THE KU KLUX KLAN AND THE AMERICAN NAZI PARTY: CASE STUDIES IN TOTALITARIANISM AND FASCISM* Betty A. Dobratz Iowa State University and Stephanie Shanks-Meile Indiana University Northwest No. 125 Circulated as part of the Transforming Sociology Series by the Red Feather Institute. ABSTRACT In this paper we are concerned with totalitarianism of the right as illustrated in the contemporary fascist movements of the Ku Klux Klan and the American neo-Nazis. We analyze the ideology of these two reactionary groups. We examine the groups' own literature and focus on the following characteristics: (1) Sense of community; (2) Hostile rhetoric both against a) the monopolies, big business, and the oligarchy of the right and b) the powerful forces of the left: socialists, communists, radical militants, etc.; (3) Moralism and return to traditional values; (4) Extreme intolerance and racism; (5) Reinterpretation of history, and (6) Readiness to use systematic violence and terror against those who disagree with them. THE KU KLUX KLAN AND THE AMERICAN NAZI PART: CASE STUDIES IN TOTALITARIANISM AND FASCISM The concept of totalitarianism in the social science literature remains vague and difficult to define (Barber, 1969; Orum, 1983). According to Arendt (1966) the rise of totalitarianism is linked to the weakening of the national state, the decline of the class system and its values, and the atomization and individualization of modern mass society. Selznick (1961:3) identifies totalitarianism as a relatively recent phenomenon of the twentieth century and stated: "Totalitarianism is industrialization plus tyranny plus mass organization plus ideological passion. It is the dark face of Industrial man. It is not a thing of the past, but of the present. It may well be our future." Friedrich and Brzezinski (1956) have identified six major characteristics of totalitarianism: (1) There is an official ideology and doctrine dealing with all significant aspects of existence to which people are to adhere. This ideology strongly rejects existing society but is utopian and chiliastic in its future outlook. It takes on a pseudoreligious character. Unlike democratic ideology, it replaced reason with faith and scientific knowledge with magic exhortation. (2) A single mass party exists which is led by one man and consists of a small proportion of the population. The party is hierarchically and oligarchically organized. (3) There is a terroristic police system of control. (4) The state has a monopoly on mass communication. (5) There is near-complete control of the armed forces and weapons. (6) There is central control and direction of the entire economy. The need for a totalitarian society to have a somewhat advanced level of technology is reflected in matters of weapons, communications, police terror, and centrally controlled economy. The authors point out that these six characteristics need to be taken in combination with each other as a cluster in order to be regarded as totalitarian. Often totalitarianism has been viewed as having left and right aspects. The typical examples of right totalitarianism tend to be fascist Italy under Mussolini and Nazi Germany under Hitler while the left side is usually illustrated by the communist Soviet Union under Stalin. Some stress the similarities of these regimes (Eberstein, 1962; Friedrich and Brzezinski, 1956; Friedrich, 1954; Gregor, 1968; Orum, 1983) while others emphasize the differences (Sauer, 1967; Moore, 1966; De Felice, 1976, 1977; Payne, 1980). Both right and left totalitarian ideology (1) criticize the existing order as corrupt and immoral, (2) suggest an alternative utopian vision of better society, and (3) provide a statement of plans and programs to achieve the alternative order. The organizational structure is hierarchical and compartmentalized. The political party, usually dominated by one person, penetrates the life of the entire country. Government bureaucracies and paramilitary organizations play key roles. At least at the beginning, totalitarian rule is based on having a significant part of the population actively identified with the movement (mass mobilization) (Rejai, 1984:41-42). This differs considerably from traditional conservative authoritarian regimes where leaders rely on people's passivity. Authoritarian regimes tend to control the peaks of the economy and culture while totalitarian regimes control a much wider range of economic and political life. Del Noce (De Felice, 1977) points out that fascism involves the reality of nations while communism focuses on the reality of class. Kogan (1968) notes that different social classes tend to be attracted to right and left totalitarianism (middle class and working class respectively). Also the ideal goals are different with those of Marxism based on ideas of social justice and equality. Fascism glorifies violence, militarism, and the state while Marxism is anti-militaristic and favors ultimate elimination of the state. Friedrich and Brzezinski (1956) point out that Communism favored an international or world revolution of the proletariat while fascists were imperialistic by trying to establish dominance of a particular people. Right wing totalitarianism has been associated with more "advanced" societies than are left ones; right totalitarianism is more clearly racist and exclusionist (Rejai, 1984). The U.S. has numerous far right-wing groups which engage in terrorism or war from the far right (Green, 1985). Three that are nationwide are the Ku Klux Klan which oppresses blacks, Jews, and most other minorities and non-Christian religions, the Nazi party which is anti-Jewish and maintains whites should rule America, and the Aryan Brotherhood which is located in many prisons and "protects white prisoners from black ones." More regionally located groups include (1) the Aryan Nations Church which is anti-black and Jews and trains white supremist groups, (2) the order which is an offshoot of number 1 and believes Jesus is a member of a Nordic tribe, (3) the Restored Church of Jesus Christ Aryan Nation whose purpose is to kill all blacks, (4) Posse Comitatus which is anti-federal income tax and supports the overthrow of the government, (5) Euro-American Alliance which "defends white extremists from the Jews," (6) the Covenant, the Sword and the Arm of the Lord which maintains Jews are an anti- Christ race, and (7) the Christian Defense League which advocates removal of Jews from public offices. We will examine the publications of the American Nazis and the KKK as well as social scientific sources to ascertain the degree to which these two movements are totalitarian and fascist. We will focus on the following: (1) sense of community (the group over the individual); (2) rhetoric against the capitalist and government leaders and the communist left; (3) return to traditional values and use of moralism; (4) the extreme racism and intolerance of the movements; (5) reinterpretation of world events; and (6) willingness to use violence. While other characteristics could be included, space considerations do not allow for this. These two organizations will be examined jointly because the KKK and the American Nazis have interlocked through the National States Rights Party (NSRP) which culminated in The Thunderbolt publication as a common media outlet evidencing their similar goals and ideological belief systems (Anti-Defamation league, 1983:39). (NOTE 1) Hall et al. (1977:457) stated, "It is interlocking organizations, rather than individuals, that are at the center of power systems." The interlocking nature of these two rightist movements has been evidenced in a number of public events. In recent years, Klansmen have called gatherings with the Nazi Party to celebrate Hitler's birthday and to establish the White Confederacy and the United Racist Front. (For more details see Anti-Defamation League, 1982:62-64). These two organizations also planned an aborted invasion of Dominica in April 1981 (Turner et al, 1981:48-51). The incident receiving the greatest attention recently is the U.S. jury acquittal of nine Klansmen and Nazis in April 1984 for conspiracy to disrupt a 1979 anti-Klan rally in Greensboro N.C. In that rally, five Communist Workers' Party members were killed and others wounded. The nine were charged in 1983 with federal civil rights violations after six Klansmen and Nazis were found innocent of murder in the 1980 state trial. When the final verdict was passed by an all-white jury in Winston-Salem, N.C. last April, the "Greensboro 9" were acquitted because the federal government could not prove that "racial hatred" was the motivation for the slayings (In These Times, 1984:4). Both the Nazis and KKK recognize the usefulness of forming political parties in the U.S. multi-party system. While these two movements have joint interests, the KKK and the American Nazis have developed political party affiliation independently which could provide increased legitimation of the organizations in their public presentation and enhance the changes of input into the state administrative apparatus through the use of a more unified lobbying force (Habermas, 1973:46-47). Evidence of increased political activity in traditionally legitimate circles can be seen in the newly formed Populist Party in February 1984. While the Populist Party organized in 19 states "as the party of the common man," the key leadership are "Klan and pro-Nazi extremists attempting to pass themselves off as a legitimate political group" (National Anti-Klan Network, 1984:1,7). METHODOLOGY Qualitative content analysis was conducted on literature obtained from the Nazis, KKK, and related political parties in 1982 through 1984. This technique allowed us to gather data on these reactionary groups that would be problematic, if not impossible, to acquire through use of other research methodologies (Glaser and Strauss, 1967:177). Qualitative content analysis was chosen to overcome problems that other researchers, using conventional quantitative procedures, encountered in their attempts to classify and understand data with latent content (Glassner and Corzine, 1980:307). For instance, Wilcox (1962:158) found that analysis of material from the radical right press required procedures other than "standard content analysis techniques" because the content was "too confused." Since the literature of the Nazi Party and the KKK contains "latent meanings" that prohibit coding data into standard and widely shared categories, qualitative analysis is a more appropriate method. For this study, we used Glassner and Corzine's (1980) model which relies heavily on Glaser and Strauss' grounded theory approach (1967). We depart from their recommended procedure because the data could not be classified by literature site, since the data could not be obtained from traditional literature sources. We modified this to classify data by the organization of origin. In line with this approach, our analysis concluded at the point of saturation (Glaser and Strauss, 1967:225). The Nazi Party data were obtained by writing to various major National Socialist Units and cooperating organizations identified in the social science literature. Most of the addresses were obtained from the Anti-Defamation League (1982) and one of the National Socialist Unit newspapers. The literature of the Ku Klux Klan was acquired in a similar manner. Initially, a list of Klan leaders with their local affiliation and related political parties and associations was provided by Klanwatch (1981), a division of the Southern Poverty Law Center. From the list, addresses were located by searching through telephone books serving those rural towns. Of the Grand Dragons, a title given to Klan leaders, only one replied directly as the chairman of the White American Political Association (WAPA). (NOTE 2) The others forwarded the request for Klan literature on to the National Association for the Advancement of White People (NAAWP), Empire Publishing supported by the Invisible Empire Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, and The Thunderbolt, Inc. of the National States' Rights Party. Various units of the Nazi Party and several Klan factions provided literature with statements of their ideology, organizational goals, and concerns. The most comprehensive statement received regarding the platform of the American Nazi movement was The Official Program of the National Socialist White Peoples Party (1980). A small tract entitled A Great Idea National Socialism Then and Now by Britisher Colin Jordan (no date, New Order Publications, Lincoln, NE), one page leaflets on "The Goals and Objectives of the Nazi Party of the New Order" (Penland, NC) and the positions of the SS-Action Group (Dearborn Heights, MI), and an article entitled "The New Order is Here" in White Power, the revolutionary voice of national socialism (No. 104, 1983) provided additional information on the ideology and goals of the Nazi groups. The most condensed statement of the Klan's movement's ideology was provided by the Invisible Empire Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. The Knights also publish an expanded version of the Invisible Empire's list of purposes for the Klan's existence in each issue of The White Patriot in an article entitled "Join." Two political associations of the Klan pointed to the same issues in relation to contemporary sociopolitical issues. The National Association for the Advancement of White People (NAAWP) headed by David Duke (NOTE 3) applied the basic Klan principles to Welfare, violent crime, and immigration. The goals of the NAAWP are expounded by Duke in "White Renaissance" (Wilson, 1982:1,3). The second political organization to examine is Metzger's White American Political Association (WAPA). (NOTE 4) In addition to the initial Klan purposes, the WAPA added a concern over "foreign entanglements" that jeopardize U.S. neutrality, foreign labor competition which threatens "U.S. white workers," and constitutional amendments that "dilute that caucasian political power of the middle class" (May 15, 1982, letter from Tom Metzger). The National States Rights Party (NSRP) is the final rightist organization examined in this paper. It has served as an organizational bridge between the KKK and the neo-Nazis. Its platform was outlined in an essay entitled "Dr. Field's Economic Plan to Save the American Standard of Living, Jobs, and Prosperity" (Fields, 1983). Each of these platforms or statements of organizational goals and concerns as well as other material published by the groups will be examined along the six rightist characteristics outlined earlier in this paper. While the KKK factions speak in broad ideological terms with an extreme historical emphasis, the political parties and related associations focus more upon contemporary social issues with concrete reformist proposals that are based upon similar or identical philosophical premises that enable them to promote candidates for public office. FINDINGS: SENSE OF COMMUNITY Nisbet maintains that what is fundamental to totalitarianism is the "sterilization and destruction of all other images and the subordination of all human relationships to the central power that contains this image" (1970:417-reprinted from 1953). The ideology of the political community includes the annihilation of individuality. There is a strong sense that the community ("a unified organic whole in which all members of society join together in a great common cause" - Official Program, NSWPP, Matt Koehl, 1980) is the mechanism people will use to change society. For the Nazi Party, a strong sense of community is developed by restricting citizenship to those Aryans (NOTE 5) who prove themselves worthy of it. The KKK's racially defined community consists of "persons who dedicate their lives to the protection, preservation, and advancement of the white race" and "practice real brotherhood toward all his [sic] fellow citizens" (An Introduction to the Invisible Empire Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, no date:3-4). (NOTE 6) A stable family unit, a healthy environment, and a healthy farming community which provides social, racial, and environmental stability are major ingredients of the community for both the neo-Nazis and the Klansmen. Members "should have the freedom to associate in their own communities" without interference from other "cultures, nations and races of man" (White Patriot-Special Introductory Issue, no date:6). In the "enlightened community...anything which interferes with the smooth and harmonious functioning of society must be ruthlessly suppressed" (Official Program, NSWPP), Koehl, 1989:3). The excessive individualism of our time is seen as a threat to the strong sense of community that both the KKK and the American Nazi Party are trying to promote. "National Socialism's belief in the folk as the basic value, and its totality of outlook, result, figuratively speaking, in thinking with the blood on all questions... It upholds the dictum, 'All for the folk and the folk for all'" (Jordan, no date:6,8). Organizations are seen as the instrument to create a sense of community that will unify whites to defend their "civil rights, heritage, basic interests" (NAAWP Program, 1980:1). The Knights of the Ku Klux Klan made a typical call for unity that is similar to that of the National Socialists: The highest motivation for our fraternity is love: love of our people's unique heritage and character, love of freedom, and love for a new era for our people. If we are to restore the unity and brotherhood of our people, we must first restore it within our own hearts and ranks (White Patriot-Special Introductory Issue, no date:6). Clearly the Ku Klux Klan and the American Nazis call for unity of "the White (or Aryan) race...to work together against common enemies" (An Introduction to the Invisible Empire Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, no date:2,4); The Thunderbolt, No. 288, 1983:14). The loss of a biological community is a major source of concern for the neo-Nazis and the Klan. The New Order organization (White Power, No. 104, 1983:5) particularly bemoans the supposed fact that white people have lost contact with their own biological community and thus feel themselves alienated and alone. White Power is thus critical of such attitudes as "do your own thing," "the Me decade," and "look out for number one." As the cure for the problems associated with individual freedom, whites need to live their lives in harmony with the laws of nature and reject everything that is decadent and corrupt. Stoner, of the National States Rights Party, "accused the government of 'race-mixing' to remold minds like molding clay." The "race-mixing" not only creates alienation, but "destroys law and order and education" which will lead to the inevitable death of America (The Thunderbolt, No. 288, 1983:14). Within the folk there are "hereditary differences of capacity to serve the community. Accordingly for the maximum good of all, the superior must lead the inferior. The natural leaders must be selected, established as a hierarchical elite under a supreme leader, and empowered to fulfill their functions" (Jordan, no date:7). This qualifier neatly transforms the desire for community into an alien force. The community which results is a false community in which conflicts between workers and owners, small business and customers, sexists and women are masked by a spurious biological determinism. RHETORIC AGAINST BIG BUSINESS AND COMMUNISM A common thread running through the literature of the American Nazi Party, the KKK and related organizations is a real concern with big business perceived as a detriment to the American worker. The Official Program of the NSWPP and the Goals and Objectives of the Nazi Party of the New Order both call for an "honest economy" to serve the needs of the people rather than big bankers or multinational corporate profiteers. The platform asks for full employment, price stability, public control of all banking and credit institutions, and all utilities and all monopolies. It also calls for the confiscation of all conglomerate holdings, cancellation of usurious debts, and interest-free loans for families, farmers, and small businessmen. "We must put an end to both economic freeloading and economic exploitation in America" (Goals and Objectives of the Nazi Party of the New Order, no date). All of these policies resonate with the abiding populism of America which is resurgent in hard times. Jordan (no date:7) describes the socialist element in National Socialism as involving regulation of private enterprise in which there would be equitable division of the benefits of economic activity. It is neither bureaucratic socialism where the state owns the means of production and there is "economic over-government of the ant heap" nor is it the "predatory individualism of the capitalist system, which is the economic under-government, or anarchy, of the jungle." Still less, is it the democratic self management of communist theory. Socialism as used by Jordan does not refer to state ownership of the means of production. The term National Socialism was used by some German intellectuals in the early 20th century as a means to attract the working classes. Hitler later "misused" it in his attempt to unite and aggrandize Germany (Rejai, 1984:37-38). It simply means that the capitalist state will do a bit to control the excesses of private profit systems. The SS Action Group states they are for private property and free enterprise and favor some agency who will ensure that all males able to work are placed in a position of gainful employment. They want a privately controlled program for national health. They are against manipulation by international bankers, federal income taxes, and the squandering of national wealth. In addition, they object to communism, especially in America and also to the "Marxist-African dominated United Nations." The KKK proposes an increased emphasis on free enterprise as does the Nazi Party, but the Klan does not incorporate the public control of economic segments currently controlled by the private sector. Instead of the shift to public ownership of certain enterprises, the KKK supports "private property and ownership of business, but an end to high-finance exploitation" (An Introduction to the Invisible Empire Knights of the KKK, no date:2). Free enterprise would be enhanced by the removal of government regulation of employer hiring and firing practices, enforced by Affirmative Action, which discriminates against the White American worker (White Patriot, no date:6; Wilson, 1982:1). On the other hand, government regulation of all monopolies should be increased to break up "the power of big city banks" and ban "corporate mergers which stifle competition." Free enterprise is emphasized on the global level, since foreign goods and "runaway factories" are seen as a threat to White American labor (Fields, 1983; letter from Tom Metzger, May 15, 1982). While the KKK does not propose the public ownership of private enterprise, the National States Rights Party (NSRP) incorporates some of the socialist principles of the Nazi Movement. Fields (1983) suggests a need to "abolish the privately owned Federal Reserve Bank and allow the government to print and circulate money without paying interest." This would be supportive of a "constitutional amendment mandating annual balanced federal budgets." The NSRP also advocates the introduction of "farmer's cooperatives" that would "own all food processing and manufacturing firms" with American farmers receiving the returns as "stockholders in the cooperatives." Vander Zanden (1983), Szymanski (1978), and Chalmers (1980) pointed out that fascist movements typically appeal to the intermediate classes, the "little" people, or the petty bourgeoisie. These are the people who have suffered a decline in status because big capital has taken over at the expense of small business. They reject big capital and communism but want to maintain free enterprise for the small businessperson. In this policy, the KKK and American Nazis do not approximate the totalitarian ideal because they do not strongly support the centralized control and direction of the economy by the state. RETURN TO TRADITIONAL VALUES AND USE OF MORALISM Here we use moralism to refer to the ability to make black or white clearcut judgments about what is correct or proper attitudes or mode of behavior in a particular situation. The KKK is moralistic in its goal of restoring the culture of the pre-Civil War south. However, the Klan does not view their cultural heritage as lying dormant, but the traditional values of the mid 1800s were merely diluted by "Black Reconstruction" (White Patriot -Special Introductory Issue, no date:6). Each organizational Klan faction refers to their goal of saving civilization. After the cannon fell silent and peace descended upon the battlefields of the war between the states, there came an infamous chapter of American history called "The Reconstruction." From this era, the abyss of human misery and despair, there arose like the morning sun the Ku Klux Klan. The KKK provided the leadership and rallying point to begin their arduous struggle to regain their lost dignity and indeed the values of western civilization (An Introduction to the Invisible Empire Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, no date:1). The KKK views itself as the force carrying the traditions of the era from which they arose through time to preserve "the heritage of white people" toward a destiny that "will someday send us to the stars" (Wilson, 1982:1). This futuristic version of traditionalism is furthered by the goals of increasing man's knowledge, understanding, intelligence, and power. The Klan wants "to strive toward a continually higher concept of perfection." Their "home" is not just the earth but the universe" (White Patriot - Special Introductory Issue, no date:6). White society is reproduced in body and spirit by Klan families, so that each generation can participate continually from childhood regardless of sex (An Introduction to the Invisible Empire Knights of the KKK, no date:4-5). Just as the Klan movement calls for a cultural restoration, the NSWPP platform and the Nazi Party of the New Order call for an equivalent spiritual rebirth that is tied strongly to the ideas of race and community. For example, the platform states, "Our people must be turned away from the present path of materialism, cynicism, and egoism and become inspired by racial idealism and a rebirth of traditional Aryan spiritual values" (Official Program, NSWPP, Koehl, 1980:8). The New Order (White Power, No. 104, 1983:1) goes even further in making its position clear: It is the goal of the New Order to attack the spiritual syphilis which is eating away at the soul of our Race in a bold and uncompromising manner, and to destroy the infection by massive doses of the proper antidote - the pure, undiluted medicine of the National Socialist world view as conceived by Adolf Hitler. There is a need for a common set of values and ideals which shape the moral outlook, lifestyle, and culture of the community. Thus, elsewhere in the platform there is an emphasis on the family farm and the good life on the land and motherhood. The family unit needs to be strengthened and motherhood elevated to a noble position with a special degree of respect. The emphasis on motherhood is quite traditional. Aryan men and women play distinctive but complementary roles with the man as the "natural breadwinner and warrior," and woman as "natural homemaker." Man, as head of the house, is the provider and his wife should not be forced to abandon the home and children due to economic necessity. The SS-Action group also calls for traditional moral and militaristic values: morality and decency in public life, manliness and courage in the leaders, and restoration of the former dignity and authority that should go with military rank. The military is perceived as having been weakened by phony "democracy" and integration. Jordan (no date:4,5) notes that "National Socialism stands relentlessly opposed to every manifestation of ill health, ugliness, and degeneracy in the cultural and spiritual, no less than in the political and economic spheres ... It evaluates good and bat, right and wrong, as that which benefits or harms the folk." The emphasis on what is moral is thus strongly tied to the sense of the community and it also shows the utopian nature of totalitarian ideology. INTOLERANCE OF DIFFERENT GROUPS The predominant theme of the Nazi and KKK platforms is its bigotry against Jews and blacks. The Official Program of the NSWPP (NSWPP, Koehl, 1980) calls for an Aryan Republic, citizenship on the basis of Aryan blood, a racial community, a new educational system that instills in every young Aryan an all important set of racial values, a better race, and a rebirth of traditional Aryan spiritual values. They support eugenic measures and demand an end to racially impure blood within the gene pool of the racial community. The Goals and Objectives of the Nazi Party of the New Order (no date) are even more specific. There should be an America "without swarming Black filth in our streets and schools...and free of alien, Jewish influence." To develop an Aryan culture, one must "flush down the drain the poisonous Jewish and Negroid degeneracy which today is passing for 'art' and 'music' and 'literature.'" There also needs to be white self defense so people can live without fear and a white world solidarity based on alliance with racial kinsmen in Australia, Europe, and South Africa. The New Order (White Power, No. 104, 1983) proclaims that the National Socialist idea is the only hope for the survival of the white race. It calls for "Racial idealism" where whites develop a sense of racial solidarity and racial destiny. The SS- Action Group (no date) calls for the immediate end to integration both civilian and military and to the mixing of races. It condemns both political parties for surrendering to the demands of blacks and other minorities at the expense of the white majority. The KKK and related organizations expressed similar concerns to those of the neo-Nazis including problems of integration and the related outcomes of a "high black crime rate, racial intermarriage, the destruction of our schools, and the lowering of labor standards" (An Introduction to the Invisible Empire knights of the KKK, no date:4). The manifest reason for Klan action has been to stop discrimination against whites by other racial and ethnic groups (NAAWP Program, 1980; Wilson, 1982; An Introduction to the Invisible Empire Knights of the KKK, no date). Not only are whites discriminated against in the labor force, but forced integration lowers standards of achievement "rather than blatantly reveal the inequality between the White and Black Races" (White Patriot, no date:6). Stoner (1983) said, "All you have to do is go back in their history to see that they've made no advancement. Their brains are small and they lack grey matter." The "genetically inferior races" with high birthrates are perceived as a threat to the White Race which only exists as a homogeneous population in iceland, the only all white nation in the world (NAAWP Program, 1980; letter from Metzger, May 15, 1982). Although blacks have been the primary source of concern for the KKK, other groups have been viewed unfavorably. Jews have been accused of "transporting most of the blacks over on their own ships just to make a profit" (Stoner, 1983). Illegal immigration from Mexico is monitored by the Klansmen on their border walks, since aliens are thought to steal jobs from American white workers and receive a larger proportion of this country's welfare expenditures (NAAWP Program, 1980). Marxists are considered "our common enemy which would utterly destroy the Christian faith" (An Introduction to the Invisible Empire Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, no date:4). Christianity is considered the savior of the white race, since "God doesn't hear voodoo prayers. He (God) only hears Christians" (Stoner, 1983). An article entitled "God is a Racist" states: "Racism, racial discrimination, and racial prejudice is a commandment from God" (The Thunderbolt, No. 288, 1983:10). All Protestants and Catholics are asked to ban together to fend against all other racial and ethnic groups that threaten Western Christianity and the "right of the American people to practice their faith" (An Introduction to the Invisible Empire Knights of the KKK, no date:2). The examples of intolerance in the newspapers and leaflets of the neo-Nazis and KKK are even more bigoted and intolerant than the platform statements. One of the great fears of those who want to protect the "Aryan race" is intermarriage. One article on actress Sally Struthers and her unhappy lovelife with three Jewish men is entitled "White Renegade Learns Too Late That Race-Mixing is Forever" (White Power, No. 104, 1983:2). She has a half-Jewish daughter and thus, according to the article, has committed an act of unforgivable racial pollution: "The air, the waters and the land can all be cleansed if they become befouled, but racial pollution destroys the purity of Nature for all time." A leaflet from New Order entitled, "Help Save This Endangered Species" shows a white woman and her white daughter, thus suggesting a similar line of thought. It claims that whites will become a minority in the U.S. by 2030; Metzger estimated that "by the year 2050 the deterioration may be irreversibly cast" (Letter, May 15, 1982). Another leaflet (NSLF Headquarters, no date) quotes George Lincoln Rockwell as saying "The lowest forms of humanity are breeding so fantastically fast that we will soon suffer the worst plague in history ... THE BLACK PLAGUE." Hispanics as well as blacks and Jews are criticized for the decline in the Aryan race. Storm (New Order, No. 52, 1983a:2) believes both blacks and Hispanics are destroying the white race: "These friendly folk from the South (Hispanics) are breeding at an even earlier age than the niggers, which was long viewed to be impossible ... Spics intermarry at an even higher rate than niggers. Many foolish whites consider the taco bender as one of their own since they are not black." Whites will be extinguished according to Storm, if this pattern is not stopped. Another common fear played on in the literature is that whites are losing their jobs to minority group members (White Power, No. 104, 1983:2; The Thunderbolt, No. 291, 1983:2; "The Illegal Alien Problem," Empire Publishing, no date; NAAWP News, 1982, No. 1:6; NAAWP News, No. 14, 1982:10) also Asian nations particularly are cited as having taken jobs away from American workers (The Thunderbolt, No. 291, 1983:1). There is fear of the "Yellow Peril" as well as the "Black Plague." One proposed solution to handle the problems of minorities is called "BOATING, NOT BUSING (SS Action Group, no date). As an alternative policy suggestion, it asks: "Or should we do some KILLING?" The leaflet notes how the rich Jew and Washington bureaucrats keep their children in segregated private schools. The group literally advocates returning blacks to Africa and suggests this would be less expensive than the cost of sending troops to fight the Jews' meaningless wars or to pay for welfare, drugs, crime, etc. A cartoon in the fall 1982 of New Order shows one white man saying to the other: "I think we should give every Nigger a buck -- send them on a one way trip out of the country and every Jew would follow." Racial slurs are frequent. The recently elected Chicago Mayor Harold Washington is labeled "De Watermelon Man" and his victory celebration as "Millions of drunken jigs poured out into the streets to do the cannibal dance" (Storm, New Order, No. 52, Fall 1983b:1). Communists helped elect Mayor Washington (The Thunderbolt, No. 287, 1983) and Martin Luther King's Communist record is proven (The Thunderbolt, No. 291, 1983). White Iowa senator Tom Harkin elected in 1984 was also labeled a Communist (The Thunderbolt, No. 301.). A leaflet (NSWPP, no date) pictures a black youth smoking a cigar and wearing a leather jacket. The title states: "He may be your equal but he sure isn't ours." Another leaflet from NSWPP (no date) is titled "Three Jewish Contributions to Western Civilization." It suggests that Jews are more intelligent than most non-whites although the achievements of jews cannot compare with those of whites. The leaflet then questions the uses to which Jews put their intellectual ability. The three Jewish contributions cited are the development of the atomic bomb, the hydrogen bomb, and the neutron bomb which could result in nuclear holocaust. Blacks, Jews and other minorities provide perfect scapegoats for the failure of whites to reach the ideal or perfect society. It is suggested that should the minorities be removed, the problems in society would be solved. Such an analysis of the sources of social problems for those in the stratum from which the white supremists come systematically ignores the rich history of Blacks in Africa, the degradations of slavery, and the research literature in genetics and psychology as well as the dramatic improvement of the lives of Black Americans who are afforded opportunity. However, this pretheoretical analysis has the virtue of defining the boundaries of community quickly and with relative unambiguity. It also avoids a direct conflict with relatively powerful persons (in local terms) in the town. It has the added advantage of a large reservoir of racism in American cultural life. Still it is pretheoretical: bad theory makes for bad policy as T. R. Young so often says (T. R. Young, 1987: private correspondence). Thus, like totalitarian ideology in general, the KKK and Nazi materials criticize the existing order and provide their own utopian ideal in the form of the Aryan culture. REWRITING OF HISTORY Much of the material examined here is quite highly emotional and presents new versions of history and contemporary events. According to the standard interpretation of history, blacks were brought to the U.S. as slaves and this history of slavery has certainly helped shape the pattern of racial inequality in contemporary America. One article in The Thunderbolt (No. 291, 1983:1) maintains that black slaves were indeed fortunate persons: "The black slaves had their lives saved because the tribal leaders who enslaved them in the first place would have either tortured them to death or eaten them-- thus blacks brought to America were lucky--WE SAVED THEIR LIVES!" Not only was their physical existence threatened in their "native land," but blacks were suffering from spiritual neglect. "They never would have heard of God; never would have heard of Christian virtues, Christian lives, Christian heaven, nor Christian hell" (Watson, no date:11). In a leaflet entitled "Roots Exposed" Alex Haley is accused of writing "the most hierarchically inaccurate book in history" that has led whites into a "cult of ... self guilt and black hostility toward whites." According to this critique of Haley's book, Roots, data can be found to "sharply contradict the popular view that the destruction of slave marriages was at least a frequent, if not universal consequence of slave trade." Furthermore, "the food, housing, health care and life expectancy of the slaves 'compared well' with that of free whites" (Empire Publishing, no date). Other examples of reinterpreting history include the headline "King's Communist Record Proven-Stop King Holiday Bill (The Thunderbolt, No. 291, 1983:8-9). "Lincoln's Plan to Re- Colonize the Negro" (Empire Publishing, no date), "The White Conquest of Nicaragua" (White Patriot, No. 291, 1983:6), and "Kennedy Attacked Mississippi Not Cuba" (The Thunderbolt, No. 291, 1983:14). In this last example, James Meredith's admission to the University of Mississippi is pictured as an invasion in which "Kennedy felt pleased in forcing integration upon prostrate, oppressed people, using an occupation army." The holocaust is an event that is often reinterpreted. An article entitled "No 'Gas Chambers' Were Ever Found" (The Thunderbolt, No. 289, 1983:4) provided "documented evidence" that "no extermination camps" existed in Germany. Instead, Communist Poland housed the "death camps and we must take the Red's word for it that such events occurred." Germany only maintained detention centers, and "there was never any planned extermination of Jews." The spring issue of New Order (1983:3) labeled the South African government as race traitors and cowards because the "sensible racist government" is giving in to international pressure and considering changes in its policies. South African whites are pictured as unwilling to accept integration being forced down their throats: "They, of all whites, know the black's inferior mentality, his inferior lifestyle, and they know that it is nothing short of madness to integrate with a bunch of leftovers from the prehistoric age." A leaflet entitled "Defend U.S. Aid to Central America" (SS- Action Group, no date) seriously proposed that Soviet tanks and troops could cross our Southern border from Mexico and invade the U.S. In order to avoid this, the U.S. must continue unlimited military aid to El Salvador. If the Central American countries cannot stop the "Red Menace," then U.S. troops should be used to "free all of Central America" including Cuba and Nicaragua. The leaders of these totalitarian movements like to portray themselves as revolutionary patriots similar to those of the American Revolution. Thus an Aryan Nation's catalog contains in large letters Thomas Jefferson's statement: "Rebellion to Tyrants is...Obedience to God." The conclusion to the Official Program of the NSWPP (NSWPP, Koehl, 1980:9) states that they are proud to declare themselves revolutionaries who are building a new order, and ends with "For the fulfillment of this program...we pledge our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." The rewriting of history is one of the major means to control thought. It is difficult to know how many people find or may come to find these reinterpretations of history reasonable. VIOLENCE AS A TACTIC Violence has served as a means to attract attention and to provoke feelings of fear in the opposition. Chalmers (1980:63) has pointed out that during the 1950s and 1960s Klansmen engaged in and got away with a great deal of violence including bombing churches and shooting civil- rights workers because "the message of their culture (including the police and the FBI) was that they could get away with it." He asserts this however changed in the mid-1960s when presidential pressure pushed the FBI into solving Klan-associated crimes and disrupting rightist as well as leftist groups through its project Counterintelligence Program: Internal Security, Disruption of Hate Groups Operation (COINTELPRO). However, more recently there seems to be a revitalization of the violent activities of the Klan and Nazis (Wilkinson, 1981:106-111). (For a detailed listing of the violence and the development of para-military training camps see the Anti- Defamation League, 1982). (NOTE 7) Metzger (letter, May 15, 1982) explained the attitude toward violence of the White American Political Association: All men and women have the potential of violence under certain conditions that arouse them. It always has been that way and always will. Sometimes the accepted moral and political rules of the day brand such men and women as criminals and terrorists, much the same way as many Americans throughout history were branded during their lives. Since violence is viewed as a necessary element on the road to attaining their goals, numerous instances of Klan and Nazi Party activity have been documented. In 1980, the Community Relations Service of the Department of Justice handled 68 alerts related to the Klan. This was a 55% increase over the previous year (Anti-Defamation League, 1982:6). The incidents included cross burnings, fire bombings, challenges to police, and harassment of blacks and other minorities. A few examples of Klanworld violence will be mentioned to better indicate the types of violent activities and the reasons for their instigation. On October 13, 1982, Klansmen protested the conversion of a mental institution into a prison in order to keep black inmates and prison employees out of the rural community of Gowanda, New York by burning a fifteen foot cross at the site of the future penal institution (Klanwatch Intelligence Report, No. 6, 1982:9). Vietnamese fishermen were attacked repeatedly by the Klan off the Texas Gulf Coast from February to May 1978 to prevent "overfishing" (Klanwatch Intelligence Report, no date:2). Two Klansmen were arrested for the murder of a "19 year old black man in Mobile in 1981." Apparently, the selection of the murdered Michael McDonald was random, but the violence was directed toward the mistrial of a black man charged with the murder of a police sergeant (National Anti-Klan Network Newsletter, Fall, 1983:6). Violence has also occurred in 1976 and 1977 with the neo- Nazi marches through Marquette Park, a largely white area of Chicago's southwest side. The former march occurred after the National Socialists Party of America, led then by Frank Collin, had called off its march through Skokie in order to demonstrate at Marquette Park. Very militant action is often based in the Detroit, Michigan area including annual White Power rallies held in Ann Arbor (Dunn, 1983, 1983, 1984). A picture of a Detroit unit with many dressed uniforms giving the Heil Hitler salute had the following caption: "Our Detroit Comrades are very well known for the intense street activism" (New Order, No. 50, Spring, 1983:6). The SS Action Group there makes its position very clear; "We are more than willing to fight and if necessary die for the survival of the WHITE RACE. Is there an idea, cause or political platform, as important as this? 'The political party that rules the streets will rule the country.'" If You Have Guts to Fight For It!" (Michigan Briefing, SS Action Group, Vol. II, No. 4, no date). Because of this cult of violence, there is, of course, great concern about gun legislation. The New Order (formerly the NSWPP) advocates that every white adult and teenager should own a legal firearm and be proficient at its use. This is because of violence, crime and the possibilities of race war or dictatorship. In the advent of an attempt to enslave whites, "There is no right more basic than the right to self defense" (White Patriot, no date:10). Whites who are willing to use violence will survive: "The weak and wimpish whites will die out. The strong will flourish, and they will become the forebears of the future generations of our Race" (White Power, No. 104, 1983:3). The National Socialist Liberation Front believes in "graduated revolution" beginning with literature distributions, paintings, (e.g., swastikas on fences), book burnings, and then more militant actions. It characterizes itself as "a dynamic organization that acts as the iron fist of National Socialism, smashing through the Red front and the Jewish paper curtain" (Stachowski, Defiance, Vol. I, No. 9, 1983:15). Perhaps the most infamous recent incidence of violence occurred in Greensboro, North Carolina in 1979 at a "Death to the Klan" rally. Fighting broke out between the demonstrators and the combined forces of the Klan and the neo-Nazis. Five people, members of the Communist Workers Party and labor organizers were killed, but the Klansmen and Nazis charged with murder were acquitted in state court (Institute for Southern Studies, 1981). After various religious and civil rights groups pressed the federal government to reopen the case, the matter was finally taken to federal court when nine persons were indicted of federal civil rights charges. In April 1984, the court again acquitted the Klansmen and Nazis. A publication of the Greensboro Civil Rights Fund (1983) offered the following interpretation of what happened in Greensboro: Planning and deliberation went into the attack in the month before November 3rd. Klansmen and Nazis met repeatedly, at the encouragement and in the presence of Butkovich and informant Dawson. Their activities interlocked with those of the Greensboro Police Department which, while promising otherwise, consistently and consciously refused to protect the anti-Klan demonstrators. The chilling picture, a complex and well-coordinated set-up of the labor organizers for attack by a government directed right-wing death squad... The article explains that Ed Dawson, who was convicted of shooting a black man in the late 1960s, was paid by police to infiltrate the Klan. He led the November 3 group while receiving instructions from the police. The police followed the car caravan of the group but avoided the site of attack. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms agent Bernard Butkovich infiltrated the Nazi group and attended Nazi/Klan meetings, but he did not directly participate in the events of November 3. Instead of disrupting the activities of the Ku Klux Klan and Nazis, it appears the police and FBI may have found a way to use them to attack members of a left-wing group. CONCLUSION Although the KKK has suffered fluctuations in its membership, its current membership, according to the Center for Democratic Renewal in Atlanta (formerly the Anti-Klan Network) may be around 20,000, considerably up from about 1,200 members nationwide in 1972 (United Press International, 1987). A Gallup Poll conducted in 1979 suggests that a much larger group of people support some of the goals of the Klan than actually belong to it. Fully 10% indicated they were favorable to the Klan with 3% being highly favorable (Anti-Defamation League, 1982:24). This is an increase from 1965 when 6% were favorable and only 1% highly favorable. There seems to be a reemergence of especially the Klan during the late 1970s and 1980s including that of organizations in Europe (Vander Zanden, 1983; King, 1981; Wilkinson, 1981; Chalmers, 1980; National Radio Broadcasting, 1981; Anti- Defamation League, 1982). The neo-Nazi movement in America is not as likely to develop into a mass movement of much success because its origins and ideology are rooted in Europe and memories of the destructiveness of World War II remain. Yet both these movements have the potential to distort major issues and disrupt society. The neo-Nazis and KKK are examples of contemporary right totalitarianism and fascist movements. Totalitarian ideology provides a means to control individuals in every important aspect of their lives. The emphasis on community, moralism, and traditional values in the American Nazi and KKK literature provides means to control the behavior of people. The existing order is viewed as immoral and too individualistic. A return to a sense of community and morality is needed to achieve a better society. Religious overtones are present. The reinterpretation of history, if ever successfully accomplished on a large scale, would certainly give additional control over individuals. As George Orwell put it in his famous book, 1984: "Who Controls the Past Controls the Future: Who Controls the Present Controls the Past." The current attempts of the KKK and Nazis to revise and reinterpret history are not, however, probably taken seriously by the majority of Americans. The intolerance toward various minorities or racism is a characteristic of pretheoretical resistance and rebellion to oppressive social conditions. Originally it was Nazism under Hitler much more than Fascism under Mussolini that advanced a racist doctrine (Kogan, 1968; Rejai, 1984). The attacks on and call for removal of minorities are examples of the non-empirical nature of totalitarian ideology. The neo-Nazis and KKK members try to use minorities as scapegoats for society's problems. The social problems exist and do bear heavily upon the strata of society from which the right wing recruits. The relevant question is whether their analysis of the sources of social problems is valid. Since the KKK and American Nazis are relatively small movements trying to gain power, they are not a direct part of a police state. On the other hand, their propensity for violence may well have been used by police or FBI forces against radical leftist groups (e.g., Greensboro). The KKK and American Nazis have created political parties when they can. In American society, however, there are two major parties and a political system that makes it difficult for small parties to gain much power. The Nazi party structure is elitist and hierarchical with the naturally superior in charge. When repression occurs in the private sector; the state can claim to be liberal. One way in which the two movements do not seem to embody totalitarianism very well concerns the centralized control of the economy. Both of the movements tend to be anti-big capitalism and anti-bureaucratic communist. They seem to favor the small businessperson rather than strong state control. Payne (1980:96) takes this policy a step further and argues that only a communist or truly socialist regime can achieve complete totalitarianism because total control requires total institutional revolution which can only be brought about by state socialism. Fascism in Italy and even to some extent Nazism in Germany were not able to gain total control of individuals. Totalitarianism of the right may well be an ideal condition that no movement can successfully attain. In certain ways the American Nazis and KKK do, however, approximate it. Chalmers (1980:63) has suggested that the culture of a society may encourage or discourage the activities of groups like the Klan. The current conservative backlash against liberal solutions to civil rights for minorities may well be providing a favorable atmosphere for groups like the Ku Klux Klan and the American Nazis to grow and to be used against liberal and radical groups. In 1984, U.S. Civil Rights Commissioner Mary Frances Berry expressed concern to the commission that President Reagan had failed to repudiate Imperial Wizard Bill Wilkinson's (Leader of the Louisiana based Invisible Empire Knights of the Ku Klux Klan) endorsement of Reagan and his labeling the Republican platform as "pure Klan." After a two-week delay, Reagan did finally renounce the Klan in a letter to the Commission. Berry, however, indicated she did not feel it was a clearcut repudiation of the Klan's political support (Washington Post, May 2, 1984:2; Feeney and Goldstein, 1984). Such a political atmosphere may well encourage the existence of groups like the KKK. However, populist and pretheoretical movements such as the Klan and the American Nazi Party thrive in economic crises. On the downside of Kondratieff cycles, (NOTE 8) populism and racist utopias develop. The economic crises of the 1840s, the 1870s, the 1930s and now, of the 1980s, have all generated such pretheoretical responses. On the upside of Kondratieff cycles, racism abates, social justice improves and a more fully human religion develops (Edwards et al., 1986: 359 et passim; Young, 1987: private correspondence). The social progress in the U.S. in the 1950s and 1960s came about in times of prosperity. As times grew worse in the early 1970s, racism spread once again; later Reagan was elected President and neo-fascist politics became respectable (Young, 1987: private correspondence). Gill (1980) notes conservative reactions which he refers to as "meanness mania" occurring in the U.S. in the 1920s, 1950s, and in the mid-to-late 1970s. These are also periods of growth in the KKK (Rice, 1972; Gill, 1980). During the 1920s there were the anti-communist Red Scare and anti-evolution religious crusades in a decade known for its intolerance. Fear of change, social tensions arising from economic prosperity, and unequal distribution of wealth have been cited as important causes of the intolerance. Klan chapters grew in the northern cities as people feared the increasing black migration to the urban areas. Often it was the same people who had participated in Klan-like activities that also distrusted the growing feminist movement and were upset by perceived threats to the family and traditional values. The 1950s, marked by McCarthyism, could also be characterized as a time of economic discontent amidst prosperity, of fear of Communists, and a retreat from social change (Gill, 1980:10). More recently, according to Gill (1980:2), the fiscal and social conservatism of the late 1970s could be partially explained by three socioeconomic factors: 1) an increased indifference and antipathy, at times hostility, toward societal and governmental programs on behalf of blacks, other minorities and the poor 2) a general preoccupation among many Americans with individual concerns and interests; and 3) a growing fear of economic uncertainty. The 1980s continue the economic patterns noted above including the shift to an expanding service economy, the closing of manufacturing plants, the loss of relatively well paying unionized jobs, and the creation of numerous low paying jobs. Added to these elements of insecurity and uncertainty, one could point out the farm crisis, greater number of bankruptcies, and the increasing percentage of women in the labor force. The complex economic, moral, and political environment and the problems associated with various changes might well encourage some to seek a return to traditional values by participating in movements like those of the American Nazis and the KKK. References Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith. 1982. Hate Groups in America: A Record of Bigotry and Violence. New York, NY: Anti- Defamation League of B'nai B'rith. Arendt, Hannah. 1966. The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt, Brace. Barber, Benjamin. 1969. "Conceptual Foundations of Totalitarianism." Pp. 3-52 in Carl Friedrich, Michael Curtis, and Benjamin Barber (eds.), Totalitarianism in Perspective: Three Views. New York: Praeger. Chalmers, David. 1980. "The Rise and Fall of the Invisible Empire of the Ku Klux Klan." Contemporary Review 237 (No. 1375):57-64. De Felice, Renzo. 1976. Fascism. New Brunswick: Transaction. __________. 1977. Interpretations of Fascism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Dunn, Ted. 1982. "Battle in Ann Arbor." New Order, No. 47 (1982) p. 2. __________. 1983. "The Second Battle of Ann Arbor." New Order, No. 51 (1983) p. 3. __________. 1984. "Patriots Battle in Lansing." New Order, No. 55:1. Ebenstein, William. 1962. Totalitarianism: New Perspectives. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Edwards, Richard, Michael Reich, and Thomas E. Weisskopf. 1986. The Capitalist System. 3rd edition. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Feeney, Patrick and Ira Goldstein. 1984. "See No Evil, Speak No Evil: The New Right, the Civil Rights Commission and 1984." Paper presented at American Sociological Association Meetings, San Antonio, Texas, August. Fields, E. R. 1983. "Dr. Fields' Economic Plan to Save the American Standard of Living, Jobs, and Prosperity." The Thunderbolt, No. 288 (May):10. Friedrich, Carl and Zbigniew Brzezinski. 1956. Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Gill, Gerald. 1980. Meanness Mania: The Changed Mood. Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press. Glaser, Barney G. and Anslem L. Strauss. 1967. The Discovery of Grounded Theory. New York: Aldine. Glassner, Barry and Jay Corzine. 1980. "Library Research as Fieldwork: A Strategy for Qualitative Content Analysis." Sociology and Social Research 66:305-319. Green, Steve. 1985. "War From the Far Right." Ames Daily Tribune March 16:D5. Greensboro Civil Rights Fund. 1983. "Civil Rights on Trial in Greensboro." Washington, D.C.: Greensboro Civil Rights Fund. Gregor, A. James. 1968. Contemporary Radical Ideologies. New York: Random House. Habermas, Jurgen. 1975. Legitimation Crisis. Boston: Beacon Press. Hall, Richard et al. 1977. "Patterns of Interorganizational Relationships." Administrative Science Quarterly 22 (September):457-471. Hobsbawn, Eric. 1986. "Capitalist Crises in Historical Perspective." Pp. 363-372 in Richards C. Edwards et al. (eds.), The Capitalist System. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Institute for Southern Studies. 1981. The Third of November. Institute for Southern Studies. JMB. 1983. "A View from 1945." New Order (Fall):4. Jordan, Colin. No Date. A Great Idea-National Socialism Then and Now. Lincoln, NE: New Order Publications. King, W. 1980. "The Violent Rebirth of the Klan." New York Times Magazine, December 7:150-160. Kogan, N. 1968. "Fascism as a Political System." Pp. 11-18 in Woolf, S. J. (ed.) The Nature of Fascism. New York: Random House. Lipset, Seymour M. and Earl Raab. 1970. The Politics of Unreason: Right-Wing Extremism in America, 1790-1970. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. Lo, Clarence, Y. H. 1982. "Countermovements and Conservative Movements in the Contemporary U.S." Annual Review of Sociology 8:107-134. Moore, Barrington. 1966. Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Boston: Beacon Press. National Public Radio Journal Services. 1981. "The Resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan." Cassette Tape NJ-810223, 01/01-C. National Socialist White People's Party (NSWPP) (Copyrighted by Matt Koehl). 1980. The Program of the National Socialist White People's Party. Cicero, IL: NS Publications. Nisbet, Robert. 1970. "The Total Community." Pp. 417-427 in Marvin Olsen (ed.), Power in Societies. New York: MacMillan. Orum, Anthony. 1983. Introduction to Political Sociology. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Payne, Stanley G. 1980. Fascism: Comparison and Definition. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Raab, Earl. 1961. The Anatomy of Nazism. New York, NY: The Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith. Rejai, Mostafa. 1984. Comparative Political Ideologies. New York: St. Martin's Press. Rice, Arnold S. 1972. The Ku Klux Klan in American Politics. New York: Haskell House. Richardson, James. 1980. "The Bloody Infighting Among the Klans of California." California Journal 11 (September): 357-358. Sauer, Wolfgang. 1967. "National Socialism: Totalitarianism or Fascism?" American Historical Review 73 (Dec.): 404-422. Selznick, Philip. 1961. "Preface." P. 3 in The Anatomy of Nazism. New York, NY: Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith. Stachowski, M. No Date. "Last Interview Banned Stoner's Basic Racial Philosophy." The Thunderbolt 288 (May): 14. Storm, Michael. 1983a. "America the Beautiful?" New Order, 52 (Fall): 2. __________. 1983b. "De Watermelon Man." New Order, 52 (Fall): 1. Syzmanski, Albert. 1978. The Capitalist State and the Politics of Class. Cambridge, MA: Winthrop Publishers, Inc. Turner, John et al. 1981. "The Klan Today." Pp. 48-59 in The Ku Klux Klan: A History of Racism and Violence. Montgomery, AL: Klanwatch. United Press International. 1987. "White Supremacists Say Era is Coming." Ames Daily Tribune. April 4, 1987, B10. Vander Zanden, James W. 1983. American Minority Relations. New York: Knopf. Washington Post. 1984. "Reagan Repudiates Klan in Letter to Rights Panel." May 2, p. 2. Watson, Thomas E. No Date. The African. Marietta, GA: Thunderbolt, Inc. Wilcox, W. 1962. "The Press and the Radical Right: An Exploratory Analysis." Journalism Quarterly 39 (Spring): 152- 160. Wilkinson, Paul. 1981. The New Fascists. London: Grant McIntyre. Wilson, Tom. 1983. "White Renaissance." NAAWP News (14): 1, 3. Young, T. R. 1987. Private Correspondence. May 26. LIST OF NEWSPAPERS (Unauthored Articles) Defiance "NSLF blitzes Toronto," p. 1, 1(9), 1983. "System pushing to disarm citizens," p. 2, 1(9), 1983. "NSLF organization," p. 15, 1(9), 1983. In These Times "Greensboro 9 acquitted." 8(21), 1984. Klanwatch Intelligence Report "Klan, Nazi Incidents," p. 5, 9010, 10(6) 1982. "The Klan Attacks Immigrant Fishermen in Galveston Bay," p. 2-5, Special Report of the Southern Poverty Law Center, no date. Michigan Briefing, SS-Action Group Entire Newsletter (including Attachment 2), 2(4): no date. NAAWP News "Illegal Aliens Cause Havoc," p. 6, (1) 1982. "NAAWP vs. NAACP," p. 9, (14), 1983. National Anti-Klan Network "Klansmen Arrested in 1981 Lynching," p. 6, Fall, 1983. "Populists: Racists under cover," p. 1, 7, Fall, 1984. New Order Cartoon with caption "I think we should give every nigger a buck...," p. 3, (48) Fall, 1982. "The South African Government--Race Traitors," p. 3, (50) Spring, 1983. "Protest in Detroit," p. 6, (50) Spring, 1983. The Thunderbolt "How Communists Helped Elect Chicago's Black Mayor." (287), 1983. "God is a Racist," p. 10, (288), May 1983. "No 'Gas Chambers' Were Ever Found," p. 4, (289), June, 1983. "Gang of Four Asian Nations Stealing Your Job," p. 1, (291), 1983. "Survey Shows Blacks Avoid Work," p. 1, (291), 1983. "Stop New Immigration Bill in House," p. 2, (291), 1983. "Race War Disunites U.S.," p. 2, (291), 1983. "King's Communist Record Proven-Stop King Holiday Bill," pp. 8-10, (291), 1983. "Kennedy Attacked Mississippi Not Cuba," p. 14, (291), 1983. "Communist Sneaks in as Iowa Senator," p. 1, (301), no date. White Patriot "The White Conquest of Nicaragua," p. 6, 2(2), March, 1982. "Join," pp. 6-7, Special Introductory Issue, no date. "System Pushing to Disarm Citizens," p. 10, Special Introductory Issue, no date. White Power "The New Order is Here!" pp. 1, 5. "Tale of Two Cities," pp. 1, 3. "White Renegade Learns Too Late That Race-mixing is Forever," p. 2. "Unemployment Rising: Whites Hit Hard, Too," p. 2. "California Whites Plagued by Open-Door Immigration Policy for Vietnamese," p. 2. "Why White People Should Own Firearms," p. 3. LIST OF LEAFLETS "An Introduction to the Invisible Empire Knights of the Ku Klux Klan," Empire Publishing, Denham Springs, LA. "The Black Plague," NSLF Headquarters, Metairie, LA. "Boating, Not Busing," SS-Action Group, Westland, MI. "Defend U.S. Aid to Central America," SS-Action Group, Dearborn, Heights, MI. "He May Be Your Equal, But He Sure Isn't Ours!" National Socialist White People's Party, Arlington, VA. "Help Save This Endangered Species," New Order, Arlington, VA and Indianapolis, IN. "The Illegal Alien Problem," Invisible Empire Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, Denham Springs, LA. "Lincoln's Plan to Re-Colonize the Negro," Invisible Empire Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, Denham Springs, LA. "The NAAWP Program-Equal Rights for Whites," NAAWP, New Orleans, LA, 1980. "Profiles of Klan Leaders," Klanwatch, Southern Poverty Law Center, Montgomery, AL. "Three Jewish Contributions to Western Civilization," National Socialist White People's Party, Arlington, VA. "Roots Exposed," Invisible Empire Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, Denham Springs, LA. "What We Stand For...Goals and Objectives of the Nazi Party of the New Order," Penland, NC. FOOTNOTES 1. In late 1983 some of the members of the National States Rights Party split with Fields and The Thunderbolt. Using the name National States Rights Party they tried to publish the Action News. However Fields was later able to regain control of the name National State Rights Party. The State's Rights Voters League was a new group formed "dedicated to the preservation of conservative government, western culture and free enterprise." 2. Some of the Klan leaders could not be found in directories due, in part, to the prison sentences they are serving. The remaining Grand Dragons either head a political party or run Klan publishing operations. 3. The NAAWP was formed in response to the NAACP, and the two organizations are often compared in their literature to further clarify the position of a white people's association ("NAAWP vs. NAACP," NAAWP News, No. 1, 1982:5). 4. In 1980, Metzger received the democratic nomination in the 43rd Congressional District in California while he was heading one of four Klans in that state. While he did not receive that Congressional seat, he demonstrated the potential political power of the Klan if the infighting were to cease (Richardson, 1980). 5. Aryans are defined as White People of Baltic, Celtic, Nordic, or related descent, who have no non-White Ancestry (NSWPP, Koehl, 1980:1). 6. The sexist language is in the quotation: The Red Feather Institute rejects such language in its own publications (T.R.Y.). 7. This report also provides information on more peaceful attempts to gain support through elections. 8. Kondratiev, a Russian economist, analyzed periodical fluctuations in the course of capitalism. Twenty to thirty year periods of different movements of prices seem to alternate with inflation followed by deflation (Hobsbawn, 1986:364).