VI. Armistices

231. Character and Kinds of Armistices 290

232. Suspensions of Arms 291

233. General Armistices 291

234. Partial Armistices 293

235. Competence to conclude Armistices 293

236. Form of Armistices 294

237. Contents of Armistices 294

238. Commencement of Armistices 296

239. Violation of Armistices 297

240. End of Armistices 299

CHAPTER VI

MEANS OF SECURING LEGITIMATE WARFARE

I. On Means in General of securing Legitimate Warfare

241. Legitimate and Illegitimate Warfare 300

242. How Legitimate Warfare is on the whole secured 301

II. Complaints, Good Offices and Mediation, Intervention

243. Complaints lodged with the Enemy 302

244. Complaints lodged with Neutrals 303

245. Good Offices and Mediation 303

246. Intervention on the part of Neutrals 304

III. Reprisals

247. Reprisals between Belligerents in contradistinction to Reprisals in time of Peace 305

248. Reprisals admissible for every Illegitimate Act of Warfare 305

249. Danger of Arbitrariness in Reprisals 306

250. Proposed Restriction of Reprisals 308

IV. Punishment of War Crimes

251. Conception of War Crimes 309

252. Different kinds of War Crimes 310

253. Violations of Rules regarding Warfare 310

254. Hostilities in Arms by Private Individuals 312

255. Espionage and War Treason 313

256. Marauding 316

257. Mode of Punishment of War Crimes 316

V. Taking of Hostages

258. Former Practice of taking Hostages 317

259. Modern Practice of taking Hostages 317

VI. Compensation

259a. How the Principle of Compensation for Violations of the Laws of War arose 319

259b. Compensation for Violations of the Hague Regulations 320

CHAPTER VII

END OF WAR, AND POSTLIMINIUM

I. On Termination of War in General

260. War a Temporary Condition 322

261. Three Modes of Termination of War 322

II. Simple Cessation of Hostilities

262. Exceptional Occurrence of simple Cessation of Hostilities 323

263. Effect of Termination of War through simple Cessation of Hostilities 324

III. Subjugation

264. Subjugation in contradistinction to Conquest 325

265. Subjugation a formal End of War 326

IV. Treaty of Peace

266. Treaty of Peace the most frequent End of War 327

267. Peace Negotiations 328

268. Preliminaries of Peace 329

269. Form and Parts of Peace Treaties 330

270. Competence to conclude Peace 330

271. Date of Peace 331

V. Effects of Treaty of Peace

272. Restoration of Condition of Peace 332

273. Principle of Uti Possidetis 334

274. Amnesty 334

275. Release of Prisoners of War 335

276. Revival of Treaties 336

VI. Performance of Treaty of Peace

277. Treaty of Peace, how to be carried out 337

278. Breach of Treaty of Peace 338

VII. Postliminium

279. Conception of Postliminium 339

280. Postliminium according to International Law, in contradistinction to Postliminium according to Municipal Law 340

281. Revival of the Former Condition of Things 341

282. Validity of Legitimate Acts 342

283. Invalidity of Illegitimate Acts 343

284. No Postliminium after Interregnum 343

PART III

NEUTRALITY

CHAPTER I

ON NEUTRALITY IN GENERAL

I. Development of the Institution of Neutrality

285. Neutrality not practised in Ancient Times 347

286. Neutrality during the Middle Ages 348

287. Neutrality during the Seventeenth Century 349

288. Progress of Neutrality during the Eighteenth Century 350

289. First Armed Neutrality 352

290. The French Revolution and the Second Armed Neutrality 354

291. Neutrality during the Nineteenth Century 357

292. Neutrality in the Twentieth Century 359

II. Characteristics of Neutrality

293. Conception of Neutrality 361

294. Neutrality an Attitude of Impartiality 362

295. Neutrality an Attitude creating Rights and Duties 363

296. Neutrality an Attitude of States 363

297. No Cessation of Intercourse during Neutrality between Neutrals and Belligerents 365

298. Neutrality an Attitude during War (Neutrality in Civil War) 365

299. Neutrality to be recognised by the Belligerents 367

III. Different Kinds of Neutrality

300. Perpetual Neutrality 368

301. General and Partial Neutrality 369

302. Voluntary and Conventional Neutrality 369

303. Armed Neutrality 369

304. Benevolent Neutrality 370

305. Perfect and Qualified Neutrality 370

306. Some Historical Examples of Qualified Neutrality 371

IV. Commencement and End of Neutrality

307. Neutrality commences with Knowledge of the War 373

308. Commencement of Neutrality in Civil War 374

309. Establishment of Neutrality by Declarations 374

310. Municipal Neutrality Laws 375

311. British Foreign Enlistment Act 375

312. End of Neutrality 377

CHAPTER II

RELATIONS BETWEEN BELLIGERENTS AND NEUTRALS

I. Rights and Duties deriving from Neutrality

313. Conduct in General of Neutrals and Belligerents  378

314. What Rights and Duties of Neutrals and of Belligerents there are  378

315. Rights and Duties of Neutrals contested 379

316. Contents of Duty of Impartiality 381

317. Duty of Impartiality continuously growing more intense 382

317a. Neutrality Conventions of the Second Peace Conference 383

318. Contents of Duty of Belligerents to treat Neutrals in accordance with their Impartiality 384

319. Contents of Duty not to suppress Intercourse between Neutrals and the Enemy 385

II. Neutrals and Military Operations

320. Hostilities by and against Neutrals 386

321. Furnishing Troops and Men-of-War to Belligerents 389

322. Subjects of Neutrals fighting among Belligerent Forces 390

323. Passage of Troops and War Material through Neutral Territory 391

324. Passage of Wounded through Neutral Territory 392

325. Passage of Men-of-War 393

326. Occupation of Neutral Territory by Belligerents 394

327. Prize Courts on Neutral Territory 395

328. Belligerent's Prizes in Neutral Ports 395

III. Neutrals and Military Preparations

329. Depôts and Factories on Neutral Territory 397

330. Levy of Troops, and the like 398

331. Passage of Bodies of Men intending to Enlist 399

332. Organisation of Hostile Expeditions 400

333. Use of Neutral Territory as Base of Naval Operations 400

334. Building and Fitting-out of Vessels intended for Naval Operations 405

335. The Alabama Case and the Three Rules of Washington 406

IV. Neutral Asylum to Land Forces and War Material

336. On Neutral Asylum in General 409

337. Neutral Territory and Prisoners of War 410

338. Fugitive Soldiers on Neutral Territory 413

339. Neutral Territory and Fugitive Troops 413

340. Neutral Territory and Non-combatant Members of Belligerent Forces 415

341. Neutral Territory and War Material of Belligerents 415

V. Neutral Asylum to Naval Forces

342. Asylum to Naval Forces in contradistinction to Asylum to Land Forces 417

343. Neutral Asylum to Naval Forces Optional 417

344. Asylum to Naval Forces in Distress 418

345. Exterritoriality of Men-of-War during Asylum 419

346. Facilities to Men-of-War during Asylum 420

347. Abuse of Asylum to be prohibited 420

348. Neutral Men-of-War as an Asylum 423

348a. Neutral Territory and Shipwrecked Soldiers 424

VI. Supplies and Loans to Belligerents

349. Supply on the part of Neutrals 426

350. Supply on the part of Subjects of Neutrals 427

351. Loans and Subsidies on the part of Neutrals 430

352. Loans and Subsidies on the part of Subjects of Neutrals 430

VII. Services to Belligerents

353. Pilotage 432

354. Transport on the part of Neutrals 433

355. Transport on the part of Neutral Merchantmen and by neutral rolling stock 434

356. Information regarding Military and Naval Operations 434

VIII. Violation of Neutrality

357. Violation of Neutrality in the narrower and in the wider sense of the Term 438

358. Violation in contradistinction to End of Neutrality 439

359. Consequences of Violations of Neutrality 439

360. Neutrals not to acquiesce in Violations of Neutrality committed by a Belligerent 440

361. Case of the General Armstrong 442

362. Mode of exacting Reparation from Belligerents for Violations of Neutrality 442

363. Negligence on the part of Neutrals 444

363a. Laying of Submarine Contact Mines by Neutrals 445

IX. Right of Angary

364. The Obsolete Right of Angary 446

365. The Modern Right of Angary 447

366. Right of Angary concerning Neutral Rolling Stock 448

367. Right of Angary not deriving from Neutrality 449

CHAPTER III

BLOCKADE

I. Conception of Blockade

368. Definition of Blockade 450

369. Blockade, Strategic and Commercial 452

370. Blockade to be Universal 452

371. Blockade, Outwards and Inwards 453

372. What Places can be Blockaded 453

373. Blockade of International Rivers 454

374. Justification of Blockade 455

II. Establishment of Blockade

375. Competence to establish Blockade 456

376. Declaration and Notification of Blockade 456

377. Length of Time for Egress of Neutral Vessels 459

378. End of Blockade 460

III. Effectiveness of Blockade

379. Effective in contradistinction to Fictitious Blockade 461

380. Condition of Effectiveness of Blockade 461

381. Amount of Danger which creates Effectiveness 464

382. Cessation of Effectiveness 464

IV. Breach of Blockade

383. Definition of Breach of Blockade 466

384. No Breach without Notice of Blockade 466

385. The former practice as to what constitutes an Attempt to break Blockade 468

385a. What constitutes an Attempt to break Blockade according to the Declaration of London 470

386. When Ingress is not considered Breach of Blockade 472

387. When Egress is not considered Breach of Blockade 473

388. Passage through Unblockaded Canal no Breach of Blockade 474

V. Consequences of Breach of Blockade

389. Capture of Blockade-running Vessels 475

390. Penalty for Breach of Blockade 476

CHAPTER IV

CONTRABAND

I. Conception of Contraband

391. Definition of Contraband of War 480

392. Absolute and conditional Contraband, and free Articles 481

393. Articles absolutely Contraband 483

394. Articles conditionally Contraband 485

395. Hostile Destination essential to Contraband 490

396. Free Articles 492

396a. Articles destined for the use of the carrying Vessel, or to aid the Wounded 493

397. Contraband Vessels 494

II. Carriage of Contraband

398. Carriage of Contraband Penal by the Municipal Law of Belligerents 495

399. Direct Carriage of Contraband 497

400. Circuitous Carriage of Contraband 499

401. Indirect Carriage of Contraband (Doctrine of Continuous Transports) 500

402. The Case of the Bundesrath 502

403. Continental support to the Doctrine of Continuous Transports 504

403a. Partial Recognition by the Declaration of London of the Doctrine of Continuous Voyages 505

III. Consequences of Carriage of Contraband

404. Capture for Carriage of Contraband 506

405. Penalty for Carriage of Contraband according to the Practice hitherto prevailing 508

406. Penalty according to the Declaration of London for Carriage of Contraband 511

406a. Seizure of Contraband without Seizure of the Vessel 513

CHAPTER V

UNNEUTRAL SERVICE

I. The Different Kinds of Unneutral Service

407. Unneutral Service in general 515

408. Carriage of Persons for the Enemy 517

409. Transmission of Intelligence to the Enemy 521

410. Unneutral Service creating Enemy Character 524

II. Consequences of Unneutral Service

411. Capture for Unneutral Service 526

412. Penalty for Unneutral Service 527

413. Seizure of Enemy Persons and Despatches without Seizure of Vessel 530

CHAPTER VI

VISITATION, CAPTURE, AND TRIAL OF NEUTRAL VESSELS

I. Visitation

414. Conception of Right of Visitation 533

415. Right of Visitation, by whom, when, and where exercised 534

416. Only Private Vessels may be Visited 535

417. Vessels under Convoy 535

418. No Universal Rules regarding Mode of Visitation 537

419. Stopping of Vessels for the Purpose of Visitation  538

420. Visit 538

421. Search 539

422. Consequences of Resistance to Visitation 540

423. What constitutes Resistance 541

424. Sailing under Enemy Convoy equivalent to Resistance 542

425. Resistance by Neutral Convoy 543

426. Deficiency of Papers 543

427. Spoliation, Defacement, and Concealment of Papers 544

428. Double and False Papers 545

II. Capture

429. Grounds and Mode of Capture 546

430. Effect of Capture of Neutral Vessels, and their Conduct to Port 546

431. Destruction of Neutral Prizes 547

432. Ransom and Recapture of Neutral Prizes 551

433. Release after Capture 551

III. Trial of captured Neutral Vessels

434. Trial of Captured Vessels a Municipal Matter 553

435. Result of Trial 555

436. Trial after Conclusion of Peace 555

437. Protests and Claims of Neutrals after Trial 557

CHAPTER VII

THE INTERNATIONAL PRIZE COURT

I. Proposals for International Prize Courts

438. Early Projects 559

439. German Project of 1907 561

440. British Project of 1907 562

441. Convention XII. of the Second Peace Conference 563

II. Constitution and Competence of the International Prize Court

442. Personnel 565

443. Deciding Tribunal 566

444. Administrative Council and International Bureau 569

445. Agents, Counsel, Advocates, and Attorneys 569

446. Competence 569

447. What Law to be applied 571

III. Procedure in the International Prize Court

448. Entering of Appeal 572

449. Pleadings and Discussion 574

450. Judgment 575

451. Expenses and Costs 576

IV. Action in Damages instead of Appeal

452. Reason for Action in Damages instead of Appeal 577

453. Procedure if Action for Damages is brought 578

APPENDICES

I. Declaration of Paris of 1856 583

II. Declaration of St. Petersburg of 1868 584

III. Declaration concerning Expanding Bullets of 1899 585

IV. Declaration concerning the Diffusion of Asphyxiating Gases of 1899 586

V. Geneva Convention of 1906 587

VI. Final Act of the Second Hague Peace Conference of 1907 591

VII. Declaration of London of 1909 (including the Report of the Drafting Committee) 637

VIII. Additional Protocol, of 1910, to the Hague Convention concerning the Establishment of an International Prize Court 665

IX. Foreign Enlistment Act, 1870 667

X. The Naval Prize Act, 1864 674

XI. The Prize Courts Act, 1894 682

XII. Naval Prize Bill of 1911 683

XIII. Geneva Convention Act, 1911 690