Military Justice
There is no distinction between the civil judicial order in general and the military order in particular, but military crimes are treated in a separate chapter of the penal code. That chapter treats those acts, committed by persons under the jurisdiction of military courts, that are directed against military discipline, military orders, and the like. They include a broad variety of violations against persons, property, or the state.
A military crime, in the Albanian system, has two characteristics distinguishing it from nonmilitary crimes. The crime is committed against regulations established for the performance of military service, and the defendant is a member of the armed forces. For criminal justice the security forces under the Ministry of the Interior and all local police are considered armed forces and are subject to military law and to trial in military courts, as are reservists or persons called to military or police duty for short periods. Also, military violations are believed to include a variety of crimes against the state that might not be classed as military in Western countries, including some in the so-called socially dangerous category. As is the case in the Soviet Union, persons who fail to report on others committing crimes are themselves liable.
Military courts are selected by the People's Assembly or by its Presidium when it is not in session. Members are military personnel and ordinarily serve on a court for three years. Each court has a chairman, vice chairman, and a number of members called assistant judges. The chairman and at least one of the assistant judges must be military superiors of the defendant.
In exceptional circumstances the People's Assembly may appoint a special court for a particular case or a group of cases. A special court may be all or only partially military. Such a court was appointed, for example, when Vice Admiral Teme Seyko, commander of the naval forces, was accused in 1961 of "having been in league with the imperialist Americans, Greek monarcho-fascists and Yugoslav revisionists." The admiral was executed.
When crimes are committed during military operations, sentences are heavier than when the same offenses are committed under conditions where duress is not a factor. During combat or wartime circumstances, legislative acts call for the most severe penalties.
THE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
According to official government pronouncements relating to the state budget, 471 million leks (5 leks equal US$1) were appropriated for defense expenditures in 1970. That amount is 9.2 percent of the total planned expenditures of 5,110 million leks, or about 225 leks per inhabitant during the year. Whether or not all expenses that would fall within the defense category in Western countries are included in these figures is not known. It is the practice in some Communist governments to distribute peripheral defense costs among other agency appropriations (see ch. 8, Economic System).
The defense budget was increased drastically in 1969 and 1970 over the levels of earlier years, apparently in reaction to the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. The midyear calculated expenditures for 1969 represented an increase of about 38 percent over those of 1968, and 1970 projections showed another 12.2 percent anticipated increase over 1969.
The burden represented by 225 leks per person can be illustrated by relating it to income and costs of living. In 1967, for example, a typical head of family worker earned about 7,200 leks per year. The average family group consisted of between five and six persons, and about 90 percent of its earnings was required for food and housing. In the preponderant majority of situations where there was only one wage earner per family, therefore, per capita defense costs exceeded everything that the family had available for all uses except food and shelter.
The 50,000 men in the regular and security forces represent about 2.4 percent of the population, but each annual draft takes a number that is equal to roughly one-half of the young men that become nineteen years old during the year. There is no reliable information as to how willingly the average citizen performs his military service or whether or not his contribution is appreciated by the remainder of the people. The controlled-communications media do everything possible to promote good morale among those in the service and to show that the public supports them.
Small, underdeveloped, and suffering continually from an unfavorable balance of trade, Albania has always needed assistance to maintain even a small military force. Accepting aid from Italy before World War II resulted in a severe curtailment of national initiative in the employment of the forces and probably contributed to their immobility at the time of the Italian invasion in 1939.
Between 1945 and 1948 Yugoslavia's control over Albania's forces was tighter than Italy's had been. In addition to technical advisers and instructors in regular service units, the Communist Party organization provided an effective vehicle for controlling the reliability of personnel, particularly the military leadership.
Because the Soviet Union, like Italy, was physically separated from the country it was a more desirable ally than neighboring Yugoslavia had been. It was nonetheless able to maintain tighter controls over Albanian forces than either Yugoslavia or Italy had achieved. General Petrit Dume, who was commander of the People's Army during its dependence on the Soviet Union and still was in 1970, had said in November of 1952 that his force was an integral part of the Soviet Army.
Albania became one of the original Warsaw Treaty Organization members in 1955. Separated from the other signatories, its forces were unable to participate in the pact's field exercises and after 1961, because of its rift with the Soviet Union, was not invited to attend the organization's meetings. In 1968, protesting the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, Albania formally withdrew from the pact.
Communist China was Albania's only military ally in 1970. In 1970 the Chinese were believed to be enabling Albania to maintain its forces at approximately the same levels that had been reached by 1960 with Soviet assistance (see ch. 6, Government Structure and Political System).
SECURITY FORCES
Albanian sources publish little concerning the security police except for some articles expressing gratitude for their services and a smattering of information relative to their responsibilities. Few of the observers who have visited the country since 1945 have been in positions to see, or have been qualified to judge, their actual performance. It is undoubtedly true that the Albanian leadership emulated many of Joseph Stalin's techniques for controlling the population, that it modified its attitudes and practices less than did the other East European Communist countries after Stalin's death, and that it has maintained a high degree of Stalinism since its break with the Soviet Union and alignment with Communist China (see ch. 6, Government Structure and Political System).
There is probably credibility in reports stating that no other Communist country has as extensive a police and security organization relative to its size as that which operates in Albania. Hoxha has regarded the security police as an elite group, and they have been the mainstay of his power. By 1961, although arrests had tapered off from earlier levels, fourteen concentration or labor camps were still in use. Foreign visitors in Tirana have reported that it is impossible to move around the city without escorts and that conversations with ordinary citizens are discouraged. Local police, servicemen, and security police are in evidence everywhere.
All security and police forces were responsible in the governmental structure to the Ministry of the Interior. The minister in 1970 was Kadri Hasbiu. Each organization—the Directorate of State Security, the People's Police, and the Frontier Guards—constituted a separate directorate of the ministry. The total regular uniformed security personnel numbered approximately 12,500. This figure did not include the plainclothes security police, informers, or the citizens who were performing their two months of mandatory auxiliary duty attached to local police units.
A larger proportion of personnel in the security forces are Party members than is the case in the regular military forces. In the state security organization, nearly all of those who serve in important positions are believed to be Party members. In the Frontier Guards the officers and many of the men are Party members.
The Directorate of State Security
The Directorate of State Security (Drejtorija e Sigurimit te Shtetit—commonly abbreviated to Sigurimi) is organized into four battalions and has more plainclothes personnel than uniformed. It celebrates March 20, 1943, as its founding day and is credited by Hoxha and others of the Party leadership as having been instrumental in the victory of his faction of the partisan effort. Actually the People's Defense Division, from which the Sigurimi evolved, was formed in 1945. Composed at that time of some 5,000 of the most reliable of the resistance fighters, it was headed initially by Koci Xoxe, who was executed as a Titoist four years later. Mihalaq Zicishti was its chief in 1970.
The stated missions of the security police are to prevent counterrevolution and to eliminate opposition to the Party and government. Its interests are directed toward political and ideological opposition rather than crimes against persons or property unless such crimes appear to have national implications.
In the late 1950s the Sigurimi had seven sections: political, censorship, public records, prison camp, two sections for counterespionage, and a foreign service. The political section's primary function was the penetration of opposition political factions. One of the counterespionage sections was specialized and had only a responsibility for eliminating underground organizations. The censorship section operated not only with the press, radio, publications, and other communications media but with cultural societies, schools, and schoolteachers. The public records section was also charged with ideological supervision of economic agencies.
Sigurimi personnel at labor camps attended to the political reeducation of the inmates and evaluated the degree to which they remained socially dangerous; camp guards were local police. The foreign service section placed its personnel as widely as possible in order to maintain contact with aliens or foreigners in the country and in diplomatic and visiting groups.
Sigurimi personnel may be conscripts called during the annual draft or may be career volunteers. Personnel are screened, and the conditions of service are made sufficiently attractive to secure as reliable and dedicated men as possible.
Frontier Guards
The Frontier Guards are organized into five battalions. Individual units are manned with fewer personnel than Sigurimi battalions, however, and the total strength of the force is lower. Although the force is organized strictly along military lines, it is under the Ministry of the Interior and is more closely associated with the security police than with the regular armed forces.
The stated mission of the Frontier Guards is to protect the State's borders and to take action against spies, criminals, smugglers, and infiltrators along the boundaries. In the process they also prevent Albanians from leaving the country.
Frontier Guards personnel, like those of the Sigurimi, may be acquired during the annual conscription. Career personnel are often those who have served tours in the regular services. A guards' school was established in 1953 in Tirana. Its students, as well as others allowed in the force, are carefully screened for political reliability.
The People's Police has five branches—the Police for Economic Objectives, Communications Police, Fire Police, Detention Police, and General Police. The Police for Economic Objectives serve as guards for state buildings, factories, construction projects, and similar enterprises. Communications Police guard bridges, railways, and wire lines. Firefighting is a police function, accomplished by the Fire Police. Detention Police are prison and camp guards. The fifth branch, the General Police, attend to traffic regulation, local crime, and other duties usually performed by local or municipal police.
General Police functions overlap those of the security police to some extent, but the force operates in the local, as opposed to the national, environment. Headquarters in the larger towns have security sections that maintain records on suspected anti-Communists, an alien section that maintains contact with Albanians outside their own districts as well as aliens, and a political commissar who is so placed as to assure the proper political orientation of all other personnel.
Citizens are required to carry identification cards. These contain family and employment data and, as they are needed even for intervillage travel, constitute an effective control over movement of the population.
Minimum service on the police force is for three years. Individuals with earlier service in the armed forces, security police, or Frontier Guards are preferred.
Auxiliary Police
A 1948 law requires that all able-bodied men serve two months assisting the local police. They perform with the regular People's Police of their localities, wear the police uniform made distinguishable only by a red armband, and serve without pay. The auxiliary police program serves a dual purpose. It provides additional help for the police forces. Of more overall value, it gives a sizable portion of the population some familiarity with, and presumably a more sympathetic understanding of, police activities and problems.
"Albania: First Atheist State in the World," Radio Free Europe Research Departments: Communist Area, October 1967, 1-3.
Albania: Geographical, Historical and Economic Data. Tirana: Naim Frasheri State Publishing House, 1964.
Albanian Historical Society of Massachusetts. The Albanian Struggle in the Old World and New. (Works Progress Administration Series.) Boston: Writer, 1939.
Amery, Julian. Sons of the Eagle: A Study in Guerrilla War. London: Macmillan, 1948.
Brezezinsky, Zbigniew K. The Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict. (Rev. ed.) Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967.
Conti, Massimo. "L'Albania," La Stampa (Turin), August 31-September 12, 1969.
Coon, Carleton S. The Mountain of Giants: A Racial and Cultural Study of the North Albanian Mountain Ghegs. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950.
Dhima, Dhimo M. E Drejta Kushtetuese e Republikes Popullore te Shqiperise. Tirana: N.I.S.H. Shtypshkronjave "Mihal Duri," 1963.
"Dog Wags Tail," Economist, CCXIX, No. 6404, May 21, 1966, 814.
Europa: The World of Learning, 1969-70. London: Europa Publications, 1970, 57.
Europa Year Book, 1969, I. London: Europa Publications, 1969, 454-458.
The Facts About Soviet-Albanian Relations. Tirana: Naim Frasheri State Publishing House, 1964.
"4 Albanians End Athens Trade Visit, First in 20 Years," New York Times, June 30, 1970, 9.
Gardiner, Leslie. "Albania: Last Lonely Stronghold," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, XCIII, No. 10, October 1967, 53-59.
Gegaj, Athanas, and Krasniqi, Rexhep. Albania. New York: Assembly of Captive European Nations, 1964.
Great Britain. Admiralty. Naval Intelligence Division. Albania. (Geographical Handbook Series.) London: n.pub., 1945.
Griffith, William E. Albania and the Sino-Soviet Rift. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1963.
Grovski, Vladimir, and Grzybowski, Kazimierz. Government, Law, and Courts in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, I and II. New York: Praeger, 1959.
Hamm, Harry. Albania: China's Beachhead in Europe. New York: Praeger, 1963.
Hoffman, Paul. "Albania Signs New Trade Pact with China and Condemns U.S.," New York Times, January 21, 1970, C-8.
Hoxha, Enver. "Ne Cdo Pune te Zbatojme nje Metode dhe Stil Leninist Revolucionar," Rruga e Partise (Party Path), XVI, No. 7, July 1969, 4-15.
——. VEPRA, I. Tirana: Shtepia Botonjese "Naim Frasheri," 1968.
Illustrated Library of the World and Its Peoples: Yugoslavia, Rumania, Bulgaria, Albania. New York: Greystone Press, 1965.
Instituti i Studimeve Marxiste-Leniniste Prane KQ te PHSH. Mbi Klasat dhe Luften e Klasave. Tirana: Shtepia Botonjese "Naim Frasheri," 1967.
Kertesz, Stephen D. East Central Europe and the World: Developments in the Post-Stalin Era. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1962.
Kodifikimi i Pergjithshem i Legjislacionit ne Fuqi te Republikes Popullore te Shqiperise, I. Tirana: Shtepia Botonjese "Naim Frasheri," 1958.
Koliqi, Ernesto. "Albania." Pages 370-531 in Enciclopedia dei Popoli d'Europa, I. Milan: M. Canfalonieri, 1965.
Kongresi i Peste i Partise se Punes te Shqiperise. Tirana: Shtepia Botonjese "Naim Frasheri," 1966.
Krasniqi, Rexhep. "Persecution of Religion in Communist Albania," Acen News, No. 128, March-April 1967, 17-20.
Kristo, Frasheri. The History of Albania: A Brief Survey. Tirana: n.pub., 1964.
May, Jacques M. (ed.) The Ecology of Malnutrition in Five Countries of Eastern and Central Europe, IV: East Germany, Poland, Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece. New York: Hafner, 1963.
Pano, Nicholas C. The People's Republic of Albania. Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1968.
Pipa, Fehime. Nji Shekull Shkolle Shqipe, 1861-1961. Rome: Arti Grafiche Editoriali A. Urbanite, 1961.
Plasari, N.; Mara, H.; and Misja, V. Partia e Punes s Shqiperise. Tirana: N. Sh. Botime "Naim Frasheri," 1962.
Pounds, Norman J.G. Eastern Europe. Chicago: Aldine, 1969.
Prybyla, Jan S. "Albania's Economic Vassalage," East Europe, XVI, No. 1, January 1967, 9-14.
Republika Popullore e Shqiperise. "Aresimi dhe Kultura." Pages 115-130 in Vjetari Statistikor i R. P. Sh., 1967-1968. Tirana: 1968.
——. "Mbi Sistemin Aresimor," Gazeta Zyrtare (Tirana), No. 10, December 31, 1969, 112-117.
Roucek, Joseph S., and Lattich, Kenneth V. Behind the Iron Curtain. Coldwell: Caxton Printers, 1964.
Shehu, Mehmet. "Mbi Konklusionet e Diskutimit Popullor per Revolucionarizimin a Metejshem te Shkolles Tone," Arsimi Popullor (People's Education), No. 4, July-August 1969, 21-103.
Skendi, Stavro. The Albanian National Awakening, 1878-1912. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967.
——. The Emergence of the Modern Balkan Literary Languages—A Comparative Approach. (School of International Affairs, Institute on East Central Europe, Columbia University.) Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1964.
——. "The History of the Albanian Alphabet: A Case of Complex Cultural and Political Development," Sudost Forschungen (Munich), XIX, 1960, 263-284.
——. The Political Evolution of Albania, 1912-1944. New York: Mid-European Studies Centers, March 8, 1954.
Skendi, Stavro (ed.). Albania. New York: Praeger, 1956.
Statistical Yearbook, 1967. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1968.
Statistical Yearbook of the German Democratic Republic, 1969. Berlin: State Publishing House, 1969.
Stokes, William Lee. Essentials of Earth History. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1966.
Thomas, John I. Education for Communism: School and State in the People's Republic of Albania. (Hoover Institution Studies, XXII.) Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1969.
Triska, Jan F. (ed.) Constitutions of the Communist Party-States. (Hoover Institution Publications 70.) Stanford: Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, 1968.
Twenty Years of Socialism in Albania. Tirana: Naim Frasheri State Publishing House, 1964.
U.S. Congress. 83d, 1st Session. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. Tensions Within the Soviet Captive Countries: Albania. (Document No. 70, Part 6.) Washington: GPO, 1954.
U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Foreign Demographic Analysis Division. Projections of the Population of the Communist Countries of Eastern Europe, by Age and Sex, 1969 to 1990. (International Population Reports Series, P91, No. 18.) Washington: GPO, 1969.
U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint Publications Research Service (Washington). The following publications are JPRS translations from foreign sources:
"Abuses of Principle of Compensation According to Labor," by Dervish Gjiriti, in Puna (Labor), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,847, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 310, 1970.)
"Advanced Technology: An Important Factor in Surmounting the Artisan Stage of Industrial Production," by Koco Theodhosi, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 47,891, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 114, 1969.)
"Against the Handicraft Method of Management in the Engineering Industry," by Vangjush Gambeta, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 47,544, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 92, 1969.)
"The Agricultural Tasks of 1970 Demand Greater Use of Organic Fertilizer," by Xhemal Barushi, in Bashkimi (Unity), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,065, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 265, 1970.)
"Bank Activities and Bank Control as a Component Part of State Control Must be Improved," by Zeqir Lika, in Ekonomia Popullore (People's Economy), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 48,892, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 186, 1969.)
"Concentration and Specialization Cannot be Accomplished Without a Struggle Against Outdated Concepts," by Fejzo Rino, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,647, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 41, 1968.)
"Control by the Working Class and Problems of Finance and Accounting," by Mensur Saraci, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,647, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 41, 1968.)
"The Country's Power Resources and the Ways to Use Them More Economically," by Harilla Nishku, in Ekonomia Popullore (People's Economy), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,784, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 305, 1970.)
"Development of the Machine Industry," by Thoma Afezolli, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969 (JPRS: 48,685, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 171, August 26, 1969.)
"Disappearance and Reduction of Social and General Diseases, Great Victory of the Party in the Health Field," by Josif Adhami, et al., in Shendetesia Popullore (People's Health), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 50,302, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, 1969.)
"Elements of Internal Democracy in the Agricultural Cooperatives in Berat District," by Omer Mero, in Bashkimi (Unity), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,439, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 34, 1968.)
"Expansion of Mechanization in Agriculture," by Xhelal Shkreta, in Ekonomia Popullore (People's Economy), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 47,515, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 90, 1969.)
"The Extension and Protection of the Forests is the Responsibility of All the People," by Thoma Dine, in Rruga e Partise (Party Path), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 48,096, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 129, 1969.)
"For the Implementation of the Tasks Concerning the Further Revolutionization of Our Schools," by Mehmet Shehu, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968 (JPRS: 45,432, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 256, 1968.)
"The Great Revolutionary Transformations in the Development of Our Socialist Health on the Twenty-fifth Anniversary of the Victory of the People's Revolution and the Establishment of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat," by Ciril Pistoli, in Shendetesia Popullore (People's Health), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 50,345, Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs, No. 207, 1970.)
"Immediate Interests Must be Correctly Combined With Long-Term Ones," by Perikli Samsuri, in Bashkimi (Unity), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,222, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 221, 1969.)
"Improper Use of Investment Funds," by Andrea Nako, in Bashkimi (Unity), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,570, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 38, 1968.)
"The Improvement of Fodder: A Fundamental Condition of the Development of Livestock," by Andrea Shundi and Petrit Disdardi, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 49,941, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 256, 1970.)
"Increased Savings Deposits: An Index of Growing Prosperity," by Ramadan Citaku, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,222, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 211, 1969.)
"Labor Productivity in Industry Must be Raised," by Jonuz Drishti, in Ekonomia Popullore (People's Economy), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,163, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 21, 1968.)
"Let Us Expand and Perfect Our Labor Force Plans," by Besim Bardhoshi, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,940, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 57, 1968.)
"Let Us Further Develop the Struggle for the Mechanization of Work Processes," by Pjeter Kosta, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969, (JPRS: 48,647, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 166, 1969.)
"Let Us Further Intensify the Participation of the Working Masses in Reinforcing the Savings Regimen," by Aleks Verli, in Rruga e Partise (Party Path), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 48,349, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 143. 1969.)
"Let Us Strengthen the Movement of the Working Class for the Overall Development of the Villages," by Sotir Kamberi, in Rruga e Partise (Party Path), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 45,815, Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs, No. 9, 1968.)
"Let Us Take All Necessary Measures to Organize Better the Export of Vegetables and Fruit," by Thechar Fundo, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 45,432, Translations on Eastern Europe, No. 256, 1968.)
"Massive Scientific Experimentation is an Important Factor in the Socialist Transformation of Our Agriculture," by Pirro Dodbiba, in Bashkimi (Unity), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 47,948, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 118, 1969.)
"The Maximum Utilization of Labor Time Demands Regular Material and Technical Supply," by Pjeter Kosta, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1970, (JPRS: 50,112, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 286. 1970.)
"On Fulfillment of the 1969 State Plan and Budget and on Tasks of the 1970 Draft State Plan and Budget," by Abdyl Kellezi, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1970, (JPRS: 50,060, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 264, 1970.)
"On Some of the Problems of Setting Work Norms in Agricultural Cooperatives," by Lefter Peco, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,190, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 209, 1969.)
"On the Work of the Party and Mass Organizations and of Economic and State Organs for a Further Increase of Productivity and Strengthening of Proletarian Discipline at Work," by Xhafer Spahiu, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,716, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 242, 1969.)
"Powerful Fraternal Aid in the Spirit of Proletarian Internationalism," by Pupo Shyti, in Ekonomia Popullore (People's Economy), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 47,677, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 100, 1969.)
"Problems of Mechanization in Raising Livestock and of Farm Machinery Repair and Maintenance Bases," by Xhelal Shkreta, in Ekonomia Popullore (People's Economy), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 47,677, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 100, 1969.)
"Progress of the Machine Industry" by Tago Adhami, in Ekonomia Popullore (People's Economy), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,163, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 21. 1968.)
"Proper Utilization of Work Time: An Important Factor for Fulfilling and Surpassing Planned Tasks," by Hajredin Celiku, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 47,550, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 93, 1969.)
"Protection of Mother and Child Health, the High Expression of Socialist Humanism, Realized by the Party During the 25 Years of People's Power," by Vera Ngjela et al., in Shendetesia Popullore (People's Health), Tirana, 1969 (JPRS: 50,302, Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs, No. 204, 1970.)
"The Ratio Between Means of Production and Consumer Goods," by Besim Bardhoshi, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 47,242, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 77, 1969.)
"Rebuilding: One of the Most Important Ways to Modernize Industry," by Harilla Papajorgji, in Rruga e Partise (Party Path), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,304, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 378, 1970.)
"Relations of Collective Ownership in Agricultural Cooperatives are Improving," by Munir Como, in Rruga e Partise (Party Path), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,304, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 278, 1970.)
"Rising Labor Productivity: An Economic Law of Socialism," by Zeqir Lika, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,201, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 272, 1970.)
"Shortcomings of the Vegetable Supply," by Avni Oktrova, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968 (JPRS: 46,205, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 22, 1968.)
"Some of the Problems of the Socialist Organization of Labor," by Koco Stefani, in Bashkimi (Unity), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,305, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 214, 1969.)
"The Strengthening and Growth of the Various Branches and Sectors: Important Factors in Cooperation Between and the Overall Development of Cooperative Villages," by Baki Karalliu, in Rruga e Partise (Party Path), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 47,134, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 71, 1968.)
"The Struggle to Raise Healthy Children and Reduce the Mortality Rate: A Great Social and Medical Problem," by Sh. Josa, R. Cikuli, and Xh. Basha, in Shendetesia Popullore (People's Health), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 50,345, Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological and Military Affairs, No. 207, 1970.)
"Why are Unnecessary Materials Imported?," by Gaslli Vllamasi, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,876, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 53, 1968.)
"The Youth Discharged from the Army: A Great Force for the Development of Subsidiary Activities in Our Socialist Villages," by Vasil Premti, in Rruga e Partise (Party Path), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 47,134, Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs, No. 71. 1968.)
Vjetari Statistikor i R. P. Sh. Tirana: Republika Popullore e Shqiperise, Drejtoria e Statistikes, 1967-68.
Vokopola, Kemal. "The Albanian Customary Law," Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress, XXV, No. 4, October 1968, 306-315.
——. "Church and State in Albania," Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, II, April 2, 1965, 33-47.
Whitaker, Ian. "Tribal Structure and National Politics in Albania, 1910-1950." Pages 253-293 in A.S.A. Monographs, No. 7: History and Anthropology. London: Tavistock Publications, 1968.
"With a Hand Across Your Lens," Economist, CCXXIV, No. 6,464, July 15, 1967, 210.
World Radio-TV Handbook, 1970. (Ed., J.M. Frost.) (24th ed.) Soliljevej: H.P.J. Meakin, 1970.
Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, V: Europe. New York: Harper and Row, 1967.
Yearbook on International Communist Affairs, 1968. (Ed., Richard V. Allen.) Standford: Hoover Institution Press, 1969.
Zavalani, T. Histori e Shqipnis, II. London: Poets and Painters Press, 1966.
OTHER SOURCES USED
"Albanian Drama Under Foreign Influences," Radio Free Europe: Research Departments, May 6, 1965.
"Albania's 1969 Plan Fulfillment and the 1970 Plan," Radio Free Europe Research: Communist Area, March 2, 1970, 1-11.
"Albania's Rapid Economic Growth at the Expense of the Consumer," Radio Free Europe Research: Communist Area, January 10, 1970, 1-5.
Capps, Edward. Greece, Albania, and Northern Epirus. Chicago: Arganout, 1963.
Churchill, Winston S. The Second World War: VI: Triumph and Tragedy. Cambridge: Riverside Press, 1953.
Ciano, Galeazzo. The Ciano Diaries, 1939-1943. Garden City: Doubleday, 1946.
Cusack, Dymphna. Illyria Reborn. London: Heinemann, 1966.
Djilas, Milovan. Conversations with Stalin. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1962.
Fjalor i Gjuhes Shqipe. Tirana: Instituti i Shkencavet Sekcioni i Gjuhes e i Letersise, 1954.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service. Broadcasting Stations of the World. Part I: Amplitude Modulation Broadcasting Stations According to Country and City. Washington: GPO, September 1, 1969.
Frasheri, Kristo. The History of Albania. Tirana: n.pub., 1964.
Gazeta Zyrtare (Tirana), No. 6, September 29, 1966, 151-169.
Instituti i Studimeve Marksiste-Leniniste Prane KQ te PHSH. Historia e Partise se Punes te Shqiperise. Tirana: Shtepia Botonjese "Naim Frasheri," 1968.
Jacomoni de San Savio, Francesco. La Politica dell' Italia in Albania. Rocca San Casciano: Cappelli Editore, 1965.
Kasneci, Lefter. Rruga e Lavdishme e Ushterise Popullore. Tirana: "Naim Frasheri," 1963.
Koliqi, Ernesto. "Albania." Pages 370-531 in Enciclopedia dei Popoli d'Europa, I. Milan: M. Canfalonieri, 1965.
Kondi, Piro. "To Follow the Experience of Work in Studying the History of the Party," Zeri i Popullit, February 3, 1970, 2.
Lendvai, Paul. Eagles in Cobwebs—Nationalism and Communism in the Balkans. Garden City: Doubleday, 1969.
Logoreci, Anton. "Politics in Flux; Albania: The Anabaptist of European Communism," Problems of Communism, XVI, No. 3, May-June 1967, 22-28.
1970 World Population Data Sheet. Washington: Population Reference Bureau, 1970.
Omari, Luan; Dode, Petro; and Beqja, Hamit. 20 Vjetori Shqiperi Socialiste. Tirana: N. Sh., Botime "Naim Frasheri," 1964.
"Opposition to the Albanian Cultural Revolution," Radio Free Europe: Research Departments, September 22, 1966.
Organizatat-Baze te Partise per Revolucionarizimin e Metejshem te Jetes se Vendit. Tirana: Shtepia Botonjese "Naim Frasheri," 1968.
Pacrami, F. "Duke Kaluar nga Diskutimi ne Zbatim per Revolucionarizimin e Metejshem te Shkolles, Rruga e Partise," XVI, No. 8, July 1969.
Political Handbook and Atlas of the World: Parliaments, Parties, and Press. (Ed., Walter H. Mallory.) New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968.
The Road to Communism. (Documents of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, October 17-31.) Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, n.d.
"Situation Report," Radio Free Europe: Research Departments, April 19, 1967.
Sphiu, Xh. "Mbi Disa Probleme te Punes se Partise ne Fshat per Ngushtimin e Dallimeve Esenciale Midis Qytetit dhe Fshatit, Midis Zonave Fushore dhe Atyre Malore," Rruga e Partise, XVI, No. 8, August 1969, 1-20.
"The State of Wall Posters in Albania," Radio Free Europe: Research Departments, April 13, 1967.
Stickney, Edith Pierpont. Southern Albania or Northern Epirus in European International Affairs, 1912-1923. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1926.
Swire, Joseph. Albania: The Rise of a Kingdom. London: Williams and Norgate, 1929.
Twenty Years of Socialism in Albania. Tirana: Naim Frasheri State Publishing House, 1964.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. World Communications. New York: 1964.
U.S. Congress. 83d, 2d Session. House of Representatives. Communist Takeover and Occupation of Albania. (Special Report No. 13.) Washington: GPO, 1954.
U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint Publications Research Service (Washington). The following publications are JPRS translations from foreign sources:
"The Class Struggle—the Dividing Line between Marxism and Revisionism," by Bujar Hoxha, in Zeri i Popullit (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 45,815, Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological and Military Affairs, No. 9, 1968.)
"The Elimination of Backward Customs Requires Continued and Persistent Work," by Kol Tollumi, in Rruga e Partise (Party Path), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 45,815, Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological and Military Affairs, No. 9, 1968.)
"Let Us Strengthen the Movement of the Working Class for the Overall Development of the Villages," by Sotir Kamberi, in Rruga e Partise (Party Path), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 45,815, Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological and Military Affairs, No. 9, 1968.)
"The Problems Raised by Comrade Enver in His Speech 'The Rights and Freedoms of Women Must be Fully Understood and Protected by All' and What Should be Done to Solve Them," by Piro Kondi, in Rruga e Partise (Party Path), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,462, Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological and Military Affairs, No. 214, 1970.)
"Remnants of Patriarchalism in the Family and Society: A Serious Hindrance to The Complete Triumph of the Socialist Way of Life," by Kol Gjoka and Lluke Pashko, in Rruga e Partise (Party Path), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,588, Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological and Military Affairs, No. 32, 1968.)
"Social and Family Relations: A Broad Field for the Class Struggle," by Hysni Kapo, in Rruga e Partise (Party Path), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,200, Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological and Military Affairs, No. 198, 1970.)
"Some Problems of the Academic, Cultural, and Aesthetic Education of Youth," by Ismail Hoxha, in Nendori (November), Tirana, 1967. (JPRS: 43,672, Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs, 1967.)
(The periodical, Ekonomia Popullore [Tirana], November to December 1965, was used in the preparation of this book.)
Albanian Workers' Party—The Communist Party of Albania. This name adopted by the First Party Congress in 1948.
basic party organization—The Albanian Workers' Party unit established in state enterprises and institutions, on collective or cooperative farms, and in military organizations. In some Communist states—for example, the Soviet Union—the equivalent is a primary party organization.
Bektashi—A dervish order, offshoot of the Shia branch of Islam, emphasizing abstinence from violence and charity to all people.
besa—A pledge to faithfully fulfill an obligation or promise. Formerly used to effect a truce during hostilities involving clans or conflicts between individuals.
bey—The head of a feudal estate or an administrative official under the Turks. Became the dominant class after Albanian independence in 1912. Also formerly used as a title of respect.
CEMA—Council for Economic Mutual Assistance; members: Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, and the Soviet Union.
civil war—The hostilities from September 1943 to November 1944 in which partisans of the Communist-led National Liberation Front fought the two principal anti-Communist organizations, Balli Kombetar (National Front) and Levizja e Legalitetit (Legality Movement).
clan—An organization that included several families and provided controls as stipulated by unwritten codes. In 1945 the clans were broken up by the Communist regime.
collective or cooperative—An organization in which members retain only their personal effects; all other belongings become community property. Production from group efforts goes into a common fund. Members are paid on the basis of their contribution of work units.
Cominform—Communist Information Bureau. International organization of Communist parties, established in 1947 and dissolved in 1956.
Democratic Front—The largest and most important social organization utilized by the Albanian Workers' Party to gain the support of the masses for their objectives. Its work includes political, economic, social, and cultural tasks. It succeeded the National Liberation Front in 1945.
district—The major subdivisions of the country. There were twenty-six in 1970.
Gegs—The larger of the two subgroups of Albanians. They inhabit the area north of the Shkumbin River. Differentiated until World War II by their tribal organization and primitive life style; also have distinctive physical features.
Kosovo—An autonomous region within the Serbian Republic of Yugoslavia. This area previously called Kosovo-Metohija and frequently referred to as Kosmet.
lek—The standard monetary unit. Does not have an international official exchange rate. Nominally valued in Tirana at 5 leks to 1 United States dollar; the tourist rate in early 1970 was 12.5 leks to US$1. Devalued in August 1965 by exchanging 1 new lek for 10 old leks.
Marxism-Leninism—From the Albanian Communist viewpoint, the ideology of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin as reflected in the experience of the Soviet Union until the death of Joseph Stalin.
mass organization—Generally of a social or professional nature with broad membership designed to link the Party with the masses and to gain support for Party objectives.
National Liberation Front—Created in 1942; Communist-led; fought Italian and German occupying forces and immobilized other Albanian factions to seize power in 1944.
Ottoman—Relating to the Turks or to Turkey. Derived from name of fourteenth-century founder of the Ottoman Empire.
party cadre—A thoroughly indoctrinated and reliable Party group. Utilized wherever deemed necessary to maintain efficiency and performance. Frequently specially trained in management.
pasha—A person of high rank; formerly used as a title of respect; title given to appointed provincial heads during the Ottoman period.
People's Army—The armed forces of Albania. Composed of ground, air, and navy elements.
People's Council—The highest government organ at district and lower echelons. Members are elected for three-year terms.
Politburo—The highest and most powerful executive body of the Albanian Workers' Party. In early 1970 it consisted of eleven full members and five candidate members.
Presidium of the People's Assembly—Administers and conducts governmental functions between Assembly meetings. Issues decrees and judges constitutionality of laws. In early 1970, composed of a president, two vice presidents, and ten members.
revisionism—As interpreted by Albanian Communists, the actions and ideologies of Communist states that are inconsistent with Albanian interpretations of Marxism-Leninism.
Sigurimi—Name applied to state security police under the Communist regime; derived from the Directorate of State Security (Drejtorija e Sigurimit te Shtetit).
Sunni—One of the two major branches of Islam.
Tosks—The smaller of the two subgroups of Albanians. They live south of the Shkumbin River. Differences in social organization between the two groups lessened under Communist rule. They abandoned their tribal pattern of life earlier and were more influenced by foreign cultures before 1945 than were the Gegs.
Zogu, Ahmet—Served as prime minister and president during the early 1920s; then ruled as King Zog from 1928 until 1939. Was leader of conservative forces composed of landowners, former Ottoman bureaucrats, and tribal chiefs.