Cinders are sometimes used for block work; they vary greatly in quality, but if clean and of medium coarseness will give fair results. Cinder concrete never develops great strength, owing to the porous character and crushability of the cinders themselves. Cinder blocks may, however, be strong enough for many purposes, and suitable for work in which great strength is not required.

The mixtures above recommended, 1 to 4 and 1 to 5, will necessarily be somewhat porous, and may be decidedly so if the gravel or screenings used is not properly graded. The water-resisting qualities may be greatly improved, without loss of strength, by replacing a part of the cement by hydrate lime. This is a light, extremely fine material, and a given weight of it goes much further than the {693} same amount of cement in filling the pores of the concrete. It has also the effect of making the wet mixture more plastic and more easily compacted by ramming, and gives the finished blocks a lighter color.

The following mixtures, then, are to be recommended for concrete blocks. By “gravel” is meant a suitable mixture of sand and gravel, or stone screenings, containing grains of all sizes, from fine to ¹/₂ inch.

• Cement, 150 parts; gravel, 600 parts.
• Cement, 125 parts; hydrated lime, 25 parts; gravel, 600 parts.
• Cement, 100 parts; hydrated lime, 50 parts; gravel, 600 parts.

• Cement, 120 parts; gravel, 600 parts.
• Cement, 100 parts; hydrated lime, 20 parts; gravel, 600 parts.

Use as much water as possible without causing the blocks to stick to the plates or to sag out of shape on removing from the machine.

The amount of water required to produce this result varies with the materials used, but is generally from 8 to 9 per cent of the weight of the dry mixture. A practiced blockmaker can judge closely when the right amount of water has been added, by squeezing some of the mixture in the hand. Very slight variations in proportion of water make such a marked difference in the quality and color of the blocks that the water, when the proper quantity for the materials used has been determined, should always be accurately measured out for each batch. In this way much time is saved and uncertainty avoided.

The materials should be mixed dry, until the cement is uniformly distributed and perfectly mingled with the sand and gravel or screenings; then the water is to be added and the mixing continued until all parts of the mass are equally moist and every particle is coated with the cement paste.

There are two systems of block making, differing in the consistency of the concrete used:

1. Blocks tamped or pressed from semi-wet concrete, and removed at once from the mold.

2. Blocks poured or tamped from wet concrete, and allowed to remain in the mold until hardened.

Various shapes and sizes of blocks are commonly made; the builders of the most popular machines have, however, adopted the standard length of 32 inches and height of 9 inches for the full-sized block, with thickness of 8, 10, and 12 inches. Lengths of 24, 16, and 8 inches are also obtained on the same machines by the use of parting plates and suitably divided face plates; any intermediate lengths and any desired heights may be produced by simple adjustments or blocking off.

Blocks are commonly made plain, rock-faced, tool-faced, paneled, and of various ornamental patterns. New designs of face plates are constantly being added by the most progressive machine makers.

The well-known cast-stone process consists in pouring liquid concrete mixture into a sand mold made from a pattern in a manner similar to that in which molds for iron castings are produced. The sand absorbs the surplus water from the liquid mixture, and the casting is left in the mold for 24 hours or longer until thoroughly set. This process necessitates the making of a new sand mold for every casting, and is necessarily much less rapid than the machine method. It is less extensively used for building blocks than for special ornamental architectural work, sills, lintels, columns, capitals, etc., and for purposes of this kind it turns out products of the highest quality and beauty.

Blocks should not be used in building until at least 4 weeks from the time they are made. During this period of seasoning, blocks will be found to shrink at least ¹/₁₆ inch in length, and if built up in a wall when freshly made, shrinkage cracks in the joints or across the blocks will surely appear.

Efflorescence, or the appearance of a white coating on the surfaces, sometimes takes place when blocks are repeatedly saturated with water and then dried out; blocks laid on the ground are more liable to show this defect. It results from diffusion of soluble sulphates of lime and alkalies to the surface. It tends to disappear in time, and rarely is sufficient in amount to cause any complaint.

Actual tests of compression strength of hollow concrete blocks are difficult to make, because it is almost impossible to apply the load uniformly over the whole surface, and also because a block 16 inches long and 8 inches wide will bear a load of 150,000 to 200,000 pounds, or more than the capacity of any but the largest testing machines. Three one-quarter blocks, 8 inches long, 8 inches wide, and 9 inches high, with hollow space equal to one-third of the surface, tested at the Case School of Science, showed strengths of 1,805, 2,000, and {696} 1,530 pounds per square inch, respectively, when 10 weeks old.

Two blocks 6 x 8 x 9 inches, 22 months old, showed crushing strength of 2,530 and 2,610 pounds per square inch. These blocks were made of cement 1 ¹/₄ parts, lime ¹/₂ part, sand and gravel 6 parts, and were tamped from damp mixture. It is probably safe to assume that the minimum crushing strength of well-made blocks, 1 to 5, is 1,000 pounds per square inch at 1 month and 2,000 pounds at 1 year.

A block 12 inches wide and 24 inches long has a total surface of 288 square inches, or, deducting ¹/₃ for openings, a net area of 192 inches. Such a block, 9 inches high, weighs 130 pounds. Assuming a strength of 1,000 pounds and a factor of safety of 5, the safe load would be 200 pounds per square inch, or 200 × 192 = 38,400 pounds for the whole surface of the block. Dividing this by the weight of the block, 130 pounds, we find that 295 such blocks could be placed one upon another, making a total height of wall of 222 feet, and still the pressure on the lowest block would be less than one-fifth of what it would actually bear. This shows how greatly the strength of concrete blocks exceeds any demands that are ever made upon it in ordinary building construction.

The safe load above assumed, 200 pounds, seems low enough to guard against any possible failure. In Taylor and Thompson’s work on concrete, a safe load of 450 pounds for concrete 1 to 2 to 4 is recommended; this allows a factor of safety of 5 ¹/₂. On the other hand, the Building Code of the city of Cleveland permits concrete to be loaded only to 150 pounds per square inch, and limits the height of walls of 12-inch blocks to 44 feet. The pressure of such a wall would be only 40 pounds per square inch; adding the weight of two floors at 25 pounds per square foot each, and roof with snow and wind pressure, 40 pounds per square foot, we find that with a span of 25 feet the total weight on the lowest blocks would be only 52 pounds per square inch, or about one-twentieth of their minimum compression strength.

Blocks with openings equal to only one-third the surface, as required in many city regulations, are heavy to handle, especially for walls 12 inches and more in thickness, and, as the above figures show, are enormously stronger than there is any need of. Blocks with openings of 50 per cent would be far more acceptable to the building trade, and if used in walls not over 44 feet high, with floors and roof calculated as above for 25 feet span, would be loaded only to 56 pounds per square inch of actual surface. This would give a factor of safety of 18, assuming a minimum compression strength of 1,000 pounds.

There is no doubt that blocks with one-third opening are inconveniently and unnecessarily heavy. Such a block, 32 inches long, 12 inches wide, and 9 inches high, has walls about 3 ¹/₂ inches thick, and weighs 180 pounds. A block with 50 per cent open space would have walls and partitions 2 inches in thickness, and would weigh about 130 pounds. With proper care in manufacture, especially by using as much water as possible, blocks with this thickness of walls may be made thoroughly strong, sound, and durable. It is certainly better for strength and water-resisting qualities to make thin-walled blocks of rich mixture, rather than heavy blocks of poor and porous material.

Filling the voids with cement is a rather expensive method of securing waterproof qualities, and gives stronger concretes than are needed. The same may be accomplished more cheaply by replacing part of the cement by slaked lime, which is an extremely fine-grained material, and therefore very effective in closing pores. Hydrate lime is the most convenient material to use, but nearly as costly as Portland cement at present prices. A 1 to 4 mixture in which one-third the cement is replaced by hydrate lime will be found equal to a 1 to 3 mixture without the lime. A 1 to 4 concrete made from cement, 1; hydrate lime, ¹/₂; sand and gravel, 6 (by weight), will be found fairly water-tight, and much superior in this respect to one of the same richness consisting of cement, 1 ¹/₂; sand and gravel, 6.

The cost of lime may be greatly reduced by using ordinary lump lime slaked to a paste. The lime must, however, be very thoroughly hydrated, so that no unslaked fragments may remain to make trouble by subsequent expansion. Lime paste is also very difficult to mix, and can be used successfully only in a concrete mixer of the pug-mill type. Ordinary stiff lime paste contains about 50 per cent water; twice as much of it, by weight, should therefore be used as of dry hydrate lime.

For this purpose it is not necessary that blocks should be perfectly waterproof, but only that the absorption of water shall be slow, so that it may penetrate only part way through the wall during a long-continued rain. Walls made entirely water-tight are, in fact, objectionable, owing to their tendency to “sweat” from condensation of moisture on the inside surface. For health and comfort, walls must be slightly porous, so that any moisture formed on the inside may be gradually absorbed and carried away.

Excessive water absorption may be avoided in the following ways:

1. Use of Properly Graded Materials.—It has been shown by Feret and others that porosity and permeability are two different things; porosity is the total proportion of voids or open spaces in the mass, while permeability is the rate at which water, under a given pressure, will pass through it. Permeability depends on the size of the openings as well as on their total amount. In two masses of the same porosity or percentage of voids, one consisting of coarse and the other of fine particles, the permeability will be greater in the case of the coarse material. The least permeability, and also the least porosity, are, however, obtained by use of a suitable mixture of coarse and fine particles. Properly graded gravel or screenings, containing plenty of coarse fragments and also enough fine material to fill up the pores, will be found to give a much less permeable concrete than fine or coarse sand used alone.

2. Use of Rich Mixtures.—All concretes are somewhat permeable by water under sufficient pressure. Mixtures rich in cement are of course much less permeable than poorer mixtures. If the amount of cement used is more than sufficient to fill the voids in the sand and gravel, a very dense concrete is obtained, into which the penetration of water is extremely slow. The permeability also decreases considerably with age, owing to the gradual crystallization of the cement in the pores, so that concrete which is at first quite absorbent may become practically impermeable after exposure to weather for a few weeks or months. There appears to be a very decided increase in permeability when the cement is reduced below the amount necessary to fill the voids. For example, a well-mixed sand and gravel weighing 123 pounds per cubic foot, and therefore containing 25 per cent voids, will give a fairly impermeable concrete in mixtures up to 1 to 4, but with less cement will be found quite absorbent. A gravel with only 20 per cent voids would give about equally good results with a 1 to 5 mixture; such gravel is, however, rarely met with in practice. On the other hand, the best sand, mixed fine and coarse, seldom contains less than 33 per cent voids, and concrete made from such material will prove permeable if poorer than 1 to 3.

3. Use of a Facing.—Penetration of water may be effectively prevented by giving the blocks a facing of richer mixture than the body. For the sake of smooth appearance, facings are generally made of cement and fine sand, and it is often noticed that these do not harden well. It should be remembered that a 1 to 3 sand mixture is no stronger and little if any better in water absorption than a 1 to 5 mixture of well-graded sand and gravel. To secure good hardness and resistance to moisture a facing as rich as 1 to 2 should be used.

4. Use of an Impervious Partition.—When blocks are made on a horizontal-face machine, it is a simple matter, after the face is tamped and cores pushed into place, to throw into each opening a small amount of rich and rather wet mortar, spread this fairly evenly, and then go on tamping in the ordinary mixture until the mold is filled. A dense layer across each of the cross walls is thus obtained, which effectually prevents moisture from passing beyond it. A method of accomplishing the same result with vertical-face machines, by inserting tapered wooden blocks in the middle of the cross walls, withdrawing these blocks after tamping, and filling the spaces with rich mortar, has been patented. In the two-piece system the penetration of moisture through the wall is prevented by leaving an empty space between the web of the block and the inside face, or by filling this space with rich mortar.

5. Use of Waterproof Compounds.—There are compounds on the market, of a fatty or waxy nature, which, when mixed with cement to the amount of {698} only 1 or 2 per cent of its weight, increase its water-resisting qualities in a remarkable degree. By thoroughly mixing 1 to 2 pounds of suitable compound with each sack of cement used, blocks which are practically waterproof may be made, at very small additional cost, from 1 to 4 or 1 to 5 mixtures. In purchasing waterproof compound, however, care should be taken to select such as has been proved to be permanent in its effect, and some of the materials used for this purpose lose their effect after a few days’ exposure to weather, and are entirely worthless.

6. Application to Surface after Erecting.—Various washes, to make concrete and stone impervious to water, have been used with some success. Among these the best known is the Sylvester wash of alum and soap solution. It is stated that this requires frequent renewal, and it is hardly likely to prove of any value in the concrete industry. The writer’s experience has been that the most effective remedy, in case a concrete building proves damp, is to give the outside walls a very thin wash of cement suspended in water. One or two coats will be found sufficient. If too thick a coating is formed it will show hair cracks. The effect of the cement wash is to make the walls appear lighter in color, and if the coating is thin the appearance is in no way injured.

No. 1. With 8 per cent water, rather dryer than ordinary block concrete, tamped in mold.

No. 2. With 10 per cent water, tamped in the mold, and the mold removed at once.

No. 3. With 25 per cent water, poured into a mold resting on a flat surface of dry sand; after 1 hour the surface was troweled smooth; mold not removed until set.

These blocks were allowed to harden a week in moist air, then dried. The weights, voids, and water absorption were as follows:

The rate at which these blocks absorbed water was then determined by drying them thoroughly, then placing them in a tray containing water ¹/₄ inch in depth, and weighing them at intervals.

These figures show that concrete which is sufficiently wet to be thoroughly plastic absorbs water much more slowly than dryer concrete, and prove the importance of using as much water as possible in the damp-tamping process.

The factory cost of concrete blocks varies according to the cost of materials. Let us assume cement to be $1.50 per barrel of 380 pounds, and sand and gravel 25 cents per ton. With a 1 to 4 mixture, 1 barrel cement will make 1,900 pounds of solid concrete, or at 130 pounds per cubic foot, 14.6 cubic feet. The cost of materials will then be:

or 11.5 cents per cubic foot solid concrete. Now, blocks 9 inches high and 32 inches long make 2 square feet of face of wall, each. Blocks of this height {699} and length, 8 inches thick, make 1 ¹/₃ cubic feet of wall; and blocks 12 inches thick make 2 cubic feet of wall. From these figures we may calculate the cost of materials for these blocks, with cores or openings equal to ¹/₃ or ¹/₂ the total volume, as follows:

If one-third of the cement is replaced by hydrate lime the quality of the blocks will be improved, and the cost of material reduced about 10 per cent. The cost of labor required in manufacturing, handling, and delivering blocks will vary with the locality and the size and equipment of factory. With hand mixing, 3 men at an average of $1.75 each will easily make 75 8-inch or 50 12-inch blocks, with ¹/₃ openings, per day. The labor cost for these sizes of blocks will therefore be 7 cents and 10 ¹/₂ cents respectively. At a factory equipped with power concrete mixer and cars for transporting blocks, in which a number of machines are kept busy, the labor cost will be considerably less. An extensive industry located in a large city is, however, subject to many expenses which are avoided in a small country plant, such as high wages, management, office rent, advertising, etc., so that the total cost of production is likely to be about the same in both cases. A fair estimate of total factory cost is as follows:

With fair allowance for outside expenses and profit, 8-inch blocks may be sold at 30 cents and 12-inch at 40 cents each. For laying 12-inch blocks in the wall, contractors generally figure about 10 cents each. Adding 5 cents for teaming, the blocks will cost 55 cents each, erected, or 27 ¹/₂ cents per cubic foot of wall. This is less than the cost of common brick, and the above figures show that this price could be shaded somewhat, if necessary, to meet competition.—S. B. Newberry in a monograph issued by the American Association of Portland Cement Manufacturers.

II.—Imitation Black Marble.—A black marble of similar character to that exported from Belgium—the latter product being simply prepared slate—may be produced in the following manner: The slate suitable for the purpose is first smoothly polished with a sandstone, so that no visible impression is made on it with a chisel—this being rough—after which it is polished finely with artificial pumice stone, and lastly finished with extremely light natural pumice stone, the surface then presenting a soft, velvet-like appearance. After drying and thoroughly heating the finely polished surface is impregnated with a heated mixture of oil and fine lampblack. This is allowed to remain 12 hours; and, according to whether the slate used is more or less gray, the process is repeated until the gray appearance is lost. Polishing thoroughly with emery on a linen rag follows, and the finishing polish is done with tin ashes, to which is added some lampblack. A finish being made thus, wax dissolved in turpentine, with some lampblack, is spread on the polished plate and warmed again, which after a while is rubbed off vigorously with a {700} clean linen rag. Treated thus, the slate has the appearance of black marble.

STONE CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

STONE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

STONES FOR SHARPENING: See Tool Setting and Whetstones.

STONES (PRECIOUS), IMITATION OF: See Gems, Artificial.

STONEWARE: See Ceramics.

STONEWARE CEMENTS: See Adhesives and Lutes.

STOPPERS.

I.—To make an anti-leak and lubricating mixture for plug-cocks use 2 parts of tried suet and 1 part of beeswax melted together; stir thoroughly, strain, and cool.

II.—A mixture for making glass stoppers tight is made by melting together equal parts of glycerine and paraffine.

To Loosen a Glass Stopper.—I.—Make a mixture of

Let a portion of this stand in the space above the stopper for a few hours, when a slight tap will loosen the stopper.

II.—A circular adjustable clamp, to which is attached a strip of asbestos in which coils of platinum wire are imbedded, is obtained. By placing this on the neck of the bottle, and passing a current of electricity through the coils of wire, sufficient heat will be generated to expand the neck and liberate the stopper. Heat may also be generated by passing a yard of cord once around the bottle neck and, by taking one end of the cord in each hand, drawing it rapidly back and forth. Care should be taken that the contents of the bottle are not spilled on the hand or thrown into the face when the stopper does come out—or when the bottle breaks.

STOPPER LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.

STOVE POLISH:

See also Polishes.

The following formula gives a liquid stove blacking:

The mixture must be well shaken when used, and must not be applied when there is a fire or light near on account of the inflammability of the vapor.

This form may be esteemed a convenience by some, but the rosin and turpentine will, of course, give rise to some disagreeable odor on first heating the stove, after the liquid is applied.

Graphite is the foundation ingredient in many stove polishes; lampblack, which is sometimes added, as in the foregoing formula, deepens the color, but the latter form of carbon is of course much more readily burned off than the former. Graphite may be applied by merely mixing with water, and then no odor follows the heating of the iron. The coating must be well rubbed with a brush to obtain a good luster.

The solid cakes of stove polish found in the market are made by subjecting the powdered graphite, mixed with spirit of turpentine, to great pressure. They have to be reduced to powder and mixed with water before being applied.

Any of them must be well rubbed with a brush after application to give a handsome finish.

STOVE CEMENT: See Cement.

STOVE CLEANERS: See Cleaning Compounds.

STOVE LACQUER: See Lacquers.

STOVE VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

STRAMONIUM, ANTIDOTE FOR: See Atropine.

STRAP LUBRICANT: See Lubricant.

STRAW FIREPROOFING: See Fireproofing.

STRAWBERRIES, FROZEN: See Ice Creams.

STRAWBERRY JUICE: See Essences and Extracts.

STRAW-HAT CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

STRAW-HAT DYES: See Hats. {701}

STROPPING PASTES: See Razor Pastes.

STYPTICS.

Styptics are substances which arrest local bleeding. Creosote, tannic acid, alcohol, alum, and most of the astringent salts belong to this class.