The mission of the subsidiary problem is thus seen to be identical with the basic Decision linked to the purpose of that Decision.

However, this is not always the case. A subsidiary problem may merely involve the execution by the commander, i.e., under his own immediate direction, of a designated part of his general plan. Or, such a problem may involve execution, by the commander, of one or more of the detailed operations for the accomplishment of his general plan or of a part thereof. The commander may also find it necessary to solve numerous subsidiary problems of relatively restricted scope pertaining either to his general plan or to a part thereof or to the detailed operations involved.

In some of these cases the purpose of the subsidiary mission may be readily apparent. In others, its nature may become clear only after the application of considerable mental effort. In every case the determination of a proper (subsidiary) purpose involves visualization of a situation which the commander desires to bring about or to maintain. The (subsidiary) task, appropriate to the (subsidiary) purpose, will always necessarily be suitable to the latter. This task is then the motivating task for the solution of the particular subsidiary problem in hand. This will be the case whether the commander makes a simple mental solution or produces a more complex one in which the formal written estimate of the situation is employed. In the former instance, the brevity of the mental process tends to obscure this fact.

An example might occur in a situation where the commander has received an order to "Protect the base at A". It is then supposed that, after estimating the situation, he has reached the Decision "to deny the enemy the use of base sites within effective bombing range of A", the purpose of the Decision being, of course, "in order to protect the base at A". The action required might then be undertaken in two stages. The first stage might be confined to the area ABCD. If, then, all available base sites in this area, except Y island, were already securely in friendly hands, the commander would find it necessary to make provision for an operation to deny the use of this island to the enemy. If this operation is of such a nature that the commander desires to execute it under his own direct control, instead of assigning it to a subordinate, it presents a subsidiary problem which the commander, himself, has to solve.

The commander has now determined the necessity of solving a subsidiary problem relating to the accomplishment of a designated part of his general plan. He has also determined the necessity of solving another subsidiary problem presented by an operation pertaining to the first stage of the accomplishment of his general plan.

Each subsidiary problem requires an estimate of the situation although "the brevity of the mental process tends to obscure this fact" (page 172).

In making his basic estimate, the commander may have discovered the need for these subsidiary estimates. In this case, he may have included them in his estimate, as "estimates within the estimate" (page 83), in his analysis of the operations involved in the various courses of action which he considered. For instance, his basic Decision may have included the capture of Y island, and he may have covered this feature by a corollary to that Decision, as follows:

However, the commander may not discover the desirability or need of solving these subsidiary problems until the second step, when resolving the basic Decision into the detailed operations required. In this case, he might make due provision at that time for the operations involved in the subsidiary problems. The mental procedure would be the same in either event.

The commander may find, however, that he prefers to make a separate, subsidiary estimate with respect to the determination of the stages of his operation, including the details as to the performance of the first stage. In this case he finds a proper mission for his subsidiary estimate in the basic Decision, linked to its purpose. This mission would be as follows:—

During the subsidiary estimate the commander may discover, in his study of the area ABCD, the necessity for an operation to deny Y island to the enemy, and may even go so far, in this study, as to decide on the capture of this island. The decision, settling on this area as the scene of the first stage of his effort, may then include provision for the capture of the island, as follows:

However, the commander may not take up the matter of denying Y island, specifically, to enemy use until he studies the detailed operations required for the accomplishment of the action involved in his first stage. In such event, he may make provision for the capture of the island in his subsidiary plan for the execution of the first stage. He may find, on the other hand, that he prefers to make a separate, subsidiary estimate as to this feature. If so, the mission for this subsidiary estimate would be identical with the decision (less the corollary, but plus the purpose of the estimate), i.e.,—

During this estimate the commander considers the various courses of action whereby he can deny to the enemy all bases in the area of the first stage. Concluding that Y island is the only base site not securely in friendly hands, and that the best method of denying it to the enemy is to capture it himself, he reaches a decision as follows:

In each of the foregoing cases, the commander is said to have "deduced" the mission for his subsidiary problem. As has been demonstrated, the process of deduction is merely the application of the natural mental processes through the use of the estimate of the situation. Whether the estimate is formal or informal, detailed or brief, written or mental, is immaterial; in any case, the estimate results in a decision which provides, with its purpose, a proper mission for the succeeding problem which has been presented by solution of its predecessors.

In logical sequence, from problem to problem, the procedure outlined in the preceding discussion enables the commander to derive a correct mission for the problem involving the capture of Y Island. Clear visualization of such a subsidiary mission is frequently of great importance, and may be difficult unless the procedure has been carefully traced from each problem to the next. In this particular example, if the commander finds that the capture of Y Island is of such a specialized and localized nature (page 170) as to call for a formal estimate (as may frequently be the case in capturing a well-defended island base), he will be especially desirious of deriving a correct (subsidiary) mission as a basis for this estimate. In this instance a correct mission would be:—

This mission is identical with the decision, linked to its purpose, of the preceding subsidiary problem.

Subsidiary problems relating to training (page 160), when solved by the procedure distinctive of the first step, involve estimates of the situation very similar to those explained previously (Chapter VI).

Section I-A of such a training estimate will include a summary of the salient features of the existing situation, from the strategical or tactical viewpoint, together with a statement of the salient features of the operations to be carried out for which the projected training is designed. The incentive will be found in a previous decision calling for the operations which require the training to be given. The assigned objective will be the making of adequate provision for training appropriate to the projected operations. The (subsidiary) mission will be:—

Section I-B of a training estimate will take account of the training factors cited in the Estimate Form (Chapter VI) for a basic problem, but will specify details with respect to both own and enemy forces. This section will also cover existing facilities for training, as well as the characteristics of the theater which have now or may have a bearing on the training to be given.

Section II will discuss the various possible procedures for affording the appropriate training.

Section III will deal with any measures which may be adopted by the enemy (through actual attack, through propaganda, or any other methods) to hinder or prevent the desired training.

Section IV will be devoted to the selection of the best training procedure.

Section V will state the decision as to the essentials of the training to be given and as to the method of giving the training. The decision will be in such detail as to constitute a general plan, or a proper basis therefor, from which a detailed plan may be developed.

A detailed training plan, developed from the foregoing decision, will assemble the necessary information and assumptions, will state the general plan for training, and will prescribe the appropriate training tasks. It will also include any proper coordinating measures, make provision for the logistics of the training plan, and finally provide for the exercise of command and for supervision over the training.

A training plan may be briefed by annexing appropriate documents,—e.g., a program and a schedule. The commander will ordinarily issue a schedule for training to be given under his own supervision; he will usually issue a program for training to be given by his subordinates, who will in turn prepare their own schedules.

Subsidiary problems involving intelligence (page 160), when solved by the procedure distinctive of the first step, call for an intelligence estimate along the lines indicated, in general, in Chapter VI.

Section I-A of the Estimate will include a summary of the salient features of the present situation and of the contemplated strategical and tactical operations. The incentive, to be found in a previous decision of the commander, will be noted. The assigned objective will be the making of provision for adequate intelligence of the enemy and of the theater of operations. The mission will be:—

Section I-B of the intelligence estimate will take account of the factors as to intelligence and as to related matters which are noted in the Estimate Form (Chapter VI) for a basic estimate.

Section II will consider the possible procedures for obtaining information, i.e., for its collection, including reports from collecting agencies.

Section III will consider the capabilities of the enemy as to counter-intelligence measures.

Section IV will compare the various procedures open for the collection of information and for reports thereof.

Section V will include a decision as to the essential elements of information desired. The decision will be in sufficient detail to serve as a general plan (or a basis therefor), to be developed into a detailed plan for obtaining information and for converting it into intelligence.

A detailed intelligence plan will include appropriate information and assumptions. It will state the general plan for obtaining intelligence. This statement will include the essential elements of information desired. The plan will include appropriate tasks for information-collecting agencies, with times and destinations for reports of information. The task for each collecting agency will be based on the general plan (above); such task will also be synchronized with the projected operations prescribed for such agency in current Operation Orders (Chapter VIII). The agency's inherent capabilities—its limitations as well as its powers—will be given due consideration. Requests to be made on collecting agencies not under the commander's control will be noted in the information (as to own forces) given in the plan (see above).

Logistics arrangements will include, for example, provisions for handling prisoners of war, the disposition of captured documents and other materials, and the supply of maps, charts, and photographs. Counter intelligence measures will be specified where applicable. These include such matters as censorship, press relations, camouflage, and propaganda. Finally, the plan will include provision for the rendition of routine and special reports, for special charts (or maps) accompanying or pertinent to such reports, and for any intelligence conferences.

The essential elements of information desired are frequently stated in question form. Each question deals with an enemy course of action or with one or more of the enemy operations pertaining to such a course (page 161).

The tasks assigned to collecting agencies, or the requests made on collecting agencies not under the commander's control, will call for information (negative, if desired, as well as positive) as to specific indications of the enemy's action—past, present, or intended—and of the characteristics of the theater as related thereto. The indications to be sought for and reported are carefully determined by the commander in expectation that information obtained as to such matters will enable him to draw conclusions which will answer the questions posed by the essential elements of information.

For example, essential elements of information, with corresponding indications, may be as follows:

Another type of subsidiary problem which may call for a separate subsidiary plan relates to logistics (page 162). This problem is particularly applicable to the planning stage, because the contingencies which it involves can, to a considerable degree, be foreseen. In this case the situation which the commander usually desires to bring about is adequate freedom of action with respect to supply and related matters. He wishes to solve this problem so completely during the present step that a logistics plan, concurrently executed with his basic plan, will require minimum subsequent attention.

A logistics estimate by the procedure distinctive of the first step will include in Section I-A a summary of the pertinent features of the existing strategical and tactical situation, and of contemplated strategical and tactical operations. It will also include a statement of the salient features of the existing logistics situation. The incentive, to be found in a previous decision of the commander, will be noted. The assigned objective will be the making of adequate provision for logistics support. The mission will be:—

Section I-B of the estimate will take account of the logistics factors cited in the Estimate Form (Chapter VI) for a basic estimate, but will specify details to the further extent necessary.

Section II will discuss the various possible procedures for affording appropriate logistics support of the various categories.

Section III will discuss enemy actions to hamper or prevent adequate logistics support.

Section IV will deal with selection of the best logistics procedure.

Section V will state the decision as to the essential elements of the logistics support to be afforded, in such detail as will constitute a general plan (or a proper basis therefor) from which a detailed plan can be developed.

A detailed logistics plan, developed from the foregoing estimate, will assemble the necessary information and assumptions. It will state the general plan for logistics support. It will then provide for appropriate action as to each type of logistics support, or will state proper tasks for the several subdivisions of the force concerned therewith. It will include, also, any coordinating measures. It will, finally, make provision for exercise of command with reference to logistics support, as well as for any necessary or desirable time elements and similar considerations.

From all of the foregoing discussions it is apparent that the numerous possible subsidiary problems are all related to the basic problem either directly or through an intervening subsidiary problem. The nature of this relationship is seen through the (subsidiary) purpose, determined for the particular (subsidiary) task; therefore, the understanding of the problem involves a statement or visualization of the (subsidiary) purpose in each case.

PART III


THE EXERCISE OF PROFESSIONAL JUDGMENT
IN THE EXECUTION OF THE PLAN

CHAPTER VIIIToC

THE INAUGURATION OF THE PLANNED ACTION

(The Third Step—The Formulation and Issue of Directives)

Scope of the Third Step. As previously stated (in Chapter V, on page 107), the inauguration of the planned action (the third step) begins when the commander forms the intention of immediately promulgating, as one or more directives, his solution of the problem represented by the second step. The third step ends at the moment when the problem becomes one of supervising the planned action in the course of its execution.

Military Plans and Military Directives. A plan is a proposed scheme, procedure, or method of action for the attainment of an objective. It is one of the essential links between decision and action.

A directive, in the general sense, initiates or governs conduct or procedure. It is the means by which one's will or intent is made known to others. Sometimes the word is employed as a synonym for "order"; at others, it carries the significance of various instructions ranging from the simple to the complex; at still others, it denotes a plan formulated to be placed in effect in a particular contingency or when so directed. In all cases, a directive, to be suitable as a guide for others, has as its origin a plan.

The words plan and directive are used herein as follows:—A plan may exist only in the mind. Even if formulated and set down in writing, it may receive no distribution. A plan continues to be exclusively a plan so long as it concerns the originating commander alone, and it never loses its identity as a proposed procedure or method of action. When, however, the commander forms the intent of promulgating the plan immediately, the plan becomes also a directive. At this point, as noted in the preceding paragraph ("Scope of the Third Step"), the execution phase begins, from the standpoint of the exercise of mental power, with the inauguration of the planned action.

A directive may therefore be (1) an order effective upon receipt, in which case it may be an order placing in effect a plan already issued; or a directive may be (2) a formulated plan which the commander intends to issue immediately to his subordinates.

Accordingly, certain written instruments prepared under the designation of plans are also included under the classification of directives. In the use of these terms hereinafter, the distinction between a plan viewed as a basis for a directive, and a plan intended to be promulgated as a directive, will be indicated in the context.

Whether written or mental, the complete plan will cover the scope of the Decision, and will be the commander's method of procedure for his future conduct of operations. A commander may, or may not, formulate his complete plan in writing, or embody it in a formal directive which will provide for the execution, in full, of the Decision of his estimate. He may find that his plan divides into several parts, and he may make separate provision for the execution of each of these parts. While the integrity of a plan depends upon the soundness of its essential details, the plan is properly formulated as a directive or directives projected in detail, only so far into the future as the commander's estimate of the situation assures him of reasonable freedom of action (see page 57).

Where the commander divides his plan into parts for separate accomplishment, he will naturally exercise care that each part is, in itself, the suitable basis for a complete and homogeneous plan. Successful execution of all these plans results in the complete accomplishment of his Decision.

Directives required to further the success of a particular operation may be issued without awaiting formulation of the entire plan. Parts of the plan may be transmitted as fragmentary directives to guide the action of subordinates in instantaneous or early execution. Such cases are far more frequent than are those in which a formal written plan, to guide either the operations in their entirety or a part thereof, is prepared and distributed as a directive. Effective action by the subordinate is thus not delayed by the absence of complete written directives.

The commander, more especially during war, may be the only individual who is conversant with the entire plan. He may consider that the necessity for secrecy is paramount, or that there are features to whose details he is unwilling to commit himself until the situation is clearer. However, he may usually expect to disclose its scope and general features to his immediate superior, and the plan in its entirety to his next junior; or, in the interests of mutual understanding, to all his subordinates of the next lower echelon or even to his entire command. The scope of the plan also may be a determining factor. If the plan covers an entire campaign or an extended series of operations, its dissemination is less likely and less general than if it is concerned with only a minor operation.

During peace, in exercises simulating war, the complete plan is frequently given circulation for purposes of training.

Subsidiary Plans. Subsidiary plans, discussed in Chapter VII (page 168), are frequently issued as annexes to the Operation Plan (page 196) which carries into effect the basic Decision. The commander will be the judge as to whether alternative subsidiary plans are necessary or desirable under the circumstances.

Essentials of Military Directives.

General. By the issue of directives, a commander communicates to his subordinates his plans or such parts of them as he desires. Directives may be oral or written, or may be transmitted by despatch.

Whether a directive is to be effective upon receipt, or under specified conditions, or at a specific time, or upon further instructions from the commander, will be evident from its nature, or will be prescribed in the body of the directive itself.

The manner of determining the details of a plan has been discussed in Chapter VII. The matter contained therein is pertinent to the preparation of a plan that is not to be issued as a directive as well as to one that is to be so issued.

The various categories of directives customarily employed in our naval service, and standard forms for these, are described hereinafter.

The essentials of a military directive which is designed to govern the execution of a plan are:

Some of these essentials may have found their expression in previous instructions, or may be unnecessary because of the state of mutual understanding. On the other hand, the directive may include annexes in the form of alternative and subsidiary plans, letters of instructions (page 188), and other material designed to be of assistance in the intelligent accomplishment of the assigned task.

In issuing a directive, whether written or oral, except such a fragmentary order as has previously been described (page 184), a commander has the following definite responsibilities:

He will also bear in mind that a directive will best convey his will and intent and will be most easily understood by his subordinates if it is clear, brief, and positive.

Clarity demands the use of precise expressions susceptible of only the desired interpretation. Normally, the affirmative form is preferable to the negative. The importance of clarity has been summed up in the saying, "An order which can be misunderstood will be misunderstood". If misunderstandings arise on the part of trained subordinates the chief fault often lies with the person who issued the directive.

Brevity calls for the omission of superfluous words and of unnecessary details. Short sentences are ordinarily more easily and rapidly understood than longer ones. Brevity, however, is never to be sought at the expense of clarity. The attainment of brevity often requires considerable expenditure of effort and of time. But time is not to be sacrificed in the interests of obtaining brevity in directives, when the proper emphasis should rather be on initiating early action.

Positiveness of expression suggests the superior's fixity of purpose, with consequent inspiration to subordinates to prosecute their tasks with determination. The use of indefinite and weakening expressions leads to suspicion of vacillation and indecision. Such expressions tend to impose upon subordinates the responsibilities which belong to and are fully accepted by a resolute superior.

Restatement of the Decision for Use in the Directive

Except where special considerations exist to the contrary, it will be found that the expression of the Decision for use in a directive will most clearly indicate the intent of the commander if stated in terms of the objective to be attained by his force (i.e., of the situation to be created or maintained) and of the outlined action for its attainment (page 104). Such expression is usually possible in problems of broad strategical scope (page 88). In other cases difficulty may be encountered. For instance, in tactical problems dealing with the detailed employment of weapons, the action may necessarily be couched in the terms of a series of acts (see page 95).

No precise form is prescribed; thoughts clearly expressed are more important than form. It is customary to begin with "This force (or group) will", and then state with brevity the Decision as (and if) modified, adding the motivating task which is the purpose of the Decision. The motivating task is connected with the preceding statement by words such as "in order to", "to assist in", or "preparatory to", as the case may be.

Since his original expression of the Decision in the first step (Chapter VI), the commander has studied the operations required to carry it out. He therefore has gained a knowledge, which he did not then have, of how his action is to be carried out. He may now be able to compile a brief of these operations, applicable to all of them and therefore informative to all subordinate commanders. He may be able to say how, or even where and when, the effort of his force will be exerted.

As an illustration, if his Decision is "to destroy enemy battle-line strength", his operations might be described "by gun action at long range during high visibility". Should the commander, solely for the purpose of making his intent clearer to his subordinate commanders, now decide to include the latter phrase in the re-wording of his Decision, he may do so at this point.

It may sometimes be necessary to restate the Decision for another reason. It will be recalled that the commander is frequently obliged to recognize that he cannot carry out all of these operations, and that he therefore decides to issue a directive to carry out certain ones selected for the first stage (page 164). In such a case, he may not now be able to use the full Decision as originally determined. In that event he couches the Decision in terms of the partial accomplishment inherent in the operations to be undertaken.

Standard Forms for Plans and Directives

Form. Experience has shown that military directives usually give best results if cast in a standard form well known alike to originator and recipient. Such a form tends to prevent the omission of relevant features, and to minimize error and misunderstanding. However, a commander may find that lack of opportunity to facilitate mutual understanding by personal conference requires that one or more subordinates receive instructions in greater detail than a standard form seems to permit. A letter of instructions may then be appropriate. The commander himself is the best judge as to the application of a form to his needs of the moment, and as to the necessity for adherence to form in whatever particular.

Useful as form is, it is important to keep in mind that it is the servant and not the master.

The standard form in use in our naval service, long known as the Order Form, is applicable, with certain modifications, to all written plans and directives.

The Order Form will now be described in detail from the standpoint of its general application to all classes of directives, including the commander's written plan, whether or not promulgated as a directive.

The Order Form. Because of established usage, and for other reasons noted hereinafter, it is desirable that certain clerical details be handled as follows:

The sequence in which the subject matter is presented is a logical arrangement which experience has shown to be effective. Since every item has a definite place in the form, formulation is simplified, and ready reference is facilitated.

In a written directive, the prescribed paragraph numbering is always followed, even if no text is inserted after a number. This practice serves as a check against accidental omission, and as confirmatory evidence that omissions are intentional. For example, if there is no new information to be disseminated, the paragraph number "1" is written in its proper place, followed by the words "No further information".

When the subject matter to be presented under any one paragraph is voluminous, it may be broken up into a number of subparagraphs. Except in paragraph 3, these subparagraphs are unlettered.

The Heading contains:

In the upper right-hand corner in the following sequence: