Figure 11.—Old public health exhibition installed in the gallery about 1924. (Smithsonian photo 19952.)
Figure 12.—The Hall of Health, reestablished and opened in November 1957. (Smithsonian photo 44931.)
Figure 13.—Early exhibit on homeopathy showing its history, methods and remedies which was installed about 1929. (Smithsonian photo 27049.)
Without a doubt, the most outstanding accession in the field of pharmaceutical history during Dr. Whitebread’s years of service was the acquisition of the E. R. Squibb and Sons old apothecary shop. Most of the baroque fixtures, including the stained-glass windows with Hessian-Nassau coats of arms and wrought-iron frames, were part of the mid-18th-century cathedral pharmacy “Münster Apotheke” in Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany. It was offered for sale in September 1930 by Dr. Jo Mayer of Wiesbaden, Germany, who was an enthusiastic collector of antiques, especially those related to the health professions. Earlier that year, a historian of pharmacy and chemistry, Fritz Ferchl of Mittenwald, Germany, had published a series of scholarly and informative articles on the Meyer collection in which the outstanding specimens were beautifully portrayed and thoroughly described (see bibliography).
As a result of Dr. Mayer’s efforts to sell his collection, the impact of Ferchl’s illustrated articles, and the uniqueness of the collection, E. R. Squibb and Sons purchased it in 1932 and brought it to the United States “with the thought that it would provide for American pharmacy, its teachers and students, a museum illuminating the history, growth, and development of pharmacy, its interesting background and struggle through the ages.” It was displayed at the Century of Progress exposition held in Chicago during 1933 and 1934; subsequently, it was assembled in the Squibb Building in New York City as a private museum where, for about 10 years, it was visited by many interested in pharmacy, ceramics, and art. Charles H. LaWall, who was originally engaged to prepare a descriptive catalog on the exhibit, gave it the title “The Squibb Ancient Pharmacy.”
Late in 1943, E. R. Squibb and Sons offered the collection as a gift to the American Pharmaceutical Association if the latter would provide museum space for it. The offer was accepted, but the Association finally found it difficult to spare the needed space for the collection and decided to take up the matter with the U.S. National Museum.
Figure 14.—This early exhibit on osteopathy was renovated several times prior to the early 1940’s. (Smithsonian photo 19250.)
At this point, it should be stated that since 1883 the members of the American Pharmaceutical Association have been keenly interested in having the National Museum serve as the custodian for all collected objects and records of historical interest to pharmacy. In 1944, the Association officially offered to deposit on permanent loan, the Squibb’s pharmacy collection in the Smithsonian Institution with the understanding that a suitable place would be provided for prompt and permanent display. The offer was accepted, and during April and May of 1945, the entire collection was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution, and construction to recreate the original two rooms for the old, 18th-century, European “Apotheke” was underway.
By August 1946, the exhibit was completed. In the large room where the pharmacist met his customers, the shelves were filled with 15th- to 19th-century, European pharmaceutical antiques. These included Renaissance mortars; 16th- and 17th-century nested weights; beautiful Italian, French, Swiss, and German majolica and faience drug jars; Dutch and English delft; drug containers made of flint or opal glass with fused-enamel labels with alchemical symbols; rare, 16th-century, wooden drug containers, each with the coat of arms of the city in which each was made; and two glass-topped, display tables contained franchises issued and signed by Popes or state rulers, medical edicts, dispensatories, herbals, pharmacopoeias, and pharmaceutical utensils.
On the walls in the small laboratory room, which also had been used as a workshop and a study, were a stuffed crocodile, shark’s head, tortoise, fish, and salamander, parts of which were utilized as remedial agents. Their presence provided tangible evidence that the pharmacy dispensed genuine drugs and not substitutes.
The pharmaceutical profession in this country hailed the outstanding exhibition, and the November 1946 issue of the Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition, devoted its front cover to depicting one corner of the study and laboratory room of the shop.[16] Also, in a letter dated January 2, 1947, addressed to Dr. Alexander Wetmore, then Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. Robert P. Fischelis, the secretary of the American Pharmaceutical Association, considered the completion of the deposited exhibition a triumph and “as one of the highlights of the accomplishments of the Association in 1946.”
From 1946 to 1948, the Division’s collection was further enriched with a number of historical specimens, among which was a “grosse Flamme” x-ray machine with induction-coil tube and stand developed by Albert B. Koett. It is one of the earliest American-made machines of its kind, producing a 12-inch spark, the largest usable at that time with 180,000-volt capacity, and a forerunner of later autotransformers. Other accessions included two 19th-century drug mills, an electric belt used in quackery, two medicine chests, three sets of Hessian crucibles used in a pioneer drugstore in Colorado, a drunkometer, mineral ores, and purely produced chemical elements.
Figure 15.—Late 16th-century, wooden drug container with coat-of-arms, in the Squibb collection. The inscription Ungula Alcis (the hoof of the elk) suggests a superstitious attitude in medical practice and the wide use of animal organs in medical treatment. (Courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association.)
Figure 16.—A Rare, Antwerp, 16th-century drug jar in the Squibb collection deposited by the American Pharmaceutical Association.
In the spring of 1948, Associate Curator Whitebread retired after 30 years of service with the U.S. National Museum. He was a pioneer in the field of health museums and during his curatorship had developed a moribund section into a Division of field-wide importance. Dr. Whitebread was succeeded by George S. Thomas, also a pharmacist, who served as associate curator from August 1948 until early 1952.
Figure 17.—The Apothecary Shop as seen in the Arts and Industries building (1946-1964). (Courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association.)
Figure 18.—View of the laboratory and study room of the apothecary shop. On the left, the German-Swiss bronze mortar and pestle (1686) sign and above it an 18th-century German painting on canvas of Christ, “the apothecary of the soul.” The drug containers represent “the fruits of the spirit,” faith, patience, charity, etc., and the scales represent justice. Underneath is the verse from Matthew, 11:28, “Come unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest.” (Courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association.)
During his almost-three and a half years of service, Thomas acquired hearing-aid appliances from which he designed an exhibit on the development of these aids, surgical sutures, early samples of Aureomycin, and a static-electricity machine made by Henkel about 1840. He also published three short articles under the title, “Now and Then,” in the National Capital Pharmacist (1950), no. 1, pp. 8-9; no. 2, pp. 18-19, 29; and no. 3, pp. 15-16. In early 1952, Dr. Arthur O. Morton presented to the Division, a Swiss-made keratometer which he had purchased in 1907, and it is believed to be one of the first used in the United States to measure the curves of the cornea.
The achievements of the Division reached their highest point, thus far, in significantly increasing the national collection, as well as in contributing to the scientific, historical, and professional literature, under the curatorships of George B. Griffenhagen (December 8, 1952, to June 27, 1959) and John B. Blake (July 1, 1957, to September 2, 1961). Their reorganization of exhibits and collections, their competence and industry, fulfilled the hopes, plans, and purposes laid down by earlier curators for the Division.
Immediately after assuming the responsibilities of the Division and throughout 1953, Mr. Griffenhagen (M.S. in pharmaceutical chemistry from the University of Southern California) undertook to develop the collections still further. He increased the emphasis not only on historical pharmacy, but also on medicine, surgery, and dentistry. He also renovated the exhibits in the medical gallery.
In 1954, several antibiotics were donated to the Division including a mold of Penicillium notatum prepared and presented to the Smithsonian Institution by Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955), the discoverer of penicillium (1929), and a few Petri dishes used by botanist Benjamin M. Daggar who, while working for Lederle Laboratories, developed Aureomycin (chlortetracycline) in 1948. The Forest D. Dodrill—G.M.R. mechanical heart (1952), the first machine reported to be used successfully for the complete bypass of one side of the human heart during a surgical operation,[17] was presented to the Smithsonian Institution.
The following year, 1955, the Division acquired one of the earliest Einthoven string galvanometers (named after the Dutch physiologist Willem Einthoven, 1860-1927) made in the United States in 1914 by Charles F. Hindle for an electrocardiograph. Also added to the Division’s collections was the electrocardiograph used by Dr. Frank E. Wilson of the United States, a pioneer educator in this field. Two temporary exhibits on allergy and surgical dressings were installed in the gallery. In the same year, Curator Griffenhagen published Early American Pharmacies, a catalog on 28 pharmacy restorations in this country.
In 1956, among many publications of interest in the fields of medical and pharmaceutical history, was Curator Griffenhagen’s Pharmacy Museum, with a foreword by Laurence V. Coleman, who termed it a useful catalog and “a good reflection of the history of the museum movement at large.” A third x-ray tube of Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen (1845-1922) was added to the collection in 1957 as well as a complete set of hospital-ward fixtures of about 1900 from the Massachusetts General Hospital, rare patent medicines, 18th-century microscopes, and a 13th-century mortar and pestle made in Persia.
In 1957, Mr. Griffenhagen published a series of illustrated articles in the Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition, which were later reprinted by the Association in a booklet entitled, Tools of the Apothecary. In it, he described several pharmaceutical specimens in the collection and their place in history.
The U.S. National Museum was reorganized on July 1, 1957, into two units, the Natural History Museum and the Museum of History and Technology. At the same time, and in view of the widening scope of the Division, its more scientifically based planning, and the constantly increasing collection with equal emphasis on all branches of the healing arts, the Division’s title was changed to the Division of Medical Sciences—the title it still bears in 1964. With the reorganization, the Department of Engineering and Industries, under which the Division fell administratively, was renamed the Department of Science and Technology of the Museum of History and Technology. It was also the first time since its establishment in 1881 that the Division had two curators, for on July 1, 1957, Dr. John B. Blake joined the staff.
Figure 19.—Curators John B. Blake and George Griffenhagen examine the newly acquired (1957) electromagnetic, Morton-Wimshurst-Holz Influence Machine. It was manufactured by the Bowen Company of Providence, Rhode Island (1889). With the discovery of x-ray, it was used for making x-ray photographs until early in the 20th century.
As a result of these changes, the Division was subdivided into a Section of Pharmaceutical History and Health and a Section of Medical and Dental History. The former was planned to encompass the collections of materia medica, pharmaceutical equipment, and all material related to the history of pharmacy, toxicology, pharmacology, and biochemistry, as well as the Hall of Health which was opened November 2, 1957, and which emphasizes man’s progressing knowledge of his body and the functions of its major organs.[18] The latter Section was planned to include all that belongs to the development of surgery, medicine, dentistry, and nursing, especially in relation to hospitals.
In October 1957, the Division acquired a collection of rare, ceramic, drug jars which included two, 13th-century, North Syrian and Persian, albarello-shaped, majolica jars; a 15th-century, Hispano-Moresque drug container; and a 16th-century, Italian faience, dragon-spout ewer. During the following two years, Curator Griffenhagen periodically toured museums and medical and pharmaceutical institutions in this country, South America, and Europe gathering specimens and information for the Division and for publication, respectively. However, on June 27, 1959, he resigned his curatorship to join the staff of the American Pharmaceutical Association in Washington, D.C. Dr. Blake became the curator in charge of the Division and Mr. Griffenhagen was succeeded on September 24, 1959, by the author of this paper as associate curator in charge of the Section of Pharmaceutical History and Health.
Dr. Blake, as curator of the Section of Medical and Dental History, acquired a large number of valuable and varied specimens for the Division’s collections. They included optometric refracting instruments, an early 1920’s General Electric, portable, x-ray machine, the Charles A. Lindbergh and Alexis Carrel pump (designed in 1935 to perfuse life-sustaining fluids to the organs of the body), the Sewell heart pump (1950) to control delivery of air pressure and suction to the pumping mechanism, and a large and valuable collection of dental equipment formerly at the universities of Pennsylvania and Illinois. Dr. Blake wrote the explanatory material and supervised the design and production of the majority of exhibits in the renovated hall of medical and dental history. He also contributed several scholarly articles and a book (see bibliography) on the history of the healing arts and public health in particular. He resigned on September 2, 1961, to join the staff of the National Library of Medicine as chief of the History of Medicine Division, and was succeeded by the author as curator of the Division. From the summer of 1962 to April 1964, the Division benefited from the expert advice of Dr. Alfred R. Henderson as consultant in the preparation and designing of the surgical and medical exhibits of the Museum of History and Technology.
During the period from 1961 to May 1964, the Division’s collections expanded greatly through its medical, dental, and pharmaceutical acquisitions. Specimens of antiques acquired from 1961 through 1963 numbered up to 1,539 and included gifts from leading institutions and individual philanthropists. The scope of these gifts and acquisitions ranges from electronic resuscitators, microscopes, x-ray equipment, and spectacles, to patent medicines, amulets, apothecary tools, dental instruments, and office material of practitioners.
Figure 20.—Exhibit on spectacles, lorgnettes, optometers, and refraction, completed in 1960. It features a cross section of the Division’s large collection of eyeglasses. (Smithsonian photo 47943-D.)
In the last decade, the interest in the national endeavor for promoting research and scholarship in the history of medicine has increased greatly. It was most appropriate, therefore, for the Smithsonian Institution to play host on May 2 for two sessions of the 37th annual meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine held in the Washington, D.C., area from April 30 through May 2, 1964. In welcoming the members to the morning session in the auditorium of the new Museum of History and Technology, Frank A. Taylor, director of the United States National Museum, expressed the feeling that the meeting of the Association was, in a sense, a dedication of the new auditorium and an opportunity for the Smithsonian to reaffirm its deep interest and commitment in fostering research and furthering the appreciation of scholarly endeavor in the history of the healing arts.
“One day the United States will have a National Museum of science, engineering, and industry, as most large nations have.” This was the prediction made in 1946 by the director of the U.S. National Museum, Mr. Frank A. Taylor, then curator of the Division of Engineering.[19] It was in 1963, that the new $36,000,000 building of the Museum of History and Technology was completed, and opened to the public in 1964. The offices of the Division of Medical Sciences as well as the reference and study collections were moved to the fifth floor of the new building. The exhibits, however, will be displayed in the gallery at the southwest corner of the first floor. These exhibits, it is hoped, will show a new dimension and an unprecedented approach in displaying the development of the healing arts throughout the ages and the instruments and equipment associated with health professions. They also present the expanding objectives and plans of the Division’s growth as an integral part of the Smithsonian Institution. Conveniently, the exhibits form four, closely connected halls in one large gallery which will be open to the public in the summers of 1965 to 1966.
Figure 21.—Exhibit on the development of blood-pressure instruments and the early 20th-century sphygmomanometers which was completed in 1960. (Smithsonian photo 47943-M.)
1. The Hall of Health displays models and graphic and historical exhibit materials to demonstrate the function of the various healthy organs of the human body. The main topics emphasized are: embryology and childbirth; tooth structure; the heart and blood circulation; respiration; the endocrine glands; kidneys and the urinary-excretory system; the brain and the nervous system; the ear; and vision and the use of eyeglasses.
The most appreciated exhibit of all in this Hall is the “transparent woman” figure which rotates, automatically, every 15 minutes with a recorded message describing the function of each major organ of the body at the same time that the organ is electronically lighted, so that the viewer can see its place in the body.
Figure 22.—Hearing-aid exhibit designed in 1962. It includes otologist Julius Lempert’s personal memorabilia and original surgical instruments used in the fenestration operation for restoring hearing. (Smithsonian photo 49345-C.)
2. The Hall of Medicine and Dentistry will depict the history of these two sciences with exhibits of the equipment used through the centuries. In the medical field, early trephining and other surgical instruments will be displayed along with a diorama of an 1805 surgical operation performed by Dr. Philip Syng Physick in the amphitheater of the Pennsylvania Hospital. Diagnostic instruments such as stethoscopes, endoscopes, speculums, and blood-pressure measuring devices will be exhibited with a series of microscopes illustrating the development of these instruments. Exhibits of original galvanometers and other apparatus will trace the development of cardiography. The early use of anesthesia will be shown by apparatus of William Morton and Crawford W. Long, American pioneers in this field. The development of the devices of modern medicine and surgery will be shown by exhibits of the iron lung and x-ray tubes, including a tube used by W. K. Roentgen. Medicine chests and surgical kits of different periods will graphically summarize the state of medical science in the period each represents.
Exhibits on the development of dentistry and dental surgery will display examples of tooth-filling and extracting tools, drilling apparatus from the early hand and foot engines to the first ultrasonic cutting instrument (1954), and the original contra-angle, hydraulic and air-turbine handpiece model[20] which revolutionized the field of instrumentation for dental surgery (with speeds of 200,000 to 400,000 rpm). This hydraulic turbine of Dr. Robert J. Nelson and associates of the National Bureau of Standards set the design pattern for the remarkable and successful high-speed, air-turbine handpiece developed by Paul H. Tanner and Oscar P. Nagel of the U.S. Naval Dental School in 1956. Also underway is the reconstruction of the offices of famous dentists such as G. V. Black and the father of American orthodontia, Edward H. Angle, using their original equipment and instruments. In addition, an exhibit is planned to include x-ray tubes and the electric dental engine, the first to be operated in a human mouth by the pioneer dentist on dental skiagraphy, Charles E. Kells (1856-1928).[21]
Figure 23.—Exhibit on nursing bottles and measures to promote child health to counteract the once-common diseases of childhood. This display was completed in 1962. (Smithsonian photo 49345-G.)
3. The Hall of Pharmaceutical History will feature exhibits on the reconstruction of two pharmacy shops: an 18th-century apothecary shop, originally from Germany, with a very elegant collection of drug jars, decorated medicinal bottles, balances, mortars and pestles, and other tools and documents pertaining to the apothecary art, and a late 19th-century American drugstore with shelves filled with patent medicines and drug containers of various sizes and shapes. The window will also feature symbols of pharmacy and beautiful show globes. Displays will show the development of antibiotics and the early tools used in the manufacture of the so-called “miracle drugs,” including a mold from Sir Alexander Fleming, the discoverer of penicillin. In addition, a platform will be reconstructed to display a variety of pharmaceutical apparatus used in the preparation and manufacture of drugs, such as tablet and capsule machines and drug mills and percolators. Recently, with the assistance of Professor Glenn Sonnedecker, the Division acquired a fine collection of pharmaceutical equipment and devices from the School of Pharmacy of the University of Wisconsin.
Figure 24.—The origins of drugs from the three natural kingdoms, drug synthesis, and the increase in the manufacture of vitamins. This display was completed in 1962 and is now on display at the Museum of History and Technology. (Smithsonian photo P6316.)
Since the Division houses the largest collection of materia medica in the country, a representative cross section of crude drugs will be displayed in alphabetical order as well as a display illustrating the role of cinchona and antimalarial drugs in the fight against disease. An exhibit will portray the “origin of drugs” from the three natural kingdoms, animal, vegetable, and mineral, together with synthetic drugs including the manufacture of vitamins.
Plans are being made for an elaborate exhibit of weights and balances used in many countries throughout the centuries, their impact on accuracy of dosage and weighing of drugs, and their use in the apothecary art.
The Division will also display pictorial and printed materials, as well as artifacts from all periods and all countries. These collections are intended to help in presenting a more complete picture of the story of the medical sciences for educational purposes and research, and to increase man’s knowledge in fighting disease and promoting health.
Thus, from a few hundred specimens of crude drugs in the Section of Materia Medica of 83 years ago, there has developed a Museum Division today which embraces the evolution of the health professions through the ages. This Division now has the largest collection in the Western Hemisphere of historical objects which are related to the healing arts. The reference collections are available to the researcher and scholar, and the exhibits are intended for pleasure and educational purposes in these fields. The plans for expansion have no limitation as we keep pace with man’s progress in the medical sciences and continue to collect materials that contributed to the historical development in the fight against diseases and the attempts to secure better health for everyone.
[1] Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the Year 1882 [hereinafter referred to as the Smithsonian Annual Report], pp. 101-103; and introductory “advertisement” to the lectures published by the Smithsonian Institution in its Miscellaneous Collections (see bibliography).
[2] Dr. J. J. Woodward’s lecture explained the progress of medical knowledge of morbid growth and cancerous tumors from 1865 to 1872. It cautioned that uncertain methods of diagnosis at that time allowed charlatans and uneducated practitioners to report cures of cancer in instances where nonmalignant growths were “removed by their caustic pastes and plasters.”
[3] The two longest intervals were in preparing the last two lectures: the ninth in 1884, and the tenth, 1889. Both came after the establishment in 1881 of the Section of Materia Medica in the U.S. National Museum, to display the development and progress of the health professions.
[4] Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for the year 1883, pp. 190, 614-615.
[5] For classifying chemical compounds, Dr. Flint relied on the work of H. E. Roscoe and C. Schorlemmez, A Treatise on Chemistry, 2 vols. (New York: D. Appleton, 1878-1800.)
[6] Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for the year 1882, vol. 2, part 2, pp. 100, 228, 656-657. Dr. Flint in his article “Report on Pharmacopoeias of All Nations,” ibid., pp. 655-680, remarks that there were then 19 official pharmacopoeias in the world, besides three semiofficial formularies in certain localities in Italy. The pharmacopoeias collected represent Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Holland, India, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland (two), and the United States.
[7] The Universal Formulary, by R. Eglesfeld Griffith, first edited in March 1850 (3rd ed. rev. and enlarged by John M. Maisch, Philadelphia: Lea, 1874) should not be considered an international drug standard. It was mainly concerned with compiling a great number of formulas and recipes, methods of preparing and administering official and other medicines, and tables on weights and measures for utilization by the U.S. practitioners of the time.
[8] Other elaborate arrangements were also made to improve and expand the Section’s activities and services, though some have never materialized. For example, a herbarium was suggested from which specimens could be obtained for display of the actual drug with painted pictures of its plant next to it. Consideration was given to displaying enlarged drawings to show the minute structure of the specimen for better identification. In addition, an exhibition of several 10-liter vessels of the most popular mineral waters was planned. The amount of saline substances which analysis had shown to be present in each vessel was to be listed in a table to be attached to that vessel, or the same amount of minerals was to be put in a small bottle beside it. This plan was carried out to the best advantage at the Cotton States and International Exposition held in 1895 in Atlanta, Georgia.
[9] Holt, “A Sketch of the Development of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research,” p. 1. A similar comment was voiced by Galdston, ” Research in the United States,” p. 366.
[10] Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (1918), vol. 7, pp. 376-377, 466.
[11] Two decades later, Dr. Whitebread designed a panel showing photographs of famous medical pioneers of all nationalities. See his article, “The Odd Origin of Medical Discoveries,” p. 321.
[12] Gebhard, “From Medicine Show to Health Museum,” p. 579. The original plan for this Hall of Health was to feature exhibits on public health for popular educational purposes, including an illustrated exhibit on hospital care. See Foley, “Smithsonian Institution Devotes Much Space to Hospital Exhibit,” pp. 43-44.
[13] Lack of space notwithstanding, valuable accessions were added about 1930, including a collection of early x-ray tubes and personal memorabilia of Drs. William T. G. Morton (1819-1868), Crawford W. Long (1815-1878), and William Gorgas (1854-1920).
[14] D. Riley Moore published a series of short reports under the title “Committee on Osteopathic Exhibits in the U.S. National Museum,” in the Journal of the American Osteopathic Association (1933-1946), vols. 33-46, regarding the exhibit on osteopathy.
[15] [Klein], “He Directs Pharmacy Exhibits at the Smithsonian Institution,” pp. 20-21.
[16] Several other journals reported the exhibition with illustrations: Drug Topics (July 8, 1946), vol. 90, no. 2, pp. 2, 79; National Capital Pharmacist (September 1945), vol. 7, p. 11, and (September 1946), vol. 8, pp. 11-13; and The Scientific Monthly (November 1952), vol. 75, p. 268.
[17] Dodrill, and others, “Temporary Mechanical Substitution for the Left Ventricle in Man,” pp. 642-644, and “Pulmonary Volvuloplasty under Direct Vision using the Mechanical Heart for a Complete Bypass of the Right Heart in a Patient with Congenital Pulmonary Stenosis,” pp. 584-595.
[18] For the design, expert arrangement of the exhibits, and the legends that accompany each exhibit in the Hall of Health, we are indebted to Drs. Bruno Gebhard, Richards H. Shryock, Thomas G. Hull, James Laster, Walle J. H. Nauta, Leslie W. Knott, Theodore Wiprud, and other physicians, dentists, and scholars who have offered their advice, assistance, and expert skills.
[19] Taylor, “A National Museum of Science, Engineering and Industry,” p. 359.
[20] Nelson, Pelander, and Kumpula, “Hydraulic Turbine, Contra-angle Handpiece,” pp. 324-329.
[21] Monell, “Dental Skiagraphy,” pp. 313-336.
The Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution from 1872 to date and the Proceedings of the United States National Museum from 1881 to date were used extensively as sources in this survey. In the latter, see in particular, the year 1881, pp. 545-546; 1882, pp. 1-2; and 1884, pp. 431-475.
Atkinson, William B. The physicians and surgeons of the United States. Philadelphia, 1878. [On Dr. Toner.]
Blake, John B. Dental history and the Smithsonian Institution. Journal of the American College of Dentists (1961), vol. 28, pp. 125-127.
—— Public health in the town of Boston, 1630-1822. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959.
[Braisted, William C.] The biography of Dr. Beyer. Page 94 in Dictionary of American medical biography, by Howard A. Kelly and Walter L. Burrage; New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1928.
Clark, Leila F. The library of the Smithsonian Institution. Science (1946), vol. 104, p. 143.
Coleman, Laurence Vail. The museum in America: A critical study. 3 vols. Baltimore: Waverly Press, 1939. [Printed for the American Association of Museums, Washington, D.C.] See vol. 1, pp. 3, 11-12, 32-33, 143-146, 222, 318; vol. 3, p. 471.
Daukes, S. H. The medical museum: modern developments, organization and technical methods based on a new system of visual teaching. London: Wellcome Foundation Ltd., 1929.
Dodrill, Forest D., and others. Pulmonary volvuloplasty under direct vision using the mechanical heart for a complete bypass of the right heart in a patient with congenital pulmonary stenosis. Journal of Thoracic Surgery (1953), vol. 26, pp. 584-595.
—— Temporary mechanical substitution for the left ventricle in man. Journal of the American Medical Association (1952), vol. 150, pp. 642-644.
Dunglison, Robley. A dictionary of medical science. Rev. ed. Pp. 629-630. Philadelphia: Lea, 1874.
Edwards, J. J., and Edwards, M. J. Medical museum technology. London: Oxford University Press, 1959. [See in particular, pp. 33-62, 142-159.]
Ferchl, Fritz. Die Mörser der Sammlung Jo Mayer—Wiesbaden; Libri rari et curiosi der Sammlung Dr. Jo Mayer—Wiesbaden; Bildnisse und Bilder der Sammlung Jo Mayer—Wiesbaden; Kuriositäten und Antiquitäten der Sammlung Jo Mayer—Wiesbaden; and Gläser, Majoliken und Faensen der Sammlung Jo Mayer—Wiesbaden. Pharmazeutische Zeitung (Berlin, 1930), vol. 75: January 4, no. 2, pp. 19-24; February 15, no. 14, pp. 219-223; March 8, no. 20, pp. 309-314; April 19, no. 32, pp. 487-489; and June 21, no. 50, pp. 735-740.
Flint, James M. Classification and arrangement of the materia medica collection. Proceedings of the United States National Museum (1881), vol. 4, app. no. 6.
—— Classification of the materia medica collection of the United States National Museum, and catalogue of specimens. Proceedings of the United States National Museum (1883), vol. 6, app. 19, pp. 431-475.
—— Directions for collecting information and objects illustrating the history of medicine. Part S of Bulletin of the United States National Museum (1905). No. 39.
—— Memoranda for collectors of drugs for the materia medica section of the National Museum. Proceedings of the United States National Museum (1881), vol. 4, app. 8.
Foley, Matthew O. Smithsonian Institution devotes much space to hospital exhibit. Hospital Management (April 1929), pp. 271-287.
Galdston, Iago. Research in the United States. Ciba Symposia (June-July 1946), vol. 8, nos. 3 and 4, p. 366.
Garrison, Fielding H. An introduction to the history of medicine. 2d ed. p. 38. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1917.
Gebhard, Bruno. From medicine show to health museum. Ciba Symposia (March 1947), vol. 8, no. 12, p. 579.
Goode, George Brown. The Smithsonian Institution (1846-1896): The history of its first half century. Pp. 325-329, 362-363. Washington, 1897.
Griffenhagen, George. Pharmacy museums. Madison, Wis.: American Institute of the History of Pharmacy, 1956.
—— and Hughes, Calvin H. The history of the mechanical heart. Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ended June 30, 1955 (Washington, 1956), pp. 339-356.
Hamarneh, Sami. At the Smithsonian ... exhibits on pharmaceutical dosage forms. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (1962), new ser., vol. 2, pp. 478-479.
—— For the collector, facts and artifacts. Pharmacy in History (1961), vol. 6, p. 48.
—— Historical and educational exhibits on dentistry at the Smithsonian Institution. Journal of the American-Dental Association (July 1962), vol. 65, pp. 111-114.
—— New dental exhibits at the Smithsonian Institution. Journal of the American Dental Association (May 1963), vol. 66, pp. 676-678.
Haynes, William. Out of alchemy into chemistry. The Scientific Monthly (November 1952), vol. 75, p. 268.
Holt, L. Emmett. A sketch of the development of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. Science (July 6, 1906), new ser., vol. 24, no. 601, p. 1.
Howell, William H. The American Physiological Society during its first twenty-five years. Pp. 21-22 [biography of Dr. Beyer] in History of the American Physiological Society semicentennial, 1881-1937; Baltimore, 1938.
[Klein, Allen.] He directs pharmacy exhibits at the Smithsonian Institution. Modern Pharmacy (July 1941), vol. 25, pp. 20-21.
LaWall, Charles H. Ancient pharmacy on display. Pacific Drug Review (1933), vol. 45, p. 18.
—— The curious lore of drugs and medicines. Garden City, N.Y.: Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., 1927. [See p. 453 on Division of Medical Sciences’ collection.]
Lewton, Frederick L. A national pharmaceutical collection. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (1919), vol. 8, pp. 45-46.
—— The opportunity for developing historical pharmacy collections at the National Museum. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (1917), vol. 6, pp. 259-262.
Long, Esmond R. The Army Medical Museum. Military Medicine (May 1963), vol. 128, pp. 367-369.
Monell, S. H. “Dental Skiagraphy” (pp. 313-336 in A system in x-ray methods and medical uses of light hot-air, vibration and high-frequency currents by Monell; New York: Pelton, 1902).
Murray, David. Museums, their history and their use. Glasgow: MacLehose, 1904. [See vol. 1, pp. 13-77.]
Nelson, Robert J.; Pelander, Carl E.; and Kumpula, John W. Hydraulic turbine, contra-angle handpiece. Journal of the American Dental Association (September 1953), vol. 47, pp. 324-329.
Official Catalogue of the Cotton States and International Exposition: Atlanta, Georgia, September 18 to December 31, 1895. Atlanta: Claflin and Mellichamp, 1895. [See p. 204.]
Packard, Frances R. History of medicine in the United States. New York, 1931. [See vol. 1, pp. 5-6, 37-51, 168-176, 602-607 on Dr. Toner.]
Pickard, Madge E. Government and science in the United States: Historical background. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (1946), vol. 1, nos. 2 and 3, pp. 265-266, 289, 446-447, 478.
Purtle, Helen R. Notes on the Medical Museum of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. Bulletin of the Medical Library Association (1956), vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 300-305.
Rathbun, Richard. A descriptive account of the building recently erected for the Departments of Natural History of the United States National Museum. (U.S. National Museum Bulletin 80.) Washington, 1913. [See pp. 7-15.]
Rhees, William J. The Smithsonian Institution; documents relative to its origin and history, 1835-1899. 2 vols. (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections: vol. 42, 1835-1881; vol. 43, 1881-1899.) Washington, 1901.
Shufeldt, R. W. Suggestions for a national museum of medicine. Medical Record (March 22, 1919), pp. 4-5. [Also reprinted, 1919, by William Wood and Co., New York.]
Sigerist, Henry E. Primitive and archaic medicine. (Vol. 1 of A history of medicine, by Sigerist.) New York: Oxford University Press, 1951. [See pp. 525-531.]
Silver, Edwin H. Description of the exhibit on conservation of vision placed in the United States Museum at Washington, D.C. The Optical Journal and Review of Optometry (February 3, 1927), vol. 59, no. 5, pp. 39-40.
[Sonnedecker, Glenn.] Apothecary shop nears completion. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition (1946), vol. 7, pp. 157.
—— Dr. Charles Whitebread, pharmacist and museum curator. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition (1946), vol. 7, p. 203.
—— Old apothecary shop. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition (1945), vol. 6, pp. 184-187.
—— Old apothecary shop opened. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition (1946), vol. 7, p. 427.
Taylor, Frank A. A national museum of science, engineering and industry. The Scientific Monthly (1946), vol. 63, pp. 359.
—— The background of the Smithsonian’s Museum of Engineering and Industries. Science (1946), vol. 104, no. 2693, pp. 130-132.
Toner Lectures:
1. J. J. Woodward. On the structure of cancerous tumors and the mode in which adjacent parts are invaded. No. 266 in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on March 28, 1873.]
2. C. E. Brown-Séquard. Dual character of the brain. No. 291 in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on April 22, 1874.]
3. J. M. Da Costa. On strain and over-action of the heart. No. 279 in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on May 14, 1874.]
4. H. C. Wood. A study of the nature and mechanism of fever. No. 282 in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on January 20, 1875.]
5. William W. Keen. On the surgical complications and sequels of the continued fevers. No. 300 in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on February 17, 1876.]
6. William Adams. Subcutaneous surgery: Its principles, and its recent extension in practice. No. 302 in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on September 13, 1876.]
7. Edward O. Shakespeare. The nature of reparatory inflammation in arteries after ligatures, acupressure, and torsion. No. 321 in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 16; Washington, 1880. [Lecture given on June 27, 1878.]
8. George E. Waring. Suggestions for the sanitary drainage of Washington City. No. 349 in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 26; Washington, 1883. [Lecture given on May 26, 1880.]
9. Charles K. Mills. Mental over-work and premature disease among public and professional men. No. 594 in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 34; Washington, 1893. [Lecture given on March 19, 1884.]
10. Harrison Allen. A clinical study of the skull. No. 708 in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 34; Washington, 1893. [Lecture given on May 29, 1889.]
True, Webster P. The Smithsonian Institution. (Vol. 1 of the Smithsonian Scientific Series.) Washington, 1929.
Urdang, George, and Nitardy, F. W. The Squibb ancient pharmacy. New York, 1940. [Out of print, but remaining catalogs were given to the Division of Medicine to “be reserved for pharmaceutical educators, foreign dignitaries, pharmacists of national and international reputation, and pharmaceutical historians,” according to a letter from Mr. Nitardy in 1945.]
Whitebread, Charles. Animal pharmaceuticals of the past and present. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (1933), vol. 22, pp. 431-437.
—— An old apothecary shop of 1750. National Capital Pharmacist (September 1946), vol. 8, pp. 11-13, 35.
—— Early American pharmaceutical inventions. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (1937), vol. 26, pp. 918-928.
—— Handbook of the health exhibits of the United States National Museum. Baltimore: Lord Baltimore Press [1924].
—— Health superstitions. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition (1942), vol. 3, pp. 268-274.
—— Medicine making as depicted by museum dioramas. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (January 1936), vol. 25, pp. 40-46.
—— Superstition, credulity and skepticism. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (1933), vol. 22, pp. 1140-1145.
—— The Indian medical exhibit of the Division of Medicine in the United States National Museum. Article 10 in vol. 67 of Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum; Washington, 1926.
—— The magic, psychic, ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman medical collections of the Division of Medicine in the United States National Museum. Article 15 in vol. 65 of Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum; Washington, 1925.
—— The odd origin of medical discoveries. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition (1943), vol. 4, p. 321.
—— The United States National Museum pharmaceutical collection, its aims, problems, and accomplishments. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (1930), vol. 19, pp. 1125-1126.
Winters, S. R. Magic medicine. Hygeia (July 1937), vol. 15, pp. 630-633.
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1964
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C., 20402. Price 30 cents.
Angle, Edward H., 295
Beyer, Dr. Henry Gustav, 275, 276
Black, G. V., 295
Boyd, John C., 276
Carrel, Alexis, 291
Coleman, Laurence V., 290
Colton, Arthur, and Company, 278
Dagger, Benjamin M., 290
Dixon, William S., 276
Dodrill, Forest D., 290
Donner, Joseph, 277
Einthoven, Willem, 290
Emerson, John Haven, 285
Ferchl, Fritz, 285
Fischelis, Robert P., 287
Fleming, Sir Alexander, 290, 295
Flint, James Milton, 273
Garfield, James A., 272
Garrison, Fielding H., 277
Goode, G. Brown, 273
Gravatt, C. U., 276
Griffenhagen, George B., 290, 291
Hammond, William Alexander, 273
Henderson, Alfred R., 291
Henkel, Silon, 290
Hindle, Charles F., 290
Holt, L. Emmett, 276
Kells, Charles E., 295
Koett, Albert B., 287
LaWall, Charles H., 285
Lederle Laboratories, 290
Lewton, Frederick L., 277
Lilly, Eli, and Company, 283
Lindbergh, Charles A., 291
Long, Crawford W., 294
Marmion, R. A., 276
Mayer, Jo, 285
McMurtrie, Daniel, 276
Morton, Arthur O., 290
Morton, William, 294
Nagel, Oscar P., 295
Nelson, Robert J., 295
Parke, Davis & Company, 273
Physick, Philip Syng, 294
Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad, 290, 294
Schieffelin and Company, 273
Sonnedecker, Glenn, 296
Squibb, E. R., and Sons, 285, 286
Tanner, Paul H., 295
Taylor, Frank A., 292
Thomas, George S., 287
Toner, Joseph Meredith, 271
Wallace Brothers, 273
Wetmore, Dr. Alexander, 287
White, C. H., 276
Whitebread, Charles, 277, 278, 281, 283, 285, 287
Wilson, Frank E., 290