THE NEW BRITISH BATTLE SHIP EMPRESS OF INDIA.

THE "IRON GATES" OF THE DANUBE.

THE IRON GATES OF THE DANUBE
THE "IRON GATES" OF THE DANUBE.

The work of blasting the rocks will be undertaken by contractors in the employ of the Hungarian government, as the official invitation for tenders brought no offers from any quarter. The construction of the dams, however, and the cutting of several channels to compass the most difficult rocks and rapids, will be carried out by an association of Pesth and other firms. The cost, estimated altogether at nine million florins, will be borne by the Hungarian exchequer, to which will fall the tolls to be levied on all vessels passing through the Gates until the original outlay is repaid.

Very few persons know, says the American Architect, what an enormous work has been undertaken at the Iron Gates of the Danube, where operations are rapidly progressing, mainly in accordance with a plan devised many years ago by our distinguished countryman, Mr. McAlpine. The total length of that part of the river to be regulated is about two hundred and fifty miles, so that the enterprise ranks with the cutting of the Panama and Suez canals as one of the greatest engineering feats ever attempted. Work has been begun simultaneously at three points: at Greben, where there are reefs to be taken care of; at the cataract, near Jucz, and at the Iron Gate proper, below Orsova. At Greben, where the stream is shallow, but swift, a channel two hundred feet wide is to be blasted out of the rock, and below it a stone embankment wall is to be built more than four miles long. From a reef which projects into the river a piece is to be blasted away, measuring five hundred feet in length, and about nine feet in depth. The difficulties of working in this part of the river are very great. Not only is the current extremely rapid, but in certain places ridges of rock barely covered at low water alternate with pools a hundred and forty feet deep, which give rise, in the rapid current, to frightful whirlpools and eddies. These deep pools are to be filled at the same time that the reefs are cut away, and it is estimated that nearly three million cubic feet of loose stonework will be needed for this purpose alone. In addition to the excavation, artificial banks and breakwaters, for modifying the course of the stream, are to be built; so that it is estimated that the masonry to be executed in this section will amount to about five and one-half million cubic feet.

In the cataract section, at Jucz, a channel two hundred feet wide, and more than half a mile long, is to be blasted out of the rock, and a breakwater built, to moderate the suddenness of the fall. This breakwater is to be about two miles long, and ten feet thick at the top, increasing in thickness toward the bottom. The rock in which the channel must be cut at this point is partly serpentine greenstone, partly chrome iron ore, and is intensely hard. In the section of the Iron Gate, the work to be done consists in "canalizing" the river for a distance of a mile and a half, by building a wall on each side, and excavating the bed of the river between. The channel between the walls will be two hundred and fifty feet wide. It is estimated that nearly three million cubic feet of rock will have to be excavated here, all of which will be used to fill in behind the embankment walls. Of course, the greater part of the rock will be removed by means of blasting with high explosives, but some of it is to be attacked with a novel instrument, which was first tried, on a small scale, on the Panama Canal, and is to be used for serious work here. This instrument, as it is to be employed on the Danube, consists of an enormous steel drill, thirty-three feet long, and weighing ten tons. By means of a machine like a pile driver, this monstrous tool is raised to a height of about fifty feet, and allowed to drop, point first. So heavy a mass of metal, falling from a considerable height, meets with comparatively little resistance from the water, and the point shatters and grinds up the rock on which it strikes. Fifty or sixty blows per minute can be struck with a tool of this kind, and ten thousand blows in all can be inflicted before the tool is so worn as to be past service. Several of these drills will be at work at the same time, and to remove the fragments of rock which they break off, a huge dredge of three hundred and fifty horse power is to be employed. For excavating by means of explosives, arrangements have been made for drilling the holes for the cartridges with the greatest possible rapidity, as on this depends the celerity with which the work can be pushed forward. Much of the work will be done by means of diamond drills, which are mounted on boats. Five of these boats have been provided, each with seven diamond drills, arranged so as to work perfectly in twenty feet of water. Other boats are fitted with pneumatic drills, which are operated by means of air, compressed to a tension of seven hundred and fifty pounds to the square inch. The pressure of the compressed air is transmitted by means of water to the drills, which act by percussion, and work very rapidly. These drills are curiously automatic in their operation. After boring the holes to the allotted depth, the machine automatically sets in each a tube, washes out the dust, inserts a dynamite cartridge, withdraws the tube, and connects the wire of the electric fuse in the cartridge with the battery wire in the boat. The cartridges are charged with a pound of dynamite to each. In hard rock only one charge is fired at a time, but in softer material four are fired at once. If the water over the work is deep, the boat is not moved from its position, but in shallow water it is towed a few yards away from the spot where the explosion is to take place. The drill holes are about six feet deep, and are spaced at the rate of about one to every three square feet, something, of course, depending upon the character of the rock. The whole work is now under contract, the mechanical engineering firm of Luther, of Brunswick, having undertaken to complete it in five years, for a payment of less than four million dollars.

THE NEW GERMAN SHIP CANAL.

THE NEW GERMAN SHIP CANAL.
THE NEW GERMAN SHIP CANAL.

The new canal starts at Holtenau, on the north side of the Kiel Bay, and joins the Elbe fifteen miles above the mouth. From Kiel Bay to Rendsborg, at the junction with the Eider, the new canal follows the Schleswig and Holstein Canal, which was made about one hundred years ago, and is adapted for boats drawing about eight feet; thence it follows the course of the Eider to near Willenbergen, when it leaves that river and turns southward to join the Elbe at Brunsbuttel, about forty miles below Hamburg. The canal is 61 miles long, 200 ft. wide at the surface, and 85 ft. at the bottom, the depth of water being 28 ft. The surface of the water in the two seas being level, no locks are required; sluices or floodgates only being provided where it enters the Eider and at its termination. The country being generally level there are no engineering difficulties to contend with, except a boggy portion near the Elbe; the ground to be removed is chiefly sandy loam. Four railways cross the canal and two main roads, and these will be carried across on swing bridges. The cost is estimated at £8,000,000. About six thousand men are employed on the works, principally Italians and Swiss.—The Engineer.

THE KIOTO-FU CANAL, IN JAPAN.

FIG. 1.—EXTREMITY OF LAKE BIWA AND BEGINNING OF THE CANAL.
FIG. 1.—EXTREMITY OF LAKE BIWA AND BEGINNING OF THE CANAL.

The lake terminates in a marshy plain (Fig. 1), in which the first excavation was made. This is protected by longitudinal dikes which lead back the water to it in case of freshets. At the end of this cutting, which is 100 meters in length, begins the canal properly so called, with a width of 5.7 meters, at the surface, and a depth of 1.5 meters, for a length of 540 meters. It then reaches the first tunnel for crossing the Nagara-yama chain. This tunnel is 2,500 meters in length, 4.8 in width and 4.2 in height. The water reaches a depth of 1.8 meters upon the floor. It was pierced through very varied materials, such as clay, schists, sandstone and porphyry, and is lined throughout with brick masonry. The construction was effected by means of a working shaft 45 meters in depth, sunk in the axis of the work, at a third of its length from the west side. At the upper extremity are established sluices that permit of securing to the canal a constant discharge of 8.5 cubic meters per second. Fig. 2 represents the head of this work.

FIG. 2.—HEAD OF THE PRINCIPAL TUNNEL.
FIG. 2.—HEAD OF THE PRINCIPAL TUNNEL.

Starting from the tunnel, the canal extends in the open air for a length of 4,500 meters. To reach the basin of Kioto, it traverses the Hino-oko-yama chain of hills, through two tunnels of the same section and construction as the one just mentioned, and of the respective lengths of 125 and 841 meters. Traction in the tunnels is to be effected by means of an immersed chain.

On leaving tunnel No. 3, at about 8,400 meters from its origin, the canal divides into two branches. The first of these, which is designed to serve as a navigable way, has a slope 0.066 per meter for a length of 540 meters. It is a true inclined plane, which the boats pass over by means of a cradle carried by trucks and drawn by a cable actuated by the fall furnished by the other branch. At the foot of the inclined plane, the canal widens out to 18 meters at the surface, with a depth of 1.5 meter, and, through a sluice, joins the Osaka Bay Canal, after a stretch of 2 kilometers.

FIG. 3.—AQUEDUCT OVER THE VALLEY OF THE TOMBS OF THE EMPERORS.
FIG. 3.—AQUEDUCT OVER THE VALLEY OF THE TOMBS OF THE EMPERORS.

The second branch traverses a small tunnel, crosses the valley of the emperors' tombs upon an aqueduct of 14 arches (Fig. 3), and reaches Kogawa, a faubourg north of Kioto, after a stretch of 8 kilometers. Its slope is greater than that of the main canal, from which it derives but 1.4 cubic meter. The 7 cubic meters remaining may be employed for the production of motive power under a fall of 56 meters. It is proposed to utilize a portion of it, at the point of bifurcation and at the top of the inclined plane, in a hydraulic installation that will drive electric machines. The total cost of the work was one million dollars, a third of which was furnished by the imperial treasury, a quarter by the central government, and the rest by various taxes.—La Nature.

HOW TO FIND THE CRACK.—Most mechanics know that by drilling a hole at the inner end of a crack in cast metal its extension can be prevented. But to find out the exact point where the crack ends, the Revue Industrielle recommends moistening the cracked surface with petroleum, then, after wiping it, to immediately rub it with chalk. The oil that has penetrated into the crack will, by exudation, indicate the exact course and end of the crack.

FAST AND FUGITIVE DYES.¹

By Prof. J.J. HUMMEL2

As it is with many other arts, the origin of dyeing is shrouded in the obscurity of the past; but no doubt it was with the desire to attract his fellow that man first began to imitate the variety of color he saw around him in nature, and colored his body or his dress.

Probably the first method of ornamenting textile fabrics was to stain them with the juices of fruits, or the flowers, leaves, stems, and roots of plants bruised with water, and we may reasonably assume that the primitive colors thus obtained would lack durability.

By and by, however, it was found possible to render some of the dyes more permanent, probably in the first instance by the application of certain kinds of earth or mud, as we know to be practiced by the Maori dyers of to-day, and in this way, as it appears to me, the early dyers learnt the efficacy of what we now call "mordants," which I may briefly describe as fixing agents for coloring matters.

At a very remote period therefore, I imagine, the subject of fast and fugitive dyes engaged the attention of textile colorists.

Our European knowledge of dyeing seems to have come to us from the East, and although at first indigenous dyestuffs were largely employed, with the discovery of new countries many of these fell slowly and gradually into disuse, giving way to the newly imported dyestuffs of other lands, which possessed some advantage, being either richer in coloring matter, yielding brighter or faster colors, or being capable of more easy application. Thus kermes gave way to cochineal, woad to indigo, and so on.

Down to about the year 1856, natural dyestuffs alone, with but one or two exceptions, were employed by dyers; but in that year a present distinguished member of this Society, Dr. Perkin, astonished the scientific and industrial world by his epoch-making discovery of the coal tar color mauve. From that time down to the present, the textile colorist has had placed before him an ever increasing number of coloring matters derived from the same source.

Specially worthy of notice are the discoveries of artificial alizarin, in 1868, by Graebe and Liebermann, and of indigotin, in 1878, by Adolf Baeyer, both coloring matters being identical with the respective dyes obtained from plants.

In view of the vast array of coal tar colors now at our disposal, and their almost universal application in the decoration of all manner of textile fabrics, threatening even the continued use of well known dyestuffs of vegetable origin, it becomes of the greatest importance to examine most thoroughly, and to compare the stability of both old and new coloring matters.

The first point in discussing this question of fast and fugitive dyes is to define the meaning of these terms "fast" and "fugitive." Unfortunately, as frequently employed, they have no very definite signification. The great variety of textile fabrics to which coloring matters are applied, the different stages of manufacture at which the coloring matter is applied, and the many uses to which the fabrics are ultimately put, all these are elements which cause dyed colors to be exposed to the most varied influences.

The term a "fast color," then, may convey a different meaning to different individuals. To one it implies that the color will not fade when exposed to light and atmospheric conditions; to another that it is not impoverished by washing with soap and water; to a third it may indicate that the color will withstand the action of certain manufacturing operations, such as scouring, milling, stoving, etc.; while a fourth person might be so exacting as to demand that a fast color should resist all the varied influences I have named.

It is well to state at once that no dyed color is absolutely fast, even to a single influence, and it certainly cannot pass unscathed through all the operations to which it may be necessary to submit individual colors applied to this or that material. Many colors are fast to washing or milling, and yet very fugitive to light; others are fast to light, but fugitive toward milling; while others again are fast to both influences. In short, each color has its own special, characteristic properties, so that colors may be classified with respect to each particular influence, and may occupy a very different rank in the different arrangements.

It is, however, by no means necessary to demand absolute fastness from any color. A color may "bleed" in milling, and therefore be very unsuitable for tweeds, and yet be most excellent for curtains and hangings, because of its fastness to light. So, too, a dye capable of yielding rich or delicate tints, but only moderately fast to light, may still be perfectly well adapted for the silks and satins of the ball room, or even the rapidly changing fashion, although it would be quite inadmissible for the pennon at the masthead.

The colors of carpets, curtains, and tapestry should certainly be fast to light, but no one expects them to undergo the fatigue of the weekly washtub; and just as little as we look for the exposure of flannels and hosiery, day by day and week by week, to the glare of sunlight, much as we desire that the colors shall not run in washing.

For all practical purposes, then, it seems reasonable to define a "fast color" as one which will not be materially affected by those influences to which, in the natural course of things, it will be submitted. Hence, in speaking of a fast color, it becomes necessary to refer specially to the particular influences which it resists before the term acquires a definite meaning. To be precise, one should say that a color is "fast to light," or "fast to washing," or "fast to light and washing," and so on. Further, it is necessary, as we shall see afterward, to give always the name of the fiber to which the color is applied.

All that I have said with respect to the term "fast" may be applied with equal propriety to the term "fugitive." This, too, has no very definite meaning until a qualifying statement, such as I have referred to, gives it precision.

The most important question to be considered is

THE ACTION OF LIGHT ON DYED COLORS.

That light can effect radical changes in many substances was known to the ancients. Its destructive action on artists' pigments, e.g., the blackening of vermilion, was recorded 2,000 years ago by Vitruvius. Since that time it has been well established, by numerous observations and experiments, that light possesses, in a high degree, the power of exerting chemical action, i.e., causing the combination or decomposition of a large number of substances. The union of chlorine with hydrogen gas, the blackening of silver salts, the reduction of bichromate of potash and of certain ferric salts in contact with organic substances, are all familiar instances of the action of light. In illustration of this, I show here some calico prints produced by first preparing the calico with a solution of potassium bichromate, then exposing the dried calico under a photographic negative, and, after washing, dyeing with alizarin or some similar coloring matter. During the exposure under the negative, the light has reduced and fixed the chromium salt upon certain parts of the fiber as insoluble chromate of chromium (Cr₂O₃CrO₃) in the more protected portions, the bichromate remains unchanged, and is subsequently removed by washing. During the dyeing process, the coloring matter combines with the chromium fixed on the fiber, and thus develops the colored photograph.

The prints in Prussian blue are produced in a similar manner, the sensitive salt with which the calico is prepared being ammonium ferricitrate, and the developer potassium ferricyanide.

Investigation has shown that the most chemically active rays are those situated at the blue end of the solar spectrum; and although all the rays absorbed by a sensitive colored body affect its change, it is doubtless the blue rays which are the chief cause of the fading of colors. Experiments are on record, indeed, which prove this.

Depierre and Clouet (1878-82) exposed a series of colors, printed and dyed on calico, to light which had passed through glasses stained red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet, corresponding to definite parts of the spectrum. They found that the blue light possessed the greatest fading power, red light the least.

More recently (1886-88) Abney and Russell exposed water colors under red, green, and blue glass, and came to the same conclusion.

But the chemical energy of the sun's rays is not the sole cause of the fading of colors. There are certain contributory causes as important as the light itself.

About fifty years ago, Chevreul showed what these accessory causes are, by exposing to light a number of dyed colors under varied conditions, e.g., in a vacuum, in dry and moist hydrogen, dry and moist air, water vapor, and the ordinary atmosphere. He found that such fugitive colors as orchil, safflower, and indigo-carmine fade very rapidly in moist air, less rapidly in dry air, and that they experience little or no change in hydrogen or in a vacuum. The general conclusion arrived at was, that light, when acting alone, i.e., without the aid of air and moisture, exercises a very feeble influence. Further, it was determined that the air and moisture, without aid of light, have also comparatively little effect on dyed colors. Abney and Russell, in their experiments with water colors, obtained similar results.

These conclusions are exactly in accordance with our common knowledge of the old fashioned method of bleaching cotton and linen, in which the wetted fabric is exposed to light on the grass, and frequently sprinkled with water. If the material becomes dry through the absence of dew or rain, or the want of sprinkling, little or no bleaching takes place.

The one color which Chevreul found to behave abnormally was Prussian blue. This faded even in a vacuum; but, strange to say, on keeping the faded color in the dark, and exposed to air, the color was restored. It was shown that, during the exposure to light, the color lost cyanogen, or hydrocyanic acid, while in the dark and exposed to the air, oxygen was absorbed. Chevreul concluded, therefore, that the fading of Prussian blue was due to a process of reduction.

The prevailing opinion, however, is that the fading of colors is a process of oxidation, caused by the ozone, or hydrogen peroxide, which is probably formed in small quantity during the evaporation of the moisture present, and both these substances are powerful bleaching agents.

It would be extremely convenient to have some rapid method of testing colors for fastness to light, and I believe it is the custom with some to apply certain chemical tests with this object in view. The results of my own experiments in this direction lead me to the conclusion that at present we have no sufficient substitute for sunlight for this purpose, since I have not found any oxidizing or reducing substance which affects dyed colors in all respects like the natural color-fading agencies; further, I am inclined to the opinion that the action of light varies somewhat with the different coloring matters, according to their chemical constitution and the fiber upon which they are applied.

With respect to this last point, Chevreul actually found that colors are faster to light on some fibers than on others, and this fact, which is generally known to practical men, is abundantly shown in the diagrams on the wall. As a rule we may say that colors are most fugitive on cotton and most permanent on wool, those on silk holding an intermediate position. Still there are many exceptions to this order, especially as between silk and wool.

Since the time of Chevreul, the action of light on dyed colors has not been seriously and exhaustively studied. From time to time, series of patterns dyed with our modern colors have been exposed to light, e.g., by Depierre and Clouet, Joffre, Muller, Kallab, Schmidt, and others; but the published results must at best be considered as more or less fragmentary. Under the auspices of the British Association, and a committee appointed at its last meeting in Leeds, I hope to have the pleasure during the next few years of studying this interesting subject.

To-night I propose to give you some of the prominent results already obtained in past years, in the dyeing department of the Yorkshire College, where it has been our custom to expose to light and other influences the patterns dyed by our students. Further, I wish to give you an ocular demonstration of the action of light or dyed colors, by means of these silk, wool, and cotton patterns, portions of which have been exposed for 34 days and nights on the sea coast near Bombay, during the month of February of this year.

I may remark that this test has been a very trying one, for I estimate that it is equal to more than a year's exposure in this country. During the whole period there was cloudless sunshine, without any rain, and each evening heavy dew. I have pleasure in acknowledging the services of Mr. W. Reid, a former student, who superintended the exposure of the patterns, and from time to time took notes of the rate at which individual patterns faded.

These diagrams contain, perhaps, the most complete series of both old and new dyes, on the three fibers, which have been simultaneously exposed to sunlight, and they form an instructive object lesson.

Let me first direct your attention to the diagram containing the natural coloring matters—those dyestuffs which were in use previous to 1856. Broadly speaking, they are of two kinds; those which dye textile materials "direct," and those which give no useful color without the aid of certain metallic salts, called "mordants."

Now, among the natural coloring matters, these "mordant dyes," as they may be conveniently termed, are much more numerous than the "direct dyes;" but be it observed, we have fast and fugitive colors in both classes.

Referring first to the wool patterns and to the "direct dyes," we find that the only really fast colors are Prussian blue and Vat indigo blue. Turmeric, orchil, catechu, and indigo carmine are all extremely fugitive.

As to the "mordant dyes," some yield fast colors with all the usual mordants, e.g., madder, cochineal, lac dye, kermes, viz., reds with tin and aluminum, claret browns with copper and chromium, and dull violets with iron.

Other dyestuffs, like camwood, brazilwood, and their allies, also young fustic, give always fugitive colors whatever mordant be employed; others again, e.g., weld, old fustic, quercitron bark, flavin, and Persian berries, give fast colors with some mordants and fugitive colors with others; compare, for example, the fast olives of the chromium, copper, and iron mordants with the fugitive yellows given by aluminum and tin. A still more striking case is presented by logwood, which gives a fast greenish-black with copper and very fugitive colors with aluminum and tin. Other experiments have shown that the chromium and iron logwood blacks hold an intermediate position. Abnormal properties are found to be exhibited by camwood and its allies, with aluminum and tin, the colors at first becoming darker, and only afterward fading in the normal manner.

When we examine the silk patterns, we find, generally speaking, a similar degree of fastness among the various natural dyes, as with wool; in some instances the colors appear even faster, notice, for example, the catechu brown and the colors given by brazilwood and its allies, with iron mordant.

On examining the cotton patterns, we are at once struck with the marked fugitive character of nearly all the natural dyes. The exceptions are: the madder colors, especially when fixed on oil-prepared cotton, as in Turkey red; the black produced by logwood, tannin, and iron; and a few mineral colors, e.g., iron buff, manganese brown, chromate of lead orange, etc., and Prussian blue. Cochineal and its allies, which are such excellent dyes for wool and silk, give only fugitive colors on cotton.

The main point which arrests our attention in connection with the natural dyes seems to me to be the comparatively limited number of fast colors. Very remarkable is the total absence of any really fast yellow vegetable dye, and it is probably on this account that gold thread was formerly so much introduced into textile fabrics. Notice further the decided fastness of Prussian blue, especially on wool and silk; while we cannot but remark the comparatively fugitive character of vat indigo blue on cotton, and even on silk, compared with the fastness of the same color when fixed on wool.

Now, let us turn our attention to the artificial coloring matters, derived with few exceptions from coal tar products.

Here again we have two classes, "mordant dyes" and "direct dyes." Both classes are somewhat numerous, but whereas the former may be conveniently shown on a single diagram sheet, it requires a considerable number to display the latter.

First let us examine the wool patterns dyed with the "mordant dyes."

We find there a few yellow dyes quite equal in fastness to those of natural origin, or even somewhat surpassing them, e.g., two of the alizarin yellows, viz., those marked R and G G W. Except in point of fastness and mode of application, I may say that these are not true alizarin colors, neither are they analogous to the natural yellow dyestuffs, for they are incapable of giving dark olives with iron mordants. Truer representatives of the natural yellow dyes appear, however, to exist in galloflavin and the alizarin yellows marked A and C, and, as you see, they are of about the same degree of fastness.

Among the red dyes we have alizarin and its numerous allies, and these are certainly fit representatives of the madder root, which indeed they have almost entirely displaced. The most recent additions to this important class are the various alizarin Bordeaux. The only dyes in this group which appear somewhat behind the rest in point of fastness are purpurin and alizarin maroon.

On this same diagram we notice, also, fast blues and dark greens, of which we have no similar representatives among the natural coloring matters. I refer to alizarin blue, alizarin cyanin, alizarin indigo, alizarin green, and cœrulin.

Further, an excellent group of coloring matters, giving fast browns and greens with copper and iron mordants respectively, is formed by naphthol green, resorcinol green, gambin, and dioxin.

The only fugitive dyes of the class now under consideration are some of the yellows, gallamin blue and gallocyanin.

If we now turn to examine the colors given by these artificial "mordant dyes" on silk, we notice, also, a good series of fast colors similar to those which they give on wool; and even on cotton we see many fast colors, of which we have no representatives among the dyewoods.

If we were not prepared to find so few really fast natural dyes, surely we cannot but be surprised to find what a considerable number of fast dyes are to be met with among the coal tar coloring matters requiring the aid of mordants.

On these diagrams, the first vertical column shows the stain given by the coloring matter alone; the remaining columns show the colors obtained when the same coloring matters are applied in conjunction with the several mordants—chromium, aluminum, tin, copper, and iron.

It was formerly held that the office of a mordant was merely to fix the coloring matter upon the fiber; we now know, however, and it is plainly illustrated by these diagrams, that this view is erroneous, for the mordant not only fixes but also develops the color; the mordant and coloring matter chemically combine with each other, and the resultant compound represents the really useful pigment or dye. If a coloring matter is combined with different mordants, the dyes thus obtained represent distinct chemical products, and it is quite natural, therefore, to find them differing from each other in color, and their resistance toward light.

Knowing this, it is clearly the duty of the dyer to apply each coloring matter of this class with a variety of mordants, and to select the particular combination which gives him the desired color and fastness. By adopting this method, however, his selection would ultimately comprise a large number of coloring matters paired with a great variety of mordants. In order, therefore, to avoid the intricacy involved in the use of several mordants, and to simplify the process of dyeing, especially when dyeing compound shades, the dyer prefers to limit himself as far as possible to the use of a single mordant, and to employ along with it a mixture of several coloring matters.

Now the woolen dyer has largely adopted an excellent mordant in bichromate of potash; it is cheap, easily applied, and not perceptibly injurious to the fiber. It is his desire, therefore, to have a good range of red, yellow, blue, and other coloring matters, all giving fast dyes with this mordant. This action and desire on the part of the dyer has more and more placed the problem of producing fast colors upon the shoulders of the color manufacturer or chemist, and right well has the demand been met, for in the diagram on the wall we see how, in the alizarin colors and their allies, he has already furnished the dyer with a goodly number of dyestuffs yielding fast dyes with this chosen mordant of the woolen dyer. Since, however, they yield fast colors with other useful mordants, and upon other fibers than wool, these alizarin colors prove of the greatest value to the dyer of textile fabrics generally. Let us not forget the fact, then, that it is among the "mordant dyes," the very class to which belong most of the natural coloring matters, that we find our fastest coal tar dyes.

When we examine the results of actual exposure experiments, such as are here shown on these four diagram sheets, surely we have no hesitation in declaring how utterly false is the popular opinion that all coal tar colors are fugitive to light, while the good old-fashioned natural dyes are all fast. The very opposite indeed is here shown to be the case. For myself, I feel persuaded that at the present time the dyer has at his command a greater number of fast dyes derived from coal tar than from any other source, and I believe it possible to produce with dyes obtained from this source alone, if need be, tapestries, rugs, carpets, and other textile fabrics which shall vie successfully in point of color and duration of color with the best productions of the East, either of this or any other age.

How, then, does it happen that these coal tar colors have been so long and so seriously maligned by the general public? Apart from the fact that public opinion has been based upon an imperfect knowledge of the subject, we shall find a further explanation when we examine the diagrams showing the "direct dyes" obtained from coal tar. According to their mode of application I have here arranged them in three large groups, viz., basic, acid, and Congo colors. A fourth group, comprising comparatively few, is made up of those colors which are directly produced upon the fiber itself.

The "basic colors" have a well known type in magenta. They are usually applied to wool and silk in a neutral or slightly alkaline bath; on cotton they are fixed by means of tannate of antimony or tin. The "acid colors" are only suitable for wool and silk, to which they are applied in an acid bath. A typical representative of this group is furnished by any one of the ordinary azo scarlets which in recent years have come into prominence as competitors of cochineal. The "Congo colors" are comparatively new, and are conveniently so named from the first coloring matter of the group which was discovered, viz., Congo red. They are applicable to wool, silk, and cotton, usually in a neutral or slightly alkaline bath. Of the dyes produced directly upon the fiber itself, one may take aniline black and also primulin as a type, the latter a dye somewhat recently introduced by Mr. A.G. Green, of this city.

Our first impression, in looking at these "direct dyes," is that they are more numerous and more brilliant than the "mordant dyes," and that they are for the most part fugitive. Still, if we examine the different series in detail, we shall find here and there, on the different fibers, colors quite equal in fastness to any of the "mordant dyes."

Among the "basic colors" we search in vain, however, for a really fast dye on any fiber. Still, Magdala red, perhaps, appears faster than the rest on silk, and among the greens and blues we find a few dull blues on cotton, which, for this fiber, have been recommended as substitutes for indigo, viz., Indophenin, paraphenylene, blue, cinerein, Meldola's blue, etc. The azine greens, also, appear tolerably fast on cotton and on silk, but although possessing some body of color, after exposure, the original dark green has changed to a decided drab.

When we examine the "acid colors," however, we meet with a number of scarlets, crimsons, and clarets, possessing considerable fastness both on wool and on silk. Some, indeed, appear almost, if not entirely, as fast as cochineal scarlet, e.g., Biebriech scarlet, brilliant crocein, etc.

Among the "acid oranges and yellows," we also find a goodly number which are of medium fastness. About ten, either on wool or on silk, may even be accounted really fast, and are fit, apparently, to rank with alizarin colors. Note, for example, on wool: Crocein orange, aurantia, orange crystal, tartrazin, milling yellow, palatine orange; on silk, acid yellow D, brilliant yellow, azo acid yellow, metanil yellow, curcumin S, etc. I may remark that these are some of the fastest yellows on wool and silk with which we are acquainted. It is interesting to note the decided fugitive character, on silk, of tartrazin, aurantia, orange crystal, etc., compared with their great fastness on wool. Observe, also, how, on wool, the pale lemon yellow of picric acid has changed to a full reddish brown.

Among the "acid greens and blues," all the colors are fugitive, both on wool and on silk. Patent blue appears slightly better than the rest. Of the "acid blacks and violets," a few colors are of medium fastness, both on wool and silk, e.g., naphthol black, naphthylamine, black, resorcinol brown, fast brown, etc.

When we examine the Congo colors, amid a number of very fugitive colors, we find a few which are satisfactorily fast. Among the reds, for example, diamine fast red is quite remarkable for its fastness, both on wool and silk, and may certainly rank with alizarin; but on cotton, it is quite as fugitive as the rest. Of medium fastness on wool are brilliant Congo G and R, Congo G R; and on silk, diamine scarlet B, deltapurpurin 5 B, and brilliant Congo R.

Among the "Congo oranges and yellows," we find some of the fastest on cotton of this class of colors. Still they deserve only the rank of medium fastness. They are Mikado orange 4 R, R, G. Hessian yellow, curcumin S, chrysophenin. On wool, we have about half a dozen of medium fastness, viz., benzo-orange, Congo orange R, chrysophenin G, chrysamin R, brilliant yellow. On silk, however, we find in this group about a dozen of the fastest oranges and yellows with which we are acquainted for this fiber, viz., Congo orange R, chrysophenin G, diamine yellow N, brilliant yellow, curcumin W, benzo orange, Hessian yellow, chrysamin R and G, cresotin yellow R and G, cotton yellow G, and carbazol yellow.

Does it not appear somewhat remarkable that we should find among this generally fugitive group of coloring matters colors which are so eminently fast on silk, and which we entirely fail to meet with among those groups which usually furnish our fast colors, e.g., the alizarin group?

Passing on to the "Congo violets, blues, and purples," we find few colors worthy of particular notice for fastness. Diamine violet N appears, perhaps, of medium fastness on wool and silk, while sulphonazurin, benzo-black blue, and direct gray may claim the same distinction on silk.

In the small group of colors which are produced directly upon the fiber, none seems to call for special notice, except aniline black, which, notwithstanding its direct derivation from aniline, is probably the fastest color we have upon any fiber.

Now, in classifying the whole range of coal tar coloring matters into "mordant dyes" and "direct dyes," and the latter into acid, basic, Congo colors, etc., I have looked at them from the point of view of the dyer and arranged them according to color and mode of application. The chemist, however, classifies them quite differently, viz., according to their chemical constitution, i.e., the arrangement of the atoms of which they are composed, and thus we have nitro colors, phthaleins, azines, and so on.

In studying the action of light on the coal tar colors from this point of view, we find that whereas the members of some groups are for the most part fugitive, the members of other groups are nearly all fast, and it becomes at once apparent that the chemical constitution of a coloring matter exercises a profound influence upon its behavior toward light. Members of the rosaniline group are all similarly fugitive, while those of the alizarin group possess generally the quality of fastness. Particularly fugitive are the eosins, and yet some of these, by a slight modification of constitution, e.g., the introduction of an ethyl group, as in ethyl-eosin, are rendered distinctly faster.

In the azo group some colors are fugitive, others are moderately fast, and it is generally recognized that certain classes of the tetrazo compounds are distinctly faster than the ordinary diazo colors.

By a careful study of the influence of the atomic arrangement upon the stability of colors, information useful to the color manufacturer may possibly be gained, but at present my facts are not yet sufficiently tabulated to enable one to recognize any generally pervading law in this direction.

It is scarcely necessary to say that the fastness to light of a color is independent of its commercial value, this being mainly determined by the price of the raw material from which it is manufactured, the working expenses, and the profit desired by the manufacturer. Neither must we suppose that facility of application necessarily interferes with its fastness to light, for some of our fastest coal tar colors on wool, e.g., diamine fast red, tartrazin, etc., are applied in the simplest possible manner. On the other hand, the intensity or depth of a color has considerable influence on its fastness. Dark full shades invariably appear faster than pale ones produced from the same coloring matter, simply because of the larger body of pigment present. A pale shade of even a very fast color like indigo will fade with comparative rapidity. The fugitive character of many of the coal tar colors is, in my opinion, rendered more marked, because, owing to their intense coloring power, there is often such an infinitesimal amount of coloring matter on the dyed fiber. Hence it is that in the Gobelin tapestries pale shades on wool are frequently obtained by the use of more or less unchangeable metallic oxides and other mineral colors, to the exclusion of even fast vegetable dyes.

It is interesting to examine what is the action of light upon compound colors. Is a fugitive color rendered faster by being applied along with a fast color?

My own opinion, based upon general observation, is that it is not, and that when light acts upon a compound color the unstable color fades, while the stable color remains behind. A woaded color, for example, is only fast in respect of the vat indigo which it contains, and yet how frequent is the custom to unite with the indigo such dyes as barwood, orchil, and indigo-carmine, the fugitive character of which I have pointed out.

Having thus rapidly surveyed these numerous coal tar colors, both in their dyed and exposed conditions, I again ask why are they so generally regarded as altogether fugitive?

First, because we have, especially among these "direct dyes," a very large number which are undoubtedly very fugitive.

Moreover, all the earlier coal tar dyes—mauve, magenta, Nicholson blue, etc., belonged to a class which, even up to the present time, has only furnished us with fugitive colors. They were indeed prepared from aniline, and it appears to me that the defects of these early aniline colors, as well as their designation, have been handed down to their successors without due discrimination, so that in the popular mind the term "aniline color" has become, as a matter of habit, synonymous with "fugitive color." But science is progressive, fields of investigation other than aniline have been opened up, so that now, although a large number of fugitive dyes are still manufactured from coal tar, there are others, as we have seen, which are as fast and permanent as we have ever had from natural sources.

Finally, and perhaps this is the most important cause of all, many of the fugitive coal tar colors are gifted, I will not say with fatal beauty, but with a facility of application, and such comparative cheapness in consequence of their intense coloring power, that the dyer, tempted by competition, applies them not unfrequently to materials for which, because of their ultimate uses, they are altogether unsuited; and so it comes about that we find the most fugitive colors applied indiscriminately and without due discretion.

As we look upon these multitudinous colors, one other thought cannot fail to cross our minds. Is there not surely an overproduction of these fugitive coal tar colors? Is not the dyer bewildered with an embarras de richesses, so that he knows not where to choose?

There is indeed much truth in this. With rare skill and ingenuity an army of chemists is busy elaborating these wonderful dyes; but in such quick succession are they introduced into the dye house that the busy dyer has no time sufficiently to prove them, and it is not surprising therefore that he is liable to commit errors in their application.

But if there is an over-production of fugitive colors, there is also at work, as in the organic world around us, the counteracting influence of the law of the survival of the fittest. Sooner or later, the fugitive colors must give way to those which are more permanent, and already the number of coal tar colors which have been discarded, for one reason or another, is considerable.

Not unfrequently one is asked the question, Is there no method whereby these fugitive colors can be made fast? Knowing the efficacy of mordants with certain coloring matters, is there no mordant which we can generally apply with this desirable object in view? The discovery of such a universal mordant I believe to be somewhat chimerical, and yet, curiously enough, a number of experiments have been recorded in recent years, which almost seem to point in the direction of selecting for such a purpose ordinary sulphate of copper.

Some of these diagrams before you this evening show clearly the fastness to light generally of the lakes formed with copper mordant. This peculiarity of the copper compounds has not escaped the notice of other observers. Dr. Schunck, for example, during the progress of his research on chlorophyl, noticed the very permanent green dye which this otherwise fugitive coloring matter gives in combination with copper.

Then there is the assertion of practical dyers, that the use of copper sulphate in dyeing catechu brown on cotton assists materially in rendering this color fast to light.

The use of copper mordant with phenolic coloring matters is perfectly natural. Some time ago, however, it was successfully applied, for the purpose of rendering more permanent, to certain of the Congo colors on cotton, e.g., benzo-azurine, etc., in the application of which, metallic salts had not hitherto been deemed necessary.

Noelting and Herzberg have also observed that the fastness to light, even of basic colors, e.g., magenta, methyl violet, malachite green, etc., is increased by a subsequent treatment of the dyed fabric with copper sulphate solution, although in many cases the color is much soiled thereby.

Still more recently, A. Scheurer records that by impregnating or padding certain dyed fabrics with an ammoniacal solution of copper sulphate, the colors gain considerably in fastness to light. As the result of his experiments Scheurer concludes that this protective influence of copper on dyed colors is a general fact, apparently applicable to all colors; that it is not necessarily due to its action as a lake-forming substance, since intimate union between the coloring matter and the copper salt is not necessary. He seems rather inclined to ascribe its efficacy to the light being deprived of its active rays during its passage through the oxide of copper.

Knowing, however, the strong reducing action of light in many cases, and with the absence of positive knowledge concerning the cause of the fading of colors, it seems to me that the beneficial influence of the copper may just as probably be due to its well known oxidizing power, which counteracts the reducing action of the light.

It is interesting to note, in connection with Scheurer's view, that, many years ago, Gladstone and Wilson (1860) proposed to impregnate colored materials with some colorless fluorescent substance, e.g., sulphate of quinine, evidently with the idea of filtering off the active ultra-violet rays. How far some such method as this might prove successful I cannot say, but since we cannot keep our dyed textile materials in a vacuum, as Chevreul did, nor is it desirable to impregnate them with mastic varnish for the purpose of excluding air and moisture, as Mr. Laurie proposes, in order to preserve the colors of oil paintings, it is perhaps well to bear in mind the principle here alluded to as a possible solution of the difficulty.

I have dwelt rather long on this important question of the action of light on dyed colors, but I have done so because I thought it would most interest you. With the remaining portions of my subject I must be more brief.

(To be continued.)