If, to take a further example, the known factors include the appropriate effect desired, the means opposed, the physical conditions prevailing in the field of action, and the consequences as to costs, the only unknown remains the means available. The question then is, what means need be made available for the accomplishment of the contemplated effort? The answer to this question may be found in the application of what may be called the principle for the determination of the proper means to be made available in human affairs,—as follows:

The influence of physical conditions in the field of action may be illustrated by any case where ends otherwise feasible of attainment cannot be achieved without effecting changes in such conditions. The resolution of the uncertainty then requires study to determine what suitable changes can be made. Changes for such a purpose may take various forms, such as the construction of physical features in the area involved, or the destruction of such features already existing; or, again, both methods may be employed. Examples of such changes have existed and still exist in profusion, some of them, military and non-military, being on such a scale as radically to alter the previous status with respect to entire nations. The question as to what changes ought to be effected in the prevailing physical conditions, in order to attain a certain objective, can be answered by the application of what may be called the principle for the determination of the proper physical conditions to be established in the field of action,—as follows:

The factor of consequences as to costs also calls for special notice. The influence of this factor frequently justifies abandonment of suitable ends in view, even though their attainment has been determined to be feasible, because the loss involved would out-weigh the gain. Immediate success may be attained at such cost as to prevent the attainment of larger ends (see the discussion, pages 9 and 10, of the relationship of strategy and tactics).

On the other hand, the circumstances of the case may well justify loss, however great, because the alternative is unacceptable, even though the consequences involve complete destruction. Moreover, the need for swift and aggressive action in many activities (notably in war), for resolute prosecution of the plan, for timely seizure of opportunity, and for acceptance of justified risks, requires that consideration of consequences as to costs never be emphasized beyond its proper weight. To determine such proper weight calls, frequently, for judgment of the highest order, and is, in the military profession, a direct responsibility of command. This responsibility can be discharged by the application of what may be called the corollary principle for the determination of acceptable consequences as to costs,—as follows:

Special Nature of War as a Human Activity. A principle found, by careful analysis, to be governing as to human activities of any nature, is also applicable to the problems of war. This is true because war is a human activity, differing from other human activities only in the specialized character of the factors that enter.

The effect desired in war has a character distinctly military and, ultimately, through the reestablishment of a favorable peace, a political character (see pages 7-9).

The means available (or opposed) in war are the human and material components of fighting strength (page 8). The physical conditions prevailing in the field of action are, in war, the characteristics of the theater of operations. Fighting strength is thus derived from the means available (or opposed) in war, as influenced by the characteristics of the theater. Relative fighting strength (comparative resources in war) involves a comparison of means available with means opposed, due account being taken of the influence exerted on both by the characteristics of the theater. In war, relatively large masses of human beings oppose each other with hostile intent, while the means available and opposed, and the physical conditions established by the operations of war in the theater of action, tend more and more to acquire a highly specialized character.

The consequences as to costs, in war, also assume a special significance, inasmuch as they may materially influence the development of entire nations or of the world situation.

Factors as Universal Determinants in War. Tabulated for convenient reference and expressed in terms in general use in the military profession, the factors governing the attainment of an end in war are therefore:

(a)   The Nature of the appropriate Effect Desired,
(b)   The Means Available and Opposed,
(c)   The Characteristics of the Theater of Operations,
          and
(d)   The Consequences as to Costs.

These factors, thus expressed in abstract form, are the universal determinants of the nature of the objective and of the character of the action to attain it. Their further resolution into factors of more concrete form is indicated hereinafter (see Chapter VI, in the discussion of Section II of the Estimate Form).

The Objective in War. The objective (page 3), a term long in use in the military profession in connection with the "objective point", has acquired by extension the significance of something more than the physical object of action. The latter, as explained later (page 37), is properly denominated the "physical objective".

In the abstract, an "objective", in present general usage as well as in the military vocabulary, is an end toward which action is being directed, or is to be directed; in brief, an end in view, a result to be attained, an effect desired (page 19 and 30). An objective is an effect to be produced for the attainment of a further objective, itself a further effect. As already demonstrated (page 30 and following), the attainment of an end, in any human activity, requires action to maintain the existing situation or to create a new one. Therefore, in war, a special form of human activity, the attainment of an objective requires that action be actual imposition of an outside agency. The attainment of a correct military objective (discussed in detail in Chapter IV) requires, accordingly, the creation or maintenance of a favorable military situation.

An objective, in the sense of an end in view, a result to be accomplished, is manifestly an objective in mind. As already indicated (page 36), however, military usage also assigns to the term "objective" an additional meaning, a meaning exclusively concrete. Results in war are attained through the actual or threatened use of physical force (pages 8 and 9) directed with relation to something tangible, such as, for example, some physical element of the enemy's strength.

Action as to this tangible feature (e.g., if it is destroyed, occupied, neutralized, or otherwise dealt with) will result in, or further the attainment of, an effect desired. Thus the physical objective occupies a sharply defined position in warfare, in that it establishes the physical basis of the objective and indicates the geographical direction of the effort. Since the physical objective is always an object—be it only a geographical point—, it is more than a mental concept; it is an objective in space.

For example, the objective being "the destruction of the enemy battleship", the physical objective is the enemy battleship.

As used herein the expression "the objective" or "the military objective" (page 55), when unqualified, ordinarily indicates the mental objective. The term is properly applicable to a physical objective when the context makes the meaning clear. Ordinarily, and always when clarity demands, a tangible focus of effort is herein denoted a "physical objective".

Military Operations. Appropriate action to create or maintain a situation will take the form of a military operation. An operation, in the basic sense, is merely an act, or a series of acts. The word is derived from the Latin opus, meaning "work". A military operation is therefore an act, or a series of included acts (i.e., work), of a military character. A military operation may consist of an entire campaign, or even of several such, constituting a clearly defined major stage in a war; or such an operation may consist of portions thereof. The term is also applied, properly, to entire series of acts on the part of successive commands, from the higher to the lower echelons, to and including distinctive military actions which relate to the merest routine.

A plan of action to attain a military objective is, therefore, a plan of military operations, including supporting measures (see page 167), considered or adopted as a method of procedure for the achievement of that end (see page 21). Such a plan or method of procedure requires action with relation to correct physical objectives in such a manner as to attain the objective, i.e., to maintain the existing situation or to create a new one, conformably to the appropriate effect desired.

A plan of military operations may be regarded as reasonably effective if the direction or geographical trend of the effort provides for proper action with relation to the correct physical objectives; if the force concerned utilizes positions advantageous in relation to those of the opponent; if the fighting strength is so apportioned as to provide for requisite power at points likely to be decisive, without undue weakening at other points; and if future actions, in seeking the effect desired, will be unhampered by obstacles with which the force cannot cope. These essentials apply to all of the various combinations of circumstances, i.e., situations (page 20), which may materialize as action progresses and the original situation unfolds.

A properly conceived plan of military operations therefore makes provision, necessarily, for certain salient features of such operations, as follows:

The physical objectives involved,
The relative positions utilized,
The apportionment of fighting strength, and
The provisions for freedom of action.

As will later be observed (Chapters VII and VIII), the content of plans for naval operations may be classified under the headings listed above. In such plans the salient features noted will be observed, also, to occur, subject to certain exceptions, in the sequence above indicated. Similar observations are applicable as to plans systematically prepared for direction of forces operating on land and in the air.

A military operation which is progressing favorably, whatever the medium of action, may therefore be justifiably stated to include provision for the following salient features:

Since, at any moment of its successful prosecution, a military operation presents, inherently (page 38), a favorable military situation, the salient features of such an operation constitute, also, the salient features of a favorable military situation. Manifestly, any deficiencies in these respects will indicate that in certain particulars the situation is not entirely favorable, if not actually unfavorable.

Determination of the Salient Features. Because the form which a military operation takes, in the effort to attain a military objective, depends upon the factors which are the universal determinants (page 36) of the character of the effort, the salient features of such an operation are determined by the same factors. A valid guide as to determination of the salient features of a favorably progressing military operation, seen (above) to be identical with those of a favorable military situation, may therefore be formulated as a principle for determining these salient features, as follows:

Since the particular character of each salient feature of a situation, or of an operation, is determined by the influence, exerted by the identical factors (as noted), there is a resulting interdependency, important though indirect, among the several features. This interdependency is explained hereafter. (Chapter IV).

The Fundamental Military Principle. The Fundamental Principle for the Attainment of an End in human affairs (page 32) has invited attention to the factors, pertinent to suitability, feasibility, and acceptability, seen to be applicable, as well, to any military effort (page 35). As also noted, a military effort will necessarily consist of military operations, whose salient features depend upon the same factors. The factors, in turn, have been observed (page 32 and following) to be interdependent.

These considerations lead to the formulation of a derivative of the Fundamental Principle for the Attainment of an End in human affairs, in the form of

The Fundamental Military Principle

The attainment of a military objective (the creation or maintenance of a favorable military situation) depends on effective operations involving the salient features of

each fulfilling the requirements of

which factors are in turn dependent on each other.

The Fundamental Military Principle, as a valid guide, encounters no exception in the field it purports to cover. As a practical guide, it brings to attention, in broad outline, all the causes and effects which are involved. The principle affords a proper basis for the formulation of corollary principles for the determination, in any particular situation, of any element noted therein whose value may be unknown but may be ascertained by reference to other pertinent elements which constitute known quantities. (See pages 21-27.)

As later explained (Chapter IV), the two major applications of the Principle relate to the selection of a correct military objective and to the determination of effective military operations to attain an objective (see page 28).

A corollary Principle of the Correct Military Objective will accordingly state that the selection of a correct military objective depends on the due consideration of the salient features and the factors cited in the Fundamental Military Principle. The application of this corollary is discussed in Section II of Chapter IV.

A corollary Principle of Effective Military Operations will similarly state that the determination of effective operations for the attainment of a military objective depends on the due consideration of the salient features and the factors cited in the Fundamental Military Principle. The application of this corollary is explained in Section III of Chapter IV.

These principles can be used as a basis for formulating the plans of the commander concerned, and, accordingly, for determining his own action. They can also be used as a basis for rendering sound opinions, when requested of the commander, as to plans and actions contemplated by higher authority. The principles are in like manner applicable for purposes of historical study involving analysis of operations of the past.

CHAPTER IVToC

THE APPLICATION OF THE FUNDAMENTAL MILITARY PRINCIPLE

(Objectives—Their Selection and Attainment)

I. MAJOR COMPONENTS OF MILITARY PROBLEMS.

In the two preceding chapters, the study of the natural mental processes has brought to notice that, to meet the requirements of suitability, feasibility, and acceptability as to consequences in the proper solution of a military problem, it is first necessary to establish a sound basis for that solution. Such a basis involves an understanding of the appropriate effect desired and of relative fighting strength (see pages 29 and 30).

In each situation an understanding of the appropriate effect desired, from the standpoint of suitability, requires:

An understanding of relative fighting strength involves consideration of the means available and opposed, as influenced by the characteristics of the theater of operations. With this understanding there is provided a sound basis for the determination, later, of the feasibility of courses of action and of their acceptability with respect to consequences as to costs.

In the premises, the ability to understand the nature of a military problem is dependent on the knowledge, experience, character, and professional judgment of the commander. These qualities enable him to grasp the significance of the salient features of the situation. The same personal characteristics are instrumental in the recognition of the incentive. Analysis indicates that an incentive may arise (1) by reason of a directive issued by higher authority, or (2) from the fact that a decision already reached by the commander has introduced further problems, or (3) because of the demands of the situation. However, the primary consideration in understanding the nature of the problem is the appreciation of the objective from which the problem originates, i.e., the just estimation or accurate evaluation of this objective. Such consideration is primary because appreciation of this objective involves, as necessary concomitants, a grasp of the salient features of the existing situation (to be maintained or changed) and a recognition of the incentive.

Correct appreciation of this objective, in its relationship to the further effect to be produced, is thus the principal consideration in reaching an understanding of the appropriate effect desired. It is, to repeat, through an understanding of this factor and of the factors of relative fighting strength that the commander establishes the basis for the solution of his problem. (See Section I of Chapter VI, page 118).

The Solution of a Military Problem. When the commander has thus obtained an understanding of the basis of his problem, the actual procedure of solution is undertaken through the consideration of the factors involved in their influence on the various plans for the attainment of the appropriate effect desired, as thus established. The best plan, selected and embodied in outline in the decision, can then be further developed, if necessary, into a general plan for the commander's force and, finally, into a detailed plan, as the solution of the problem. (See page 22.)

The Major Components of a Military Problem. Each plan considered by the commander will involve (page 21) two major considerations: namely—an effect to be produced and the action required to produce it; or, in military terms, a correct military objective (or objectives) and effective operations for its attainment. The selection of correct military objectives and the determination of effective operations for their attainment are therefore the two major components of a military problem, because they are the principal considerations on which depends the soundness of military decision. To meet these requirements is a prime function of command, one which demands professional judgment of the highest order.

The major components of a military problem are of course intimately connected, because a purposeful action, accomplished, is equivalent to an objective, attained. Furthermore, the attainment of an objective involves the accomplishment of effective operations.

Because of the importance of the subject, the relationship between these two major components deserves very careful analysis. As has been observed (page 30), the action to be taken depends, in the first instance, on the effect to be produced. Therefore, the objective is, as compared to the action to attain it, the paramount matter. Moreover, there is necessarily included, in the procedure of selecting a correct objective, a consideration as to whether the action to that end will be feasible and as to whether the consequences involved will be acceptable on the basis of the costs which will be exacted. If, then, the objective has been correctly selected in any situation, this procedure will have included, as a necessary incidental, the determination also, in the proper detail, of the operations required for its attainment.

Of the two major components involved in the selection of the best plan, the primary relates, therefore, to correct objectives. Accordingly, this consideration is most aptly expressed in terms of the "selection" of objectives. The "determination" of necessary operations is a proper expression of the procedure therein involved, because this procedure, though also involving a major component of the problem is dependent on the primary consideration of objectives.

A valid guide for practical use during the process of solving military problems will therefore provide a basis, primarily, for the selection of correct objectives. However, the procedure for such selection, though requiring consideration of the action involved in attaining objectives, will seldom call for a complete analysis of such operations. Therefore, it is also desirable, for the solution of military problems, to provide a valid guide for the determination of effective operations, in detail. This guide may be used on occasions when, the correct objective having been selected, the only remaining problem is to work out the detailed operations involved.

The Fundamental Military Principle, developed in the preceding chapter, has been formulated to fulfill the requirements described in the preceding paragraph. Through the exhaustive analysis of the elements involved, there has been provided, in the form of a single fundamental principle, a valid guide for the selection of correct military objectives and for the due determination of effective operations for their attainment.

In the present chapter, the abstract application of the Principle is discussed in terms of fundamental considerations. Section II of the chapter deals with the selection of objectives; this subject, in more specific terms, is later expanded in Chapter VI. Section III of the present chapter deals with the determination of operations; this subject, in more specific terms, is expanded in Chapter VII. The present chapter affords a treatment applicable to military problems of any nature. Later expansion is applicable, more especially, to naval problems.

This arrangement of the subject matter has been adopted for two reasons. First, discussion of fundamental considerations, thus taken up at the present point, immediately follows the formulation of the principle (in Chapter III). Furthermore, a fundamental treatment, prior to Chapters VI and VII, permits maximum brevity in the discussion, therein. The commander, having mastered the fundamentals dealt with here, can later follow the detailed procedure with minimum distraction due to reference to the preceding discussion.

Essential Elements Involved. As previously stated, the problems of war differ from those of other human activities with respect, only (page 35), to the specialized character of the factors that enter.

The final outcome is dependent (page 8) on ability to isolate, occupy, or otherwise control the territory of the enemy. The sea, though it supplements the resources of land areas, is destitute of many essential requirements of man, and affords no basis, alone, for the secure development of human activities. Land is the natural habitat of man. The sea provides routes of communication between land areas. The air affords routes of communication over both land and sea.

These facts inject into military operations certain factors peculiar to movement of military forces by land, sea, and air (page 60). There are also involved the specialized demands of a technique for the imposition of and the resistance to physical violence. In addition there appear those factors related to the psychology of human reactions to armed conflict.

In any situation involving opposing armed forces, the problem, as in any human activity (page 30), is, from the standpoint of each opponent, a matter of maintaining existing conditions or of bringing about a change. The method employed, if the action is to be effective, will follow lines calculated to shape the ensuing progressive changes in circumstances toward the attainment of the end in view. The action to be taken will be ineffective if it does not support the calculated line of endeavor, i.e., if it is not suitable or adequate forcibly to shape the course of events either toward the creation of a desired new and more favorable situation, or the maintenance of the original conditions.

The analysis of the principal components of a military problem—i.e., the military objectives and the military operations appropriate to the effort for their attainment—therefore requires a study of such objectives and operations in terms, respectively, of a favorable military situation (page 37) and of a favorably progressing military operation (page 38). As has been observed, the salient features of such a situation or operation are, from the abstract viewpoint, identical, as are also the factors which determine the character of such features (page 39). As a covering word for such features and factors, alike, the term "elements" appears especially suitable, inasmuch as it properly comprises the constituent parts of any subject, as well as the factors which may pertain thereto.

Accordingly, the analysis, following, of the procedure for selection of correct military objectives is made in terms of the essential elements of a favorable military situation. For like reasons, the analysis of the procedure for determining the character of the detailed operations required is made in terms of the essential elements of a favorably progressing military operation. (For these elements, see the salient features and the factors cited in the Fundamental Military Principle, page 41.)

II. SELECTION OF CORRECT MILITARY OBJECTIVES

Nature of Military Objectives. In the previous discussion (page 36), the military objective has been defined as the end toward which action is being, or is to be, directed. As such it has been noted as an objective in mind. The tangible focus of effort, the physical objective toward which the action is directed, has been observed to be an objective in space. The physical objective is always an object, be it only a geographical point, while the objective, being a mental concept, is a situation to be created or maintained.

The term "objective" requires circumspection, not only in the manner of its expression (see page 53), but in its use. The latter is true because the purport of the objective under consideration will vary with the viewpoint of the echelon concerned. For instance, the proper visualization of an objective, as an "effect desired" (page 19), calls for a correct answer to the question, "Who desires this effect to be produced?" (See page 4).

A variety of viewpoints is thus a natural characteristic of the chain of command (pages 11-13), whose functioning creates what may be called a "chain of objectives".

Necessary exceptions aside, the commander expects to receive, from his immediate superior, an assigned objective, which that superior thus enjoins the commander to attain. The commander, in turn, through the use of the natural mental processes already explained, decides on an objective, for the general effort of his own force, to attain the objective assigned by his immediate superior.

As a subordinate, a commander to whom an objective has been assigned is responsible to his immediate superior for its attainment. The commander may, however, also occupy the position of an immediate superior to one or more commanders on the next lower echelon. In such capacity, he may assign objectives to these immediate subordinates. By attaining such an assigned objective, each of these subordinates thus contributes to the success of the complete effort planned by his immediate superior, to the extent represented by his own assigned share of the effort.

A commander can scarcely expect to receive in full the intelligent support of his subordinate commanders, unless he makes clear to them the character of his own planned effort. It is customary, therefore, when assigning an objective to a subordinate, also to inform him of the purpose which its attainment is intended to further. Stated differently, a commander, when imposing upon an immediate subordinate an effect which he is to produce, informs him, at the same time, of the nature of the military result which he, the immediate superior, has determined to bring about.

This is the part of wisdom, not merely of choice. It acquaints the immediate subordinate with the objective of the immediate superior and thus enables the former to comprehend wherein the attainment of his own assigned objective is expected to contribute to the attainment of the effect desired by his superior.

Since the attainment of the assigned objectives will represent the consummation of the general plan of the immediate superior, the purpose of each of these assignments is to assist in the attainment of the objective announced, for his entire force, by the immediate superior (see also page 12).

From the viewpoint of the subordinate, the objective thus assigned by the immediate superior becomes the appropriate effect desired, essential to the determination of the accomplishment which the former is to effect by his own effort. On occasion, also, the full scope of the appropriate effect desired may require consideration of the objectives of higher echelons in the chain of command, so far as such objectives may be known or deduced.

The responsibility of the immediate superior, in the matter of ensuring that his immediate subordinates understand the purpose of their assigned objectives, is in no respect less than that which falls upon these subordinates in the execution of their own assignments. By failing to provide subordinate commanders, through whatever methods, with a knowledge not only of the details of his plan but of the general objective which their integrated effort is calculated to attain, the superior may actually subject his undertaking to the risk of failure.

The decision as to the general plan (page 44) for the attainment of his assigned objective provides the commander with an objective which he himself has originated. With the plan for the attainment of his general objective clearly fixed in mind, the commander may now proceed to the selection of one or more objectives of a specific nature, the integrated attainment of which will ensure the attainment of his assigned objective. The instructions which he may then give, severally, to his immediate subordinates in a detailed plan of operations, thus indicate to the latter their assigned objectives. (See also page 22.)

The source of the incentive (page 44) has an intimate connection with the assigned objective. Furthermore, whatever the origin of the incentive, the ability to select correct objectives is an essential element in the mental equipment of the commander.

For example, if the incentive arises by reason of a directive received from higher authority, such directive will presumably assign an objective, specific or inferred. The commander to whom such an objective is assigned is responsible for a correct understanding of all the implications involved, including the relationship between the assigned objective and the general objective of the next higher commander, which represents the purpose of the assigned objective. On occasion it will also be necessary for the commander to consider the relationships involved with the further objectives of the higher command (page 49). Again, without any suggestion of cavilling at orders received, the commander may also find occasion to examine, with care, the implications of his assigned objective, because of his responsibility for taking correct action in the premises (page 15).

If the incentive arises from a decision previously made by the commander, it follows that such decision will have embodied an objective, selected by the commander himself.

If the incentive arises because of the demands of the situation, the commander is responsible for recognition of the necessity for action and for the correct selection of an appropriate objective, to be adopted by him as a basis for his own action as if it were assigned by higher authority.

An assigned objective having been established with respect to the basis for his problem, the commander is always responsible for the correct selection of an objective to serve as the end in view for the general, integrated action of his subordinate commanders.

Once such an objective has been selected, the commander is further responsible for selecting, on the basis provided thereby, correct objectives to be assigned to his subordinate commanders.

For various practical reasons, therefore, the responsibility of the commander requires of him the ability to select correct objectives. On the basis of classification with respect to the authority making the selection, analysis will demonstrate the existence of two types of objectives.

These two types of objectives are (see page 30 as to effects and further effects), namely, (1) the assigned objective (page 48) ordinarily indicated by higher authority, exceptionally determined by the commander for himself, and (2) the objective typically selected by the commander, himself, as the end in view for the integrated effort of his subordinates. It will be noted that in the latter category there will fall, not only the general objective referred to immediately above, but numerous other objectives for whose attainment provision may be needed during the actual prosecution of the effort or in anticipation thereof.

Procedure for Selection of Correct Military Objectives. The Fundamental Military Principle (page 41), properly applied, is the basis for the selection of any or all of such objectives. The procedure involves the direct application of the corollary Principle of the Correct Military Objective.

According to this principle, the selection of a correct military objective depends on due consideration of the salient features noted, i.e., correct physical objectives, advantageous relative positions, proper apportionment of fighting strength, and provision for adequate freedom of action. These features, discussed in greater detail hereafter (in this chapter), are determined by factors cited in the Principle (pages 41-42).

The first factor being the appropriate effect desired, a correct military objective is selected, in the first instance, by reference to the requirement of suitability as to this factor. This appropriate effect desired may be indicated by the higher command (page 44), or may be determined by the commander himself as hereinafter explained (page 52).

When the appropriate effect desired has been established, the next consideration is, "What physical objective (or objectives) can be found, action with relation to which will, if successful, attain this effect?"

For example, if the appropriate effect desired were the "reduction of enemy battleship strength" in a certain area, then an enemy battleship appearing therein would manifestly be a correct physical objective. A suitable action with relation thereto would be "to destroy the enemy battleship", in which case the objective involved in the action would be "the destruction of the enemy battleship".

Any lesser accomplishment, such as infliction of damage on the enemy battleship, or its repulse, or its diversion elsewhere, would also be suitable to the appropriate effect desired, though not in the same degree. Each such visualized accomplishment, suitable to the appropriate effect desired, may properly be considered as a tentatively selected objective.

An objective having been tentatively selected on the basis of the appropriate effect desired, its final selection will naturally depend, as indicated in the Principle, on the feasibility of the effort involved in the attainment of each such objective, and on the acceptability of the consequences as to costs.

In investigating such feasibility, account is taken of the relative fighting strength. With relation to the enemy battleship, for example (see above), the commander would consider the means available to him and the means opposed (including the enemy battleship and any supporting forces), as influenced by the characteristics of the theater.

This investigation will include, necessarily, a sufficient analysis of the salient features of the operation required to attain each objective. Such features include the nature of the physical objectives (the battleship and any other forces, for instance), the possibilities of relative position, the problems involved in apportioning the forces on either side, and the proper considerations as to freedom of action.

A similar study with respect to the acceptability of the consequences to be expected, as to the costs involved in the operation, will provide a basis for a conclusion as to that factor.

If the attainment of an objective is found to be infeasible, or feasible only at the expense of unacceptable consequences, the proposed objective will naturally be rejected, and some other objective will be considered (page 33).

The objective finally adopted as the best will be that which, all things considered, is best adapted to the requirements of suitability, feasibility, and acceptability, as outlined in the Fundamental Military Principle.

The Appropriate Effect Desired, as the Basis for the Objective. As will be appreciated from the foregoing discussion, the first factor in the selection of a correct objective is the "appropriate effect desired". The evaluation of this factor is not always easy, for reasons which will be explained.

The procedure (as indicated by the Principle of the Appropriate Effect to be Desired—page 33) is the same as for the selection of an objective. This identity of procedure is natural, because the appropriate effect desired, used as a basis for selecting the commander's general objective, itself involves the appreciation of an objective. The latter is, in fact, one of the "chain of objectives" previously mentioned (page 48).

Under conventional conditions this objective is selected by higher authority, and is assigned to the commander in his instructions from the next higher echelon (page 48). The objective so indicated will of course, under sound procedure, have been selected by higher authority on the basis embodied in the Fundamental Military Principle.

When an established chain of command (page 11) is in effective operation, the path to the appropriate effect desired will therefore normally be indicated through an assigned objective, by the immediate superior. This assignment, however, or the failure to receive such an indication, does not relieve the commander from the responsibility for taking correct action on his own initiative. Such necessity may arise should he find, in the exercise of a sound discretion, that his instructions need modification or alteration, or even that it is necessary for him to depart from his instructions under circumstances of great emergency (pages 15-16).

Furthermore, the objective may be adopted by (rather than assigned to) the commander concerned, on his own initiative, in order to meet the demands of a situation (page 50) as to which the higher command has not yet had time or opportunity to act.

Moreover, even when an objective is assigned by higher authority in the usual course, it may be expressed in such terms as to require examination in order to enable the commander to appreciate it (page 43), as to its bearing on his operations. In fact, studious analysis may be necessary for this purpose.

For example, if the objective so indicated does not specify a clearly-defined goal, the commander will need to make a thorough study in order to appreciate the full implications intended. He may find it necessary to analyze his immediate superior's instructions pertaining to the entire force of which his command is a part, and to consider, also, the objectives indicated for other commanders, on his own echelon, who also belong to that force.

On occasion, also, higher authority may acquaint the commander with the general plan adopted by the superior, and may order action—such as movement in a certain direction or to a certain locality—without assigning a more definite objective. Should it happen in emergency that later developments prevent higher authority from making such an assignment, the commander may find himself under the necessity of selecting, for himself, an appropriate objective, to be adopted by him as if it were assigned.

Should the commander find that his instructions do not clearly indicate an objective, or should he find that the one indicated is not applicable under the circumstances of the case, he will select an appropriate objective for his own guidance as if it were assigned by higher authority. He will make such selection through use of the same procedure already described herein as applicable to the selection of an objective of any sort. In such case he puts himself in his superior's place, in order to arrive at a reasoned conclusion such as the higher commander, if apprised of the circumstances, would desire to adopt. Circumstances permitting, the commander will of course communicate with higher authority, and will make constructive representations. (See page 15.)

The appropriate effect desired, as the first factor to be applied in selecting such an objective, will naturally involve the objective indicated in the general plan for the immediate superior's entire force. This general plan is normally announced by the superior for the guidance of the commander and of other commanders on the same echelon. If, however, this further objective is not known to the commander, he will endeavor to obtain a proper point of reference. To this end, he will use his knowledge of the objective assigned to his immediate superior, or of the further intentions of the higher command with respect to the conduct of the operations, or of the campaign, or of the war.

The provisions for the formulation of plans and orders (Chapters VII and VIII) take account of the fact that the commander may require definite information as to the objectives of higher echelons. In organizations where a state of mutual understanding has been well established, the commander will rarely be without some guidance in the premises (see also page 33), by reason of the chain of objectives indicated in plans and orders of the higher command (page 48).

From the viewpoint of the commander, this relationship among objectives presents to him a series, from the present or immediate objective to others more distant in time. Thus there may be one or more intermediate objectives, leading away from the immediate one to the ultimate objective, so far as the concern of the moment is involved.

This relationship of immediate, intermediate, and ultimate objectives may also exist in situations where the commander, operating on his own initiative and responsibility, determines such a chain of objectives for himself.

Such a situation frequently arises in a campaign or a major operation, and is normal, also, as to minor operations (see page 56, as to physical objectives).

As already observed, the relationship of objective and further objective is the criterion for distinguishing between strategical and tactical considerations, from the viewpoint of the commander concerned (pages 9 and 10).

What has been noted in the foregoing as to the objective (singular) is also applicable to situations where such an objective involves two or more objectives collectively considered.