as of other gums. The usual sandarac of commerce is a brittle, yellow, transparent rosin from Africa, more soluble in turpentine than in alcohol. Its excess renders varnish hard and brittle. Commercial sandarac is also often a mixture of the African rosin with dammar or hard Indian copal, the place of the African rosin being sometimes taken by true juniper gum. This mixture is the pounce of the shops, and is almost insoluble in alcohol or turpentine. Dammar also largely takes the place of tender copal, gum anime, white amber, white incense, and white rosin. The latter three names are also often applied to a mixture of oil and Grecian wax, sometimes used in varnish. When gum dammar is used as the main rosin in a varnish, it should be first fused and brought to a boiling point, but not thawed. This eliminates the property that renders dammar varnish soft and “tacky” if not treated as above.

Venetian turpentine has a tendency to render varnish “tacky” and must be skillfully counteracted if this effect is to be avoided. Benzoin in varnish exposed to any degree of dampness has a {716} tendency to swell, and must in such cases be avoided. Elemi, a fragrant rosin from Egypt, in time grows hard and brittle, and is not so soluble in alcohol as anime, which is highly esteemed for its more tender qualities. Copal is a name given rather indiscriminately to various gums and rosins. The East Indian or African is the tender copal, and is softer and more transparent than the other varieties; when pure it is freely soluble in oil of turpentine or rosemary. Hard copal comes in its best form from Mexico, and is not readily soluble in oil unless first fused. The brilliant, deep-red color of old varnish is said to be based on dragon’s blood, but not the kind that comes in sticks, cones, etc. (which is always adulterated), but the clear, pure tear, deeper in color than a carbuncle, and as crystal as a ruby. This is seldom seen in the market, as is also the tear of gamboge, which, mixed with the tear of dragon’s blood, is said to be the basis of the brilliant orange and gold varnish of the ancients.

Of all applications used to adorn and protect the surface of objects, oil varnishes or lacquers containing hard rosins are the best, as they furnish a hard, glossy coating which does not crack and is very durable even when exposed to wind and rain.

To obtain a varnish of these desirable qualities the best old linseed oil, or varnish made from it, must be combined with the residue left by the dry distillation of amber or very hard copal. This distillation removes a quantity of volatile oil amounting to one-fourth or one-fifth of the original weight. The residue is pulverized and dissolved in hot linseed-oil varnish, forming a thick, viscous, yellow-brown liquid, which, as a rule, must be thinned with oil of turpentine before being applied.

Hard rosin oil varnish of this sort may conveniently be mixed with the solution of asphalt in the oil of turpentine with the aid of the simple apparatus described below, as the stiffness of the two liquids makes hand stirring slow and laborious. A cask is mounted on an axle which projects through both heads, but is inclined to the axis of the cask, so that when the ends of the axle are set in bearings and the cask is revolved, each end of the cask will rise and fall alternately, and any liquid which only partly fills the cask will be thoroughly mixed and churned in a short time. The cask is two-thirds filled with the two thick varnishes (hard rosin in linseed oil and asphalt in the oil of turpentine) in the desired proportion, and after these have been intimately mixed by turning the cask, a sufficient quantity of rectified oil of turpentine to give proper consistence is added and the rotation is continued until the mixture is perfectly uniform.

To obtain the best and most durable result with this mixed oil, rosin, and asphalt varnish it is advisable to dilute it freely with oil of turpentine and to apply 2 or 3 coats, allowing each coat to dry before the next is put on. In this way a deep black and very glossy surface is obtained which cannot be distinguished from genuine Japanese lacquer.

Many formulas for making these mixed asphalt varnishes contain rosin—usually American rosin. The result is the production of a cheaper but inferior varnish. The addition of such soft rosins as elemi and copaiba, however, is made for another reason, and it improves the quality of the varnish for certain purposes. Though these rosins soften the lacquer, they also make it more elastic, and therefore more suitable for coating leather and textile fabrics, as it does not crack in consequence of repeated bending, rolling, and folding.

In coloring spirit varnish the alcohol should always be colored first to the desired shade before mixing with the rosin, except where ivory or bone black is used. If the color is taken from a gum, due allowance for the same must be made in the rosins of the varnish. For instance, in a varnish based on mastic, 10 parts, and tender copal, 5 parts, in 100 parts, if this is to be colored with, say, 8 parts of dragon’s blood (or any other color gum), the rosins must be reduced to mastic, 8 parts, and tender copal, 4 parts. Eight parts of color gum are here equivalent to 3 parts of varnish rosin. This holds true with gamboge, aloes, myrrh, and the other gum rosins used for their color. This seeming disproportion is due to the inert matter and gum insoluble in alcohol, always present in these gum rosins.

Shellac Varnish.

—This is made in the general proportion of 3 pounds of shellac to a gallon of alcohol, the color, temper, etc., to be determined by the requirements of the purchaser, and the nature of the wood to which the varnish is to be applied. Shellac varnish is usually tempered with sandarac, elemi, dammar, and the oil of linseed, turpentine, spike, or rosemary.

Various impurities held in suspension in shellac varnish may be entirely precipitated by the gradual addition of some {717} crystals of oxalic acid, stirring the varnish to aid their solution, and then setting it aside overnight to permit the impurities to settle. No more acid should be used than is really necessary.

Rules For Varnishing.

—1. Avoid as far as possible all manipulations with the varnishes; do not dilute them with oil of turpentine, and least of all with siccative, to expedite the drying. If the varnish has become too thick in consequence of faulty storing, it should be heated and receive an addition of hot, well-boiled linseed-oil varnish and oil of turpentine. Linseed-oil varnish or oil of turpentine added to the varnish at a common temperature renders it streaky (flacculent) and dim and has an unfavorable influence on the drying; oil of turpentine takes away the gloss of varnish.

2. Varnishing must be done only on smooth, clean surfaces, if a fine, mirror-like gloss is desired.

3. Varnish must be poured only into clean vessels, and from these never back into the stationary vessels, if it has been in contact with the brush. Use only dry brushes for varnishing, which are not moist with oil of turpentine or linseed oil or varnish.

4. Apply varnishes of all kinds as uniformly as possible; spread them out evenly on the surfaces so that they form neither too thick nor too thin a layer. If the varnish is put on too thin the coating shows no gloss; if applied too thick it does not get even and does not form a smooth surface, but a wavy one.

5. Like all oil-paint coatings, every coat of varnish must be perfectly dry before a new one is put on; otherwise it is likely that the whole work will show cracks. The consumer of varnish is only too apt to blame the varnish for all defects which appear in his work or develop after some time, although this can only be proven in rare cases. As a rule, the ground was not prepared right and the different layers of paint were not sufficiently dry, if the surfaces crack after a comparatively short time and have the appearance of maps. The cracking of paint must not be confounded with the cracking of the varnish, for the cracking of the paint will cause the varnish to crack prematurely. The varnish has to stand more than the paint; it protects the latter, and as it is transparent, the defects of the paint are visible through the varnish, which frequently causes one to form the erroneous conclusion that the varnish has cracked.

6. All varnish coatings must dry slowly, and during the drying must be absolutely protected from dust, flies, etc., until they have reached that stage when we can pass the back of the hand or a finger over them without sticking to it.

The production of faultless varnishing in most cases depends on the accuracy of the varnisher, on the treatment of his brush, his varnish pot, and all the other accessories. A brush which still holds the split points of the bristles never varnishes clear; they are rubbed off easily and spoil the varnished work. A brush which has never been used does not produce clean work; it should be tried several times, and when it is found that the varnishing accomplished by its use is neat and satisfactory it should be kept very carefully.

The preservation of the brush is thus accomplished: First of all do not place it in oil or varnish, for this would form a skin, parts of which would adhere to it, rendering the varnished surface unclean and grainy; besides these skins there are other particles which accumulate in the corners and cannot be removed by dusting off; these will also injure the work. In order to preserve the brush properly, insert it in a glass of suitable size through a cork in the middle of which a hole has been bored exactly fitting the handle. Into the glass pour a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and oil of turpentine, and allow only the point of the brush to touch the mixture, if at all. If the cork is air-tight the brush cannot dry in the vapor of oil of turpentine and spirit. From time to time the liquids in the glass should be replenished.

If the varnish remains in the varnish receptacle, a little alcohol may be poured on, which can do the varnish no harm. At all events the varnish will be prevented from drying on the walls of the vessel and from becoming covered by a skin which is produced by the linseed oil, and which indicates that the varnish is both fat and permanent. No skin forms on a meager varnish, even when it drys thick.

After complete drying of the coat of varnish it sometimes happens that the varnish becomes white, blue, dim, or blind. If varnish turns white on exposure to the air the quality is at fault. The varnish is either not fat enough or it contains a rosin unsuitable for exterior work (copal). The whitening occurs a few days after the drying of the varnish and can be removed only by rubbing off the varnish.

Camphor	4 drachms
Chloral hydrate	4 drachms
Oil of cloves	2 drachms
Oil of cajeput	2 drachms
Chloroform	12 drachms
Tincture of capsicum	24 drachms

Vanilla	1 ounce
Tonka	2 ounces
Alcohol, deodorized	32 fluidounces
Syrup	8 fluidounces

Vanillin	1 ounce
Alcohol	6 quarts
Water	5 quarts
Syrup	1 quart
Caramel sufficient to color.