THE GREAT FLYING CHAOS LEARNING CIRCUS: A Strangely Attractive Way to Teach large Sociology Classes by Anna Zajicek T. R. Young Tim Wolfe Jennifer Sult Andrew Philaretou and Ruan Hoe VIRGINIA POLYTECH BLACKSBURG, VA., 24061-0137 And Gladly wold he lerne, and gladly teche. The Clerk's Tale, Chaucer THE GREAT FLYING CHAOS LEARNING CIRCUS: An Experiment in Postmodern Pedagogy INTRODUCTION: The format for teaching large sociology classes is much the same as it has been for the past 800 years of the history of formal education. A learned scholar teaches a set of acolytes of the inner mysteries of a discipline and the professional norms of an academic. Those inner mysteries are presented as revealed truth whose validity is not to be questioned but to be absorbed into the fabric of one's professional life. Postmodern sensibility raises serious questions about the social location of the knowledge process and the truth value of a course content. In the Fall of 1992, the Sociology Department at Virginia Polytechnic and State University, hereafter call Virginia Tech, invited one of us to teach an Intro section with 560 places. After some negotiation, an agreement was reached which included a syllabus for quite a new format which incorporated not only the spirit of the postmodern but also the structure of those nonlinear dynamics commonly known as Chaos theory. This article presents both the postmodern pedagogical theory which informs the syllabus: what we hope to accomplish as well as how we try to accomplish it. Postmodern Sensibility: Since the time of Newton at least, the knowledge process has taken as its mission the discovery of universal truth encoded in mathematics and packaged in formal theory. It has adopted, as method, the quantification of sense data and the use of those data to test hypotheses with the aim of closing in upon a stable set of principles which can guide action in the world. Faith in progress guided by formal theory and logical positivism thus marks modernist sensibility. With such a knowledge process it is thought possible to reorder the world of natural and social systems such that the problems of survival and human dignity might be solved in this world. Postmodern sensibility questions most of the assumptions of modern science and the philosophy of knowledge which befriends it. Instead of absolute knowledge, there is only a sort of poetic approximation to the incredible complexity of nature and society; instead of formal axiomatic theory, a political agenda for which both history and science serve. Selya Benhabib (1991:139), citing feminist scholarship, puts it thus: ...For postmodernists this quest for the Real conceals most Western philosophers' desire, which is to master the world once and for all by enclosing it within an illusory but absolute system they believe represents or corresponds to a unitary Being beyond history, particularity and change... For some the Being is God; for some, Being is Absolute Spirit; for some Being is the linear dynamics which produce the elegant and precise behavior generated by the four forces in the cosmos. For the postmodernist, that Being is Patriarchy cum Racism cum Class privilege cum Bureaucratic rationality all disguised as Natural Law and or functional necessity and encoded in a linguistic form which encodes politics as theory. In a postmodern philosophy of knowledge, actual human beings or collections of human beings are the architect of truth rather than the impartial discoverer of it. In art, social science, music, prose, poetry, or architecture, the practice of imposing absolutistic standards with which to evaluate all human or natural events is seen to be a political act which gives preference to the work of Dead White Males: British, German, Roman or Greek writers, poets, philosophers and generals. It is not that what Shakespeare or Chaucer did is inferior but rather that what other poets, other artists and other authors did with topics strange to the ear of a European, is also, on its own terms, of value even if it doesn't fit within the canons of ethics, epistemology or aesthetics oriented to objective ranking and grading. Chaos theory instructs us that the more formal systems of deductive inference may be useful and fitting for a few simple systems in nature and society, but that most actually existing systems are far to complex and far to unpredictable and far too much a product of acting human beings to be beyond history. The new science of Chaos offers a particularly compelling endorsement of postmodernity views of particularity and otherness. In Chaos theory, there are not one but an infinite number of dynamical states to which any natural or social system might move. Simple systems may exhibit the endless and precise dynamics which appeal to those who prefer order over uncertainty but most real systems may display two, four, six, nine equally natural outcome states--or in deep chaos, an infinite number of endstates. Given the quite ordinary plurality of quite ordinary endstates that a population of children, a population of fish, fowl or a number of similarly situated firms may take, the idea of the normal and of deviancy is subverted. Chaotic dynamics joins with postmodern sensibility to ground a co-existence of alternative learning styles and teaching modalities and which honor a variety of understandings without showing preference for one over the other yet demanding a certain competency in language and understanding. This is the essence of postmodern pedagogy offered here. This twinned grounding of a postmodern philosophy of education is embodied in the syllabus of our version of the Introductory Course at Virginia Tech. Chaotic Regimes: Advantages As long as one avoids deep chaos, chaotic regimes have several advantages over linear regimes which should be considered when framing a syllabus. Rather than order per se, a postmodern pedagogy considers the most advantageous ratio between order and disorder. The case for a careful mixture of order and disorder is compelling. 1. 2, 4, or 8n learning attractors offer students a far wider range of learning modes than does a 1n format. Accepting that some students do best on written and some do best on more visual or action modalities of learning, a learning system with a varied point menu enhances overall learning. 2. When a causal field has some fraction of its basin occupied by two or more attractors and some fraction in which great disorder is found, educational syllabi which presume one and only one outcome field lose efficacy; indeed, causality, prediction, and control become casualties to new dynamics. For example, if conditions external to the classroom change for any given student, that student may move to a new region in the learning circle. Changes in job, finance, home life or health may bring uncertainty into the life of some number of students; only chaos can cope with chaos. Linearity simply amplifies disorder. 3. In a stable environment, a large system will work well if it is well administered. Given uncertainty in the larger environment, small systems are preferred since they can be more sensitive to local conditions. Chaotic regimes thus offer two advantages to students; the first set forth in point 2, above and the second found in the student's experience in the classroom in coping with and finding order for her or his life in a larger, more disordered universe. Accepting that there is some learning taking place at more a behavioral than a verbal level, success in digging out order in a chaotic situation is a decided asset to the student. 4. If we want to retain the advantages of diversity in a society, then one must permit diversity in the socialization process. Monolithic models of truth, interpretation and understanding are hostile to the variety that handles variety in most domains of life. 5. Chaos theory teaches us that, out of chaos comes creativity. Disorder does not bring more disorder but rather brings new and surprising forms of order. Indeed the emergence of such new learning forms is a major goal of the syllabus. The essence of a semi-stable chaotic attractor is that is produced by keeping one part of a complex causal field stable and allowing another part to vary at random. This mix of order and disorder, in the graphic art of chaos, produces some of the most complex and elegant geometric displays ever seen. Central to the Spirit of the postmodern and central to the nonlinear dynamics of Chaotic regimes is the concept of the Other. Postmodernism honors otherness in gender, race/ethnicity, politics, art, science, medicine and religion. Chaos theory declines to give preference to order over disorder, linearity over nonlinearity, 1n outcomes states over 2,3,4,8....n outcome states. In both paradigms, deviancy and normalcy are distinctly human categories rather than either normal or mathematical concepts. Accommodating Otherness: In language, in work, in religion as in the classroom, otherness is necessary. Each word we use defines a basin of meaning which has variable boundary and, in geometrical terms, occupies the same semiotic space as do other, sometime quite different words. In office, factory, bureau or shop, linear implementation of policy is inefficient. In everyday life, implementation of policy defines an outcome basin which has structure but that structure is unstable; sometimes wisdom requires that the reverse of policy be used to decide cases which come before a clerk, a manager or a foreman. In religion, the Drama of the Holy requires that, once in a while we treat that which is sacred as profane and that which is profane as sacred. In the classroom, otherness in gender relations, in historical interpretation, in criminology as in grading requires a wisdom and a judgment which transcends duality in truth values, in moral values or in scoring tactics. Some, themselves oriented to linearity, see this tolerance for otherness to be warrant for anarchy or license for disorder. It is well to point out and to emphasize that this new science of complexity deals with the mixture of order and disorder; it does not endorse the first since it is not found in nature nor does it advocate the latter since, without sufficient order, disorder loses whatever advantages it brings to the human estate. THE GREAT FLYING CHAOS LEARNING CIRCUS: Introduction to the course begins with a greeting: Welcome to the Land of ChaOz. For this one time only course, you will live in the same kind of ChaOz in which Chaoticians live. In the Land of ChaOz, You have your choice of several strange ways of learning. There are two very stable learning attractors and two which are quite nonlinear. And there is one which is much more Chaotic. Each learning attractor has a special mentor/tutor/teaching guide to help generate quality points. The Attractors: There are four stable/semi-stable attractors in really existing natural and social dynamics. The first two are not found in any social system but may occur in very simple natural systems but for, the psychological security of the students, we presented the first two as if they were a natural social orientation. Students were given a brief description of these four attractors and asked to look them over and decide which best fits each their own learning style. Each person was asked to set a game plan with mentor by which to accumulate Quality Grade Points. and reference was made to the point menu below. A. Point Attractors: Those who choose to work and learn in this region of phase-space are the elite of the class. The seats in front of the classroom are reserved for them. Typically, they graduated in the top 5% of their high school class; their score on the quantitative portion of the college entrance exam was in the 90th percentile. They take learning and the opportunity to go to university very seriously. Typically, they will wind up as senior scientists, chief executive officers of engineering firms or auditors of multinational firms since they work while others play. The demands for these students are very high but the rewards are very great. They will get an 'A' in the class but they will have earned it. They will obtain most of their quality points by performance on the written tests rather than by outside assignments. For Point Attractors, social norms take on all the weight of mors. In terms of theoretical perspective, they will tend to take a structural-functionalist view of society. Only the most serious event will deter these dedicated students from their appointed rounds. In deference to their preference for structure, their mentor will expect them to sit in the same seat and be there at least two minutes before class begins. One is expected to remain in one's seat until the class is officially ended. B. The Torus Attractor: Torustians are also VERY serious about college and about learning as much as they can. They will have graduated in the top 10% of their class and it is very likely that they will earn an 'A' for the course; a few will settle for a 'B' but through no fault of their own. As a rough guess, they will need about 50 seats in the classroom. There will be very few 'Cs' in this learning attractor (most of the 'C's will go to the Feigenbaum Bunch, below). Torustians tend to take social norms as mors rather than folkways; so conformity to this learning mode is strict but not rigorous. It is reasonable that one may have one or two justifiable absences however the Honor Code requires that one move to the Butterfly Attractor if one has other priorities which take one away from her/his obligations to the course. One will have a TAM; Torustian Attractor Mentor, as their Generalized Other. C. The Butterfly Attractor: This is the first bifurcation and has two wings; the Right Wing and the Left Wing. Those who chose to sit in this region of phase space are very verbal, creative and like to take part in class discussion. There will be a lot of color in this section of the room. One selects either the RAM or the LAM as one's Significant Other depending upon one's political views. This attractor defines a transition from modernist philosophy of pedagogy centered on truth, precision, memory, and objectivity to one centered on interpretation, opinion, judgment and desire. Diversity of political orientations are instituted in this bifurcated attractor with a right and left wing together with some psychological space between for those who prefer not to make such a firm commitment at this time in there life cycle. Descriptions of the two wings were set to help students find the most natural place in which to act on their politics. A postmodern scholar will note that political understandings of truth and desire are presumed by the dynamics of this attractor rather than monolithic models of either. C1 The Right Wing: One hundred or so seats on the Right Side of this learning attractor are available for those who are very conservative in terms of their politics, economics and life style in general. Typically, they are very good people who take life seriously and live their religion in the fullness of their morality. They are the salt of the earth and the solid core of any society. Typically, members of this attractor will end up in a very stable life with a solid economic foundation. Their chief contribution to class discussion is to assert their own views of social life. They will be outraged at the essays and articles in the Reader by Berberoglu. They can earn quality points with field assignments discrediting the Berberoglu readings. They also will open up each class with a five minute mini-debate with someone from the Left Wing on a timely topic of mutual interest. They will be self organizing and will share this opportunity for credit out fairly. Their mentor, the RAM, will be more of a facilitator than organizer. C2 The Left Wing: Since VPI and most of Virginia is conservative, we expect that the Left Wing of this attractor will need fewer than 100 seats. Left wing students are very creative, have good language competency, are artistic and like to play a lot. They ran the extra-curricula life of their high school. Typically these students will be very interested in social justice; will devour the Berberoglu Reader and will be indignant at the things they learn therein. They could have been in the top 5% of their graduating class but they were too busy getting out the school paper, playing minor sports (they play for the fun of it and don't get too competitive). Typically they will end up in politics or own their own small business which will be people oriented. Some will be teachers; some poets, some will be social workers, psychiatrists or liberal arts professors or community activists. They too, are religious but are more likely to be Unitarians and, like the man from La Mancha, work for lost causes. They don't spend a lot of time with godtalk but are good and decent people anyhow. They will find conflict analysis sensible. They see Race, Class, and Gender as structures of domination rather than functionally essential. The Left Wing too will be self-organizing. They will caucus to elect recallable leaders who will liaise with the Right Wing for the opening debates. They will be able to earn quality points from field assignments, debates, secret assignments from the GTA and other self-developed assignments. There is no attendance policy for them because they are too undisciplined (some say creative) to abide by one. They can design their own mix of grading options in consultation with their mentor; they may stop attending class any time they think they have earned enough quality points for the grade they can live with. However most will carry on since they are really interested in how society is possible. Chaotic dynamics have a lot of order in most dynamical regimes. Some second order uncertainty enters in the Butterfly attractor since, while a given person, system or population is very likely to end up in one or two of the outcome basins called attractors, there is space in between for much less certainty. Liberals, in classic political theory are quite positive about freedom and the intervention of authority in social life but, for this class and in American usage, liberalism seems apt to describe such modalities of knowledge, understanding and certainty. C3 The Liberal Middle About 100 seats will be reserved in the middle of the class room (behind the Torustians) and between the two wings of the butterfly attractor. Boundaries between the liberals and the RAMs or LAMs are fractal. Students may sit on either side depending on their position on each of the daily five minute confrontations. They may join with the Right Wing on abortion and join with the Left Wing on, say the Death Penalty. These people are as yet undecided about politics, religion or economics; they have an open enquiring mind and have not made a personal commitment to any one or anything as yet. They think there may be a God but aren't at all sure. They tend to like Humanist and Feminist sociology rather then the more formal theories of either Marx or Parsons. Often these are the people who will use their wit and good sense to get things done when others are so wrapped up in principle and dogma that they are unable to work out an arrangement. Their color code includes very light colors; beige, pink, white, cream, tans, ceruse, robin's egg blue and such. Their preceptor will not have much to do since they are so undecided that they can't get motivated to do action research, debate or propose new grading protocols. But they will have one, anyhow...the Mid-America Attractor Mentor--or MA'AM. D. The Feigenbaum Bunch The last three rows or so in the class room are reserved for those who live in deep chaos. These seats are for FUN LOVING PEOPLE who spend more time with their hair than their minds; they include hustlers, miscreants, beats, ne'er-do-wells, party animals and jocks who don't no How to spel vary well. Some wear ear-rings in various parts of their anatomy; some wear crew cuts and letter jackets. They can be very charming and witty. They come close to being caught out but manage to talk their way out of it. There is no honor code, no dress policy, no attendance policy nor will they have a mentor specially assigned; if they want to con anyone, they will have to try it with the prof who has great experience and can detect con artists within milliseconds. If they attend and learn anything that lasts longer than the final, fine. If not, well....its a big world. The Feigenbaum Bunch will know the norms and mors of American society but they use them to their own advantage. They are not much interested in any of the three main perspectives in sociology since they are in the course only because it is required for a degree and a degree is required to get their foot in the door; after that, charm and wit will win the way. If they had a mentor, s/he would be a Simply Charming Attractor Mentor or SCAM. A few in the Feigenbaum Bunch will be people who have to juggle work, family responsibilities and/or course overload. In many respects they got themselves in such a fix but, on balance, they mean well and are embarrassed to cut corners. Once in a while, one of the Feigenbaum Bunch, as did Feigenbaum himself, will turn out to be a certified genius and surprise everyone especially their parents; but typically, they will end up as real estate brokers, used car salespersons or sociology professors. There will be two or three secret agents placed in the Feigenbaum Bunch to egg them on to even more chaos. EVALUATION: There are many innovative features to the grading system used in the course. The most interesting is the use of market criteria to encourage the students to: 1. Create their own learning protocol 2. Make wise use of their class and study time and 3. Permit an infinite combination of learning devices with which to match desire. The market system is adapted from market socialism in which people are given sufficient resources to create their own social life world but supply is kept in such supply that one must budget the expenditure of both time, timing and points. Students are given 450 points to spend. 400 quality points are required for an 'A+;' while 376 points are required for an 'A-;' This means that a student garnering 83.2% of 450 points required still may take home an 'A' to show whomever cares to look. Other grades can be earned as follows: 375 quality points are required for a 'B+; 351 to 374 points = B- or 78% to 83.1% of 450 pts. 350 quality points are required for a 'C+' 326 to 349 = C- or 73% of 450 pts. 300 quality points are required to pass the course. 301 to 324 = D or 66-72% of 450 pts. 300 = D- Some elbow space was built into the overall grading plan in order to compensate for learning a new system and to compensate for the errors we were bound to make in creating such format. As one can see from the system above, grading in nonlinear; it is easier to get an 'A' than in other courses but harder to get a 'D.' There was also space built into the field assignments to allow for the small injustices which ensue from creativity and uncertainty; for example, in the movie labs, a lot of new material was presented to the students in a very short time and they were given a work sheet which cost them 25 points, to fill out which, as it turned out contained just plain errors and more ambiguity than usual to multiple choice questions. We included free 5 points for showing up and to compensate for both the speed with which we go over material and the haste with which the work sheets were prepared. Thus, for 25 of their points, students automatically received 5 quality points and the opportunity to earn up to 20 more for the use of basic sociological concepts in sorting out the scenes, actors and dynamics of a movie. QUALITY POINT MENU: Any one stop attending and taking tests when they accumulate enough quality points to earn the grade they are content with from the menu below. One may skip the final if one does well enough on the other menu items. The possibility that one might not take the final is a powerful motive for selecting alternative ways to encompass the material in the course. Each menu item offers a differing learning/grading modality. Together with the learning attractors above, the quality point menu defines the attractor states to which any given student might move. There are five learning circles (six if one counts the Feigenbaum Bunch) and ten menu items set by the syllabus. From the point of view of the professor, there are about six uncertainties for which to plan. From the point of view of the mentors, there are three contingencies to which they must devote time and attention; the field assignments, special projects and mini-debates since the exams are handled by the teaching associate and the movie/crime labs are organized by the professor and machine graded. Typically a mentor would have 100 students to mentor; each having 450 points to spend. Each mentor would thus have to help students plan to spend 45,000 points. Most students would take two tests at 150 points each thus spending 30,000 points on the two together. That would leave each mentor with a market for about 15,000 points. The movie labs cost the students 25 points each. The students can take 4 such labs; if so, then they would have spent another 10,000 points in such a market. As a practical matter, they don't since the movie labs are offered only at 5-7 p.m. on a Thursday afternoon in a room holding but 135 persons. Some students work; some have other labs at that time and some don't plan their course work carefully. All this means that mentors have to request and grade field assignments in sufficient number to permit their students to spend their points. The professor drafted a field assignment for each chapter; the mentor adapted the assignment with the professor for her/his students and hands them out to students. As things settled down into a routine, the movie labs were offered every other week and the field assignments handed out on alternate weeks. This meant that points other than tests were on a two period cycle; first one, then the other for the students to select. I. EXAMS. These exams are largely objective (for quick and easy grading). Those who do better on essay and interpretive testing will want to opt for the field assignments and lab exercises below. A. Exam 1. fifth week: 150 points possible B. Exam 2 tenth week: 150 points possible C. Final: cumulative: 100 points possible 2. FIELD ASSIGNMENTS: 25 points each. These assignments are action research assignments. These are based upon the essays on the Berberoglu Reader. There is a separate guide sheet for these field assignments. Mentors signed and stated the due date on it. There was a limit of FOUR for any one person. 3. LAB MEETINGS There were eight or nine lab meetings at which a movie on video will be analyzed by the professor. One is to use concepts from the associated chapter with which to explicate the movie shown. Students attended the lab, listened to a review of basic concepts, asked questions, took note, and filled out a work sheet for the movie. 25 quality points possible for each movie; there was a limit of FOUR. Movies to be analyzed included: My Fair Lady, The Dead Poets Society, Beverly Hills Cops, Other People's Money and the Wizard of Oz. 4. SPECIAL PROJECTS were given out from time to time coordinated with events on campus. An address by Howard Zinn at Radford University offered one such project. An address by a theology professor, Jacqueline Carr-Hamilton on the Presidential Campaign offered a second. Sue Rosser spoke about women in science for a their In brief, you will be asked to use five concepts from the remaining part of the text with which to interpret the event. 25 quality points were possible. One could do up any four of these. GTAs offered guide sheets. 5. MINI-DEBATES 5 minute debates were offered which included a statement and rebuttal between the Right Wing and Left Wing spokespersons. These were coordinated by the RAM and LAM and scheduled when ready. The debates take up ideas from the Berberoglu Reader; each side has two minutes to state their point of view and 30 seconds for rebuttal. The Teaching Associate will award up to 15 Quality Points for each person. 6. QUESTIONS Each day, the three best questions poised in class (as selected by the Teaching Associate) were awarded 5 quality points. The questions must be based on the chapter under discussion. 7. Jokes. These must be suitable for the situation and based upon the topics covered so far. 5 quality points if a joke is used. 8. Secret Assignments. 10 quality points each. See your special agent in charge of dirty tricks. Watch out for the October surprise. 9. Personal Creativity. You may submit two personal assignments for up to 10 quality points each. Creativity is of the essence for work. Cartoons, brochures, editorial pieces in the school paper, even three dimensional models of the ideas in the various chapters qualify as extra credit work. Songs, poetry and two page essays are also acceptable. 10. Magic Words. There will be a magic word from each Chapter, which if used in a question from those in the butterfly attractor, will earn a instant 10 quality points. The magic word for the first Chapter has between 9 and 12 letters. We will celebrate the magic word when it appears for the first time in a question. 11. There were three ongoing vignettes produced and directed by students at 15 quality points per production with a limit of four. Each director could 'hire' and 'pay' up to five actors in any given soap. The three soaps included: a. Captain Science. Remember he is smarter than you are; he's got a doctor's degree....in SOCIOLOGY! One episode of Captain Science involved cultural conflict; a tourist in a foreign restaurant made a gesture of appreciation for service and food which was offensive in that culture. Captain Science saved the day by explaining the varying use of symbols to create social realities in differing societies. In a second episode, Lust for Theory, Captain Science was a woman, dressed in a conservative suit, who explained to a group of women why they could not find any theory which explained their lived experience. Captain Science introduced them to feminist theory and satisfied their....Lust for Theory! b. Life with Bev and Jack. In the first episode of fun with Bev and Jack, Bev meets Jack and brings him home to meet her parents. Jack is unacceptable to the upper middle class parents (Dad is governor and mom is ??) c. Fun with Dick and Jane. [Jennifer will polish and finish this section. GAME PLAN FOR QUALITY POINTS: [who will take this section?? coordinate with Anna] Your mentor will check your game plan anytime the first week and keep a copy. S/he will accept your game plan when you have taken the first test or acquired 50 points from optional QPPs. You are expected to keep to the game plan you set unless you file a new one with your mentor. NAME_____________________________ Major_____________ Learning Attractor Preference:_____________________________________ REMEMBER: The overall limit in your game plan is 450 points; you may not try for any combination totally more than 450 quality points. I plan to earn Quality Points as follows: [Every one with fewer than 50 quality points must take the first exam]. A. I plan to take all three tests. I plan to take the first and second exam. I plan to take only the final. total ___ B. I plan to try ___ field assignments at up to 25 points each. [Limit of 4] Total ___ C. I plan to attend ___ movie labs. [Limit of FOUR] Total ___ D. Add here the other points you earn from jokes: ____ questions: ____ mini-debates: ____ secret assignments: ____ Other, please list: ____ You have the right to revise your game plan after each test. See your mentor when you are ready to do so. Your mentor will monitor your progress. You must try for at least 50 quality points prior to the first exam if you plan to be excused from it. ________________________Approved ________Date ******************** REFERENCES Ashby, H. R. 1968 "Variety, constraint, and the law of requisite variety." in Buckley, Modern Systems Research for the Behavioral Scientist. Chicago: Aldine. Benhabib, Selya. 1991. Feminism and Postmodernism: An Uneasy Alliance, in Praxis International. 11:2. July. Briggs, John and F. David Peat. 1989 Turbulent Mirror: An Illustrated Guide to Chaos Theory and the Science of Wholeness. New York: Harper and Row. Feigenbaum, Mitchell 1978. Quantitative Universality for a Class of Nonlinear transformations, in the Journal of Statistical Physics, 19:25-52. Cited in Gleick, p. 157. Glass, Leon and Michael C. Mackey, 1988. From Clocks to Chaos: The Rhythms of Life. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Gleick, James, 1988. Chaos: Making a New Science. New York: Guastello, Stephen J. 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